The absolute value of this lower limit varies from individual to individual. In the experience of some persons the successive members of the series may be separated by intervals as great as one and one half (possibly two) seconds, while yet the impression is distinctly one of rhythm; in that of others the rhythm dies out before half of that interval has been reached. With these subjects the apprehension at this stage is a secondary one, the elements of the successive groups being held together by means of some conventional symbolism, as the imagery of beating bells or swinging pendulums. A certain voluminousness is indispensable to the support of such slow measures. The limit is reached sooner when the series of sounds is given by the fall of hammers on their anvils than when a resonant body like a bell is struck, or a continuous sound is produced upon a pipe or a reed.

In these cases, also, the limit is not sharply defined. The rhythmical impression gradually dies out, and the point at which it disappears may be shifted up or down the line, according as the aesthetic subject is more or less attentive, more or less in the mood to enjoy or create rhythm, more passive or more active in his attitude toward the series of stimulations which supports the rhythmical impression. The attention of the subject counts for much, and this distinction—of involuntary from voluntary rhythmization—which has been made chiefly in connection with the phenomenon of subjective rhythm, runs also through all appreciation of rhythms which depend on actual objective factors. A series of sounds given with such slowness that at one time, when passively heard, it fails to produce any impression of rhythm, may very well support the experience on another occasion, if the subject try to hold a specific rhythm form in mind and to find it in the series of sounds. In such cases attention creates the rhythm which without it would fail to appear. But we must not confuse the nature of this fact and imagine that the perception that the relations of a certain succession fulfil the the form of a rhythmical sequence has created the rhythmical impression for the apperceiving mind. It has done nothing of the kind. In the case referred to the rhythm appears because the rhythmical impression is produced, not because the fact of rhythmical form in the succession is perceived. The capacity of the will is strictly limited in this regard and the observer is as really subject to time conditions in his effortful construction as in his effortless apprehension. The rhythmically constructive attitude does not destroy the existence of limits to the rate at which the series must take place, but only displaces their positions.

A similar displacement occurs if the periodic accentuations within the series be increased or decreased in intensity. The impression of rhythm from a strongly accented series persists longer, as retardation of its rate proceeds, than does that of a weakly accented series; the rhythm of a weakly accented series, longer than that of a uniform succession. The sensation, in the case of a greater intensive accent, is not only stronger but also more persistent than in that of a weaker, so that the members of a series of loud sounds succeeding one another at any given rate appear to follow in more rapid succession than when the sounds are faint. But the threshold at which the intervals between successive sounds become too great to arouse any impression of rhythm does not depend solely on the absolute loudness of the sounds involved; it is a function also of the degree of accentuation which the successive measures possess. The greater the accentuation the more extended is the temporal series which will hold together as a single rhythmic group.

This relation appears also in the changes presented in beaten rhythms, the unit-groups of which undergo a progressive increase in the number of their components. The temporal values of these groups do not remain constant, but manifest a slight increase in total duration as the number of component beats is increased, though this increase is but a fraction of the proportional time-value of the added beats. Parallel with this increase in the time-value of the unit-group goes an increase in the preponderance of the accented element over the intensity of the other members of the group. Just as, therefore, in rhythms that are heard, the greatest temporal values of the simple group are mediated by accents of the highest intensity, so in expressed rhythms those groups having the greatest time-values are marked by the strongest accentuation.

Above the superior limit a rhythm impression may persist, but neither by an increase in the number of elements which the unit group contains, nor by an increase in the rate at which these units follow one another in consciousness. The nature of the unit itself is transformed, and a totally new adjustment is made to the material of apprehension. When the number of impressions exceeds eight or ten a second—subject to individual variations—the rhythmical consciousness is unable longer to follow the individual beats, a period of confusion ensues, until, as the rate continues to increase, the situation is suddenly clarified by the appearance of a new rhythm superimposed on the old, having as its elements the structural units of the preceding rhythm. The rate at which the elements of this new rhythm succeed one another, instead of being more rapid than the old, has become relatively slow, and simple groups replace the previous large and complex ones. Thus, at twelve beats per second the rhythms heard by the subjects in these experiments were of either two, three or four beats, the elements entering into each of these constituent beats being severally three and four in number, as follows:

TABLE I.

> > Simple Trochaic, four beats per second: 1 2 3, 4 5 6; 7 8 9,10 11 12. / / / / > / / Dipodic Trochaic, " " " " 1 2 3, 4 5 6; 7 8 9,10 11 12. / / / / >>> Simple Dactylic, three " " " 1 2 3 4, 5 6 7 8, 9 10 11 12. / / /

The only impression of rhythm here received was of a trochaic or dactylic measure, depending upon an accent which characterized a group and not a single beat, and which recurred only twice or thrice a second. Sometimes the subjects were wholly unaware that the elements of the rhythm were not simple, a most significant fact, and frequently the number reported present was one half of the actual number given. During the continuance of such a series the rhythm form changes frequently in the apprehension of the individual subject from one to another of the types described above.

It cannot be too strongly insisted on that the perception of rhythm is an impression, an immediate affection of consciousness depending on a particular kind of sensory experience; it is never a construction, a reflective perception that certain relations of intensity, duration, or what not, do obtain. If the perception of rhythm in a series of impressions were dependent on intellectual analysis and discrimination, the existence of such temporal limits as are actually found would be inconceivable and absurd. So long as the perception of the uniformity or proportion of time-relations were possible, together with the discrimination of the regular recurrence in the series of points of accentuation, the perception of rhythm should persist, however great or small might be the absolute intervals which separated the successive members of the series. If it were the conception of a certain form of relation, instead of the reception of a particular impression, which was involved, we should realize a rhythm which extended over hours or days, or which was comprehended in the fraction of a second, as readily as those which actually affect us.

The rate at which the elements of a series succeed one another affects the constitution of the unit groups of which the rhythmical sequence is composed. The faster the rate, the larger is the number of impressions which enter into each group. The first to appear in subjective rhythm, as the rate is increased from a speed too slow for any impression of rhythm to arise, are invariably groups of two beats; then come three-beat groups, or a synthesis of the two-beat groups into four, with major and minor accents; and finally six-and eight-beat groups appear. When objective accentuation is present a similar series of changes is manifested, the process here depending on a composition of the unit-groups into higher orders, and not involving the serial addition of new elements to the group.

The time relations of such smaller and larger units are dependent on the relative inertia of the mechanism involved. A definite subjective rhythm period undoubtedly appears; but its constancy is not maintained absolutely, either in the process of subjective rhythmization or in the reproduction of ideal forms. Its manifestation is subject to the special conditions imposed on it by such apprehension or expression. The failure to make this distinction is certain to confuse one's conception of the temporal rhythmic unit and its period. The variations of this period present different curves in the two cases of subjective rhythmization and motor expression of definite rhythm forms. In the former the absolute duration of the unit-group suffers progressive decrease as the rate of succession among the stimuli is accelerated; in the latter a series of extensions of its total duration takes place as the number of elements composing the unit is increased. The series of relative values for units of from two to eight constituents which the finger reactions presented in this investigation is given in the following table:

TABLE II.

No. of Elements. Proportional Duration. Two, 1.000 Three, 1.109 Four, 1.817 Five, 1.761 Six, 2.196 Seven, 2.583 Eight, 2.590

This progressive extension of the rhythm period is to be explained by the mechanical conditions imposed on the expression of rhythm by processes of muscular contraction and release. Were it possible freely to increase the rate of such successive innervations, we should expect to find a much greater constancy in the whole period occupied by the series of reactions which composes the unit. The comparatively unsatisfactory quality of these larger series, and the resolution of them into subgroups described elsewhere in this paper, are due to this inability to accommodate the series of motor reactions to the subjective rhythm period.

On the other hand, the temporal value of the unit which appears as the result of subjective rhythmization undergoes a progressive decrease in absolute magnitude as the rate of succession among the undifferentiated stimuli is accelerated. The series of values for units containing from two to eleven constituents is given in the following table:

TABLE III.

No. of Elements. Duration in Seconds. Two, 2.00 Three, 1.75 Four, 1.66 Seven, 1.75 Nine, 1.50 Eleven, 0.97

If the time-value of the simple rhythm group here depended solely on the relation of the successive stimuli to the subjective rhythm period, no progressive diminution should be presented, for in proportion as the absolute value of the separating intervals decreases the true nature of this period should be more clearly manifested. It is scarcely to be doubted that the complexity of its content is likewise a determinant of the temporal value of this period, and that to this factor is to be attributed the changes which are here presented.[4]

[4] Bolton reports a similar decrease in the temporal value of the unit, and gives the following quantitative relations:

Average length of 2-group, 1.590 secs. " " " 3-group, 1.380 " " " " 4-group, 1.228 " " " " 6-group, 1.014 " " " " 8-group, 1.160 "

In subjective rhythmization the number of elements which compose the unit is dependent solely on the relation of the subjective rhythm period to the rate of succession among such elements. In objective rhythm, as has been pointed out, a free treatment of the material is rendered impossible by the determination of specific points of increased stress, in virtue of which a new unit of change appears, namely, the whole period elapsing from any one occurrence of accentuation to its return.

But this is not the sole determinant of the numerical limits of the simple group in such objective rhythms. The structural unit must indeed adhere to the scheme given by the period of the recurrent accentuation; but the point at which simple successions of this figure give place to complex structures (at which >q. q q_ is replaced by >q. q q;_q. q q_ , for example) may conceivably be hastened or retarded by other factors than that of the simple rate of succession. The degrees of segregation and accentuation which characterize the rhythmic unit are elements which may thus affect the higher synthesis. Increase in either of these directions gives greater definition to the rhythmic figure and should tend to preserve the simple group in consciousness. The latter relation was not made the subject of special investigation in this research. The former was taken up at a single point. The sounds were two in number, alternately accented and unaccented, produced by hammer-falls of 7/8 and 1/8 inch respectively. These were given at three rates of succession, and three different degrees of segregation were compared together. In the following table is given, for six subjects, the average number of elements entering into the group-form, simple or complex, under which the rhythm was apprehended:

TABLE IV.

Ratio of Beat-interval Value in Seconds of Average Interval, to Group-interval. 5/12 3/12 2/12 1.000: 1.400 3.5 5.3 9.0 1.000: 1.000 4.0 5.4 9.6 1.000: 0.714 5.2 8.4 10.8

The quantitative relations presented by these figures are consistent throughout. For every rate of speed the average rhythmic group is smallest when the interval separating the successive groups is at its maximum; it is largest when this interval is at its minimum; while in each case a median value is presented by the relation of uniformity among the intervals. In the second as well as the first of the ratios included in the foregoing table the interval which separates adjacent groups is felt to be distinctly longer than that internal to the group; in the third the relative durations of the two intervals are those which support psychological uniformity. In the latter case, in consequence of the freer passage from group to group, the continuity of the rhythmical series is more perfectly preserved than in the former, and the integration of its elements into higher syntheses more extended.

The extension of the numerical limits of the rhythm group in subjective rhythm which appear in consequence of progressive acceleration in the rate of succession is given for a series of six different values of the separating intervals in the following table, the figures of which represent the average for six observers:

TABLE V.

HIGHEST UNITS WHICH APPEAR.

Value of interval in secs.: 12/12 7/12 5/12 3/12 2/12 1/12 No. of el's in rhythm group: 2.5 3.0 4.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 Average duration of group: 2.500 1.750 1.666 1.750 1.500 0.917

SIMPLE UNITS.

No. of els. in simplest group: 2.5 2.3 2.9 3.7 4.7 5.0 Duration of simplest group: 2.50 1.34 1.21 0.92 0.78 0.41

The rate of increase here presented in the number of elements is not sufficiently rapid to counterbalance the acceleration of speed and maintain a constancy in the duration of the group. The greatest value of this period is cooerdinated with the slowest rate of succession, the lowest with the most rapid. As the speed increases, the duration of the rhythmic unit is shortened. Its average duration for all rates here included is 1.680 sec., or, without the first of the series (one-second intervals, at which only two of the observers received the impression of rhythm), 1.516 sec. These values are not for the simplest combinations, but for the highest synthetical unit which was immediately apprehended in the series of stimulations. This compounding becomes more pronounced as the rate of succession is accelerated, but even at intervals of 5/12 and 7/12 sec. it is the characteristic mode of apprehension.

The number of elements in the simple groups of which these higher units are composed, and their average duration, are also given in the table. These likewise show a progressive increase in number, but of a much slower rate than that manifested by the total synthesis of elements. That is to say, in subjective rhythm as well as in objectively figured series, subordinate rhythmical differences in the material sink out of consciousness less rapidly than the inclusion of fresh elements takes place; in other words, the organic complexity of the rhythmic unit increases with every acceleration in the rate of succession. The duration of these simple structural groups, as may be inferred, decreases with such acceleration, but at a much more rapid rate than is the case with the total reach of rhythmical apprehension, the value of that unit which appears in connection with the highest speed here included being less than half a second. The 'liveliness' of such rapid measures is thus a resultant of several factors. It is not a consequence solely of the more rapid rate at which the individual stimuli succeed one another, but depends also on the shortening of the periods of both these rhythmical units and on the progressive divergence of the simple from the complex group.

The influence of the rate of succession on the rhythmical unit is not confined to its segregation from adjacent groups, but affects the internal configuration of the measure as well. With every acceleration in rate the relative preponderance of the interval following the accented element (in rhythms having initial stress) increases; as the rate is retarded, smaller and smaller degrees of difference in the values of accented and unaccented intervals are discriminated. In this regard the influence of reduction in the absolute value of the separating intervals is analogous to that of increased accentuation within the group. In fast tempos and with high degrees of emphasis the interval following the initial accent is relatively longer, that following the unaccented relatively shorter, than at slow tempos and with weak emphasis. This is but another way of expressing the fact that as the elements of the auditory series succeed one another more and more slowly the impression of rhythm fades out and that as their succession increases in rapidity the impression becomes more and more pronounced. The following table presents these relations in a quantitative form for trochaic rhythm. The figures represent the number of times the second, or group interval, was judged to be greater than, equal to, or less than the first or internal interval of the group. Three rates were compared together, having average intervals of 5/12, 3/12 and 2/12 sec. Six observers took part, but only a small number of judgments was made by each, to which fact is probably to be attributed the irregularities of form which appear in the various curves:

TABLE VI.

Ratio of 1st to 2d 5/12 3/12 2/12 Interval + = - + = - + = - 1.000: 1.057 95.0 0.0 5.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 1.000: 1.000 94.7 5.3 0.0 86.0 10.5 3.5 87.5 12.5 0.0 1.000: 0.895 40.0 60.0 0.0 46.2 49.6 3.3 74.1 18.5 7.4 1.000: 0.846 41.0 50.0 9.0 39.4 54.6 6.0 40.0 52.0 8.0 1.000: 0.800 20.0 60.0 20.0 13.0 70.0 17.0 53.8 46.2 0.0 1.000: 0.756 29.4 23.5 47.1 21.8 43.4 34.8 28.0 72.0 0.0

Av. for all ratios, 53.3 33.1 13.5 51.1 38.0 10.8 63.9 33.5 2.6

Within the limits of its appearance, as the figures just presented indicate, the force, definition and persistency of the rhythmical impression do not continue uniform. At the lowest rates at which rhythm appears the integration of the successive groups is weak and their segregation indistinct. As the rate increases the definition of the rhythmic form grows more precise, group is separated from group by greater apparent intervals, and the accentuation of the groups becomes more pronounced. In subjective rhythmization of an undifferentiated series, likewise, the impression of segregation and periodic accentuation grows more forcible and dominating as the rate increases. The sensitiveness to form and dynamic value in the successive groups also increases up to a certain point in the process of acceleration. As expressed in the capacity to discriminate departures from formal equivalence among the groups, this function reached its maximum, for those concerned in this investigation, at rates varying individually from 0.3 sec. to 0.6 sec. in the value of their intervals.

It is in virtue of its nature as an impression, as opposed to a construction, that every structural unit, and every rhythmical sequence into which it enters, possesses a distinct individual quality, by which it is immediately apprehended and discriminated from other forms, as the face of an acquaintance is remembered and identified without detailed knowledge of the character of any feature it possesses. For what persists from the reception of a rhythm impression and becomes the basis of future recognition and reproduction of it, is not the number of beats in a unit or sequence, nor the absolute or relative intensity of the components of the group; it is the quality of the groups as individuals, and the form of the sequence as a whole. The phrase and verse are as vividly conceived as the unit group; the stanza or the passage is apprehended as immediately and simply as the bar or the measure. Of the number and relation of the individual beats constituting a rhythmical sequence there is no awareness whatever on the part of the aesthetic subject. I say this without qualification. So long as the rhythmical impression endures the analytic unit is lost sight of, the synthetic unit, or group, is apprehended as a simple experience. When the rhythm function is thoroughly established, when the structural form is well integrated or familiar, it becomes well-nigh impossible to return to the analytic attitude and discern the actual temporal and intensive relations which enter into the rhythm. Even the quality of the organic units may lapse from distinct consciousness, and only a feeling of the form of the whole sequence remain. The Gestaltsqualitaet of the passage or the stanza is thus frequently appreciated and reproduced without an awareness of its sequential relations, though with the keenest sense of what is necessary to, or inconsistent with, its structure; so that the slightest deviation from its form is remarked and the whole sequence accurately reproduced.

In order to isolate and exhibit the tendency toward rhythmization in regularly repeated motor reactions, one should examine series of similar movements made at different rates both as an accompaniment to a recurrent auditory stimulus and as free expressions of the motor impulse independent of such objective control. In the former of these cases the series of stimuli should be undifferentiated in quality as well as uniform in time. The rhythm which appears in such a case will contradict the phases of an objective series which prescribes its form, and the evidence of its existence, presented under such adverse conditions, should be indubitable.

As preliminary to their special work the members of the experimental group were tested in regard to the promptness and regularity of their reactions (by finger flexion) in accompanying a periodically recurrent stimulus given by the beating of a metronome; records were taken also of their capacity to estimate and maintain constant time relations by freely tapping at intervals of one, two and five seconds. Of the latter type of reaction the records show that a temporal grouping of the reactions is presented in every rate of tapping. This, owing to the large absolute intervals, is uniformly in groups of two, the first member of which is of shorter, the second of longer duration. There is likewise an intensive differentiation of the alternate reactions. Thus a double rhythmical treatment appears, but while with intervals of two seconds the phases of temporal and intensive rhythm coincide, at rates of one and five seconds they are opposed, that is, the accentuation falls on the initial reaction which is followed by the shorter interval. This doubtlessly marks the emergence of that tendency to initial accentuation which was subsequently found to prevail in all expression of rhythm.

The types of reaction which these records afford leave no doubt that a fuller investigation of the matter would show the constant presence, in all such forms of activity, of a rhythmical automatization of the series. The special problems which such an investigation should first resolve, relate to the dependence of the amount of rhythmical differentiation on the rate of succession among the reactions; the relation of the form of this reaction series to factors of attention and control; and the significance, in connection with the process of rhythmization, of auditory stimuli produced by and accompanying the reaction series, that is, the comparison of soundless and sounded reactions.

In the second set of experiments the reactor was directed simply to accompany the beating of a metronome by a light tapping with the forefinger on a rubber-surfaced tambour connected with a pneumographic registering pen, with which was aligned an electrical time-marker also actuated by the metronome. Three rates of tapping were adopted, 60, 90 and 120 beats per minute. No specific instructions were given as to direction or keenness of attention on the part of the reactor; the most natural and simple accompaniment was desired. Occasionally, for comparison, the reactor was directed to attend closely to each successive beat as it occurred.

Certain questions as to the applicability of the material here interpreted to the point in question, and as to its relation to the objective conditions of experimentation, must be met at the outset. The first of these is as to the actual uniformity of the metronome series. Objective determination of its temporal regularity is unnecessary (in so far as such a determination looks toward an explanation of the form of tapping by reference to inequality in the metronomic intervals). That the rhythmical phases which appear in the accompaniment are not due to inequality in the stimulation intervals, is shown by the reversal of relations between the metronome and its accompaniment which occur in the midst of a continuous series of taps. To speak roughly, a break occurs every twentieth beat. I do not refer to minor irregularities occurring within the single group but not affecting the form of the rhythmical accompaniment. The latter appeared with surprising rarity, but when found were included in the continuous calculation of averages. But in every score or so of beats a stroke out of series would be interpolated, giving the form 1 >2 [1] 2 >1 ; the accompaniment being cooerdinated during the second portion of the whole series with opposite phases of the metronome from those with which its elements were connected in the earlier part. Moreover, the dependence of this grouping of the sounds on subjective attitudes may readily be made to appear. When attention is turned keenly on the process its phases of rhythmical differentiation decline; when the accompaniment becomes mechanical they mount in value. When the observer tries to mark the ticking as accurately as possible, not only does the index of his motor reactions become more constant, but the sounds of the instrument likewise appear more uniform. The observers report also that at one and the same time they are aware of the regularity of the metronome and the rhythmical nature of their tapping, while yet the conviction remains that the accompaniment has been in time with the beats. Furthermore, if the phases of ticking in the metronome were temporarily unlike, the motor accompaniment by a series of observers, if accurate, should reproduce the time-values of the process, and if inaccurate, should present only an increase of the mean variation, without altering the characteristic relations of the two phases. On the other hand, if the series be uniform and subjectively rhythmized by the hearer, there should be expected definite perversions of the objective relations, presenting a series of increasing departures from the original in proportion as the tendency to rhythmize varied from individual to individual.

On the other hand, a rhythm is already presented in the sounds of the metronome, occasioned by the qualitative differentiation of the members of each pair of ticks, a variation which it was impossible to eliminate and which must be borne in mind in estimating the following results.

Five reactors took part in the experiment, the results of which are tabulated in the following pages. The figures are based on series of one hundred reactions for each subject, fifty accompaniments to each swing and return of the metronome pendulum. When taken in series of ten successive pairs of reactions, five repetitions of the series will be given as the basis of each average. The quantitative results are stated in Tables VII.-XIV., which present the proportional values of the time intervals elapsing between the successive reactions of an accompaniment to the strokes of a metronome beating at the rates of 60, 90 and 120 per minute.

TABLE VII.

I. AVERAGES ACCORDING TO REACTORS OF ALL RATES FOR BOTH PHASES.

(a) In Series of Ten Successive Pairs of Beats.

Subject. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

J. 1.000 1.005 1.022 1.053 1.044 1.116 1.058 1.061 1.055 1.052 K. 1.000 1.027 1.057 1.111 1.093 1.086 1.074 1.096 1.093 1.071 N. 1.000 1.032 1.062 0.990 1.009 0.980 1.019 1.040 1.067 1.040

Aver. 1.000 1.021 1.047 1.051 1.049 1.061 1.050 1.066 1.072 1.054

TABLE VIII.

(b) First and Second Halves of the Preceding Combined in Series of Five.

Subject. I II III IV V J. 1.058 1.031 1.041 1.054 1.048 K. 1.043 1.050 1.076 1.102 1.082 N. 0.990 1.025 1.051 1.028 1.024

Aver. 1.030 1.035 1.056 1.061 1.051

TABLE IX.

AVERAGES OF ALL RATES AND SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO PHASES OF METRONOME.

(a) In Series of Ten Successive Reactions in Accompaniment of Each Phase.

Phase. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X First, 1.000 1.055 1.102 1.097 1.082 1.066 1.053 1.123 1.120 1.074 Second, 1.000 0.988 0.992 1.007 1.016 1.055 1.015 1.009 1.024 1.001

TABLE X.

(b) First and Second Halves of the Preceding Combined in Series of Five.

Phase. I II III IV V First, 1.033 1.054 1.112 1.108 1.078 Second, 1.027 1.001 1.000 1.015 1.008

TABLE XI.

AVERAGES OF ALL SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO RATES AND PHASES OF METRONOME.

(a) First Phase, Series of Ten Successive Reactions.

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 60 1.000 1.168 1.239 1.269 1.237 1.209 1.265 1.243 1.237 1.229 90 1.000 1.048 1.063 1.095 1.086 1.069 1.102 1.127 1.168 1.095 120 1.000 1.004 0.942 1.043 1.057 0.978 0.949 1.065 1.065 0.967

TABLE XII.

(b) Second Phase, Series of Ten Successive Reactions.

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 60 1.000 0.963 0.942 0.947 1.009 0.695 0.993 0.995 1.023 0.996 90 1.000 0.893 0.987 1.018 1.036 1.005 0.995 1.000 0.977 1.000 120 1.000 1.000 0.990 1.048 1.040 1.007 0.986 1.030 1.037 0.962

TABLE XIII.

AVERAGES OF ALL SUBJECTS AND BOTH PHASES OF METRONOME ACCORDING TO RATES.

(a) In Series of Ten.

Rate. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 60 1.000 1.065 1.140 1.108 1.123 0.952 1.129 1.119 1.130 1.112 90 1.000 0.970 1.025 1.056 1.061 1.037 1.048 1.063 1.072 1.047 120 1.000 1.000 0.990 1.048 1.040 1.007 0.986 1.030 1.037 0.962

TABLE XIV.

(b) Above Combined in Series of Five.

Rate. I II III IV V 60 0.976 1.097 1.129 1.119 1.117 90 1.018 1.009 1.044 1.059 1.054 120 1.003 0.993 1.010 1.042 1.001

In the following table (XV.) is presented the average proportional duration of the intervals separating the successive reactions of these subjects to the stimulations given by the alternate swing and return of the pendulum.

TABLE XV.

Subject. Rate: 60. Rate: 90. Rate: 120. B. 0.744 : 1.000 0.870 : 1.000 0.773 : 1.000 J. 0.730 : 1.000 0.737 : 1.000 0.748 : 1.000 K. 0.696 : 1.000 0.728 : 1.000 0.737 : 1.000 N. 0.526 : 1.000 0.844 : 1.000 0.893 : 1.000

The corresponding intensive values, as measured by the excursion of the recording pen, are as follows:

TABLE XVI.

Subject. Rate: 60. Rate: 90. Rate: 120. B. (1.066 : 1.000) 0.918 : 1.000 (1.010 : 1.000) J. 0.938 : 1.000 0.943 : 1.000 0.946 : 1.000 K. 0.970 : 1.000 0.949 : 1.000 (1.034 : 1.000) N. 0.883 : 1.000 0.900 : 1.000 0.950 : 1.000

These figures present a double process of rhythmic differentiation, intensively into stronger and weaker beats, and temporally into longer and shorter intervals. The accentuation of alternate elements has an objective provocative in the qualitative unlikeness of the ticks given by the swing and return of the pendulum. This phase is, however, neither so clearly marked nor so constant as the temporal grouping of the reactions. In three cases the accent swings over to the shorter interval, which, according to the report of the subjects, formed the initial member of the group when such grouping came to subjective notice. This latter tendency appears most pronounced at the fastest rate of reaction, and perhaps indicates a tendency at rapid tempos to prefer trochaic forms of rhythm. In temporal grouping the cooerdination of results with the succession of rates presents an exception only in the case of one subject (XV. B, Rate 120), and the various observers form a series in which the rhythmizing tendency becomes more and more pronounced.

Combining the reactions of the various subjects, the average for all shows an accentuation of the longer interval, as follows:

TABLE XVII.

Rate. Temp. Diff. Intens. Diff. 60 0.674 : 1.000 0.714 : 1.000 90 0.795 : 1.000 0.927 : 1.000 120 0.788 : 1.000 0.985 : 1.000

The rhythmical differentiation of phases is greatest at the slowest tempo included in the series, namely, one beat per second, and it declines as the rate of succession increases. It is impossible from this curve to say, however, that the subjective rhythmization of uniform material becomes more pronounced in proportion as the intervals between the successive stimulations increase. Below a certain rapidity the series of sounds fails wholly to provoke the rhythmizing tendency; and it is conceivable that a change in the direction of the curve may occur at a point beyond the limits included within these data.

The introduction from time to time of a single extra tap, with the effect of transposing the relations of the motor accompaniment to the phases of the metronome, has been here interpreted as arising from a periodically recurring adjustment of the reaction process to the auditory series which it accompanies, and from which it has gradually diverged. The departure is in the form of a slow retardation, the return is a swift acceleration. The retardation does not always continue until a point is reached at which a beat is dropped from, or an extra one introduced into, the series. In the course of a set of reactions which presents no interpolation of extra-serial beats periodic retardation and acceleration of the tapping take place. This tertiary rhythm, superimposed on the differentiation of simple phases, has, as regards the forms involved in the present experiments, a period of ten single beats or five measures.

From the fact that this rhythm recurs again and again without the introduction of an extra-serial beat it is possible to infer the relation of its alternate phases to the actual rate of the metronome. Since the most rapid succession included was two beats per second, it is hardly conceivable that the reactor lost count of the beats in the course of his tapping. If, therefore, the motor series in general parallels the auditory, the retardations below the actual metronome rate must be compensated by periods of acceleration above it. Regarded in this light it becomes questionable if what has been called the process of readjustment really represents an effort to restore an equilibrium between motor and auditory processes after an involuntary divergence. I believe the contrasting phases are fundamental, and that the changes represent a free, rhythmical accompaniment of the objective periods, which themselves involve no such recurrent differentiation.

Of the existence of higher rhythmic forms evidence will be afforded by a comparison of the total durations of the first and second five-groups included in the decimal series. Difference of some kind is of course to be looked for; equivalence between the groups would only be accidental, and inequality, apart from amount and constancy, is insignificant. In the results here presented the differentiation is, in the first place, of considerable value, the average duration of the first of these groups bearing to the second the relation of 1.000:1.028.

Secondly, this differentiation in the time-values of the respective groups is constant for all the subjects participating. The ratios in their several cases are annexed:

TABLE XVIII.

Subject. Ratio. J. 1.000:1.042 K. 1.000:1.025 N. 1.000:1.010

It is perhaps significant that the extent of this differentiation—and inferably the definition of rhythmical synthesis—corresponds to the reported musical aptitudes of the subjects; J. is musically trained, K. is fond of music but little trained, N. is without musical inclination.

The relations of these larger rhythmical series repeat those of their constituent groups—the first is shorter, the second longer. The two sets of ratios are brought together for comparison in the annexed table:

TABLE XIX.

Subject. Unit-Groups. Five Groups. J. 1.000:1.354 1.000:1.042 K. 1.000:1.388 1.000:1.025 N. 1.000:1.326 1.000:1.010

It is to be noted here, as in the case of beating out specific rhythms, that the index of differentiation is greater in simple than in complex groups, the ratios for all subjects being, in simple groups, 1.000:1.356, and in series of five, 1.000:1.026.

There is thus present in the process of mechanically accompanying a series of regularly recurring auditory stimuli a complex rhythmization in the forms, first, of a differentiation of alternate intervals, and secondly, of a synthesis of these in larger structures, a process here traced to the third degree, but which may very well extend to the composition of still more comprehensive groups. The process of reaction is permeated through and through by rhythmical differentiation of phases, in which the feeling for unity and equivalence must hold fast through really vast periods as the long slow phases swing back and forth, upon which takes place a swift and yet swifter oscillation of rhythmical values as the unit groups become more limited, until the opposition of single elements is reached.

III. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RHYTHMICAL UNIT.

A. The Number of Elements in the Group and its Limits.

The number of elements which the rhythmical group contains is related, in the first place, to the rate of succession among the elements of the sequence. This connection has already been discussed in so far as it bears on the forms of grouping which appear in an undifferentiated series of sounds in consequence of variations in the absolute magnitude of the intervals which separate the successive stimuli. In such a case the number of elements which enter into the unit depends solely on the rate of succession. The unit presents a continuous series of changes from the lowest to the highest number of constituents which the simple group can possibly contain, and the synthesis of elements itself changes from a succession of simple forms to structures involving complex subordination of the third and even fourth degree, without other change in the objective series than variations in tempo.

When objectively defined rhythm types are presented, or expression is given to a rhythm subjectively defined by ideal forms, these simple relations no longer hold. Acceleration or retardation of speed does not unconditionally affect the number of elements which the rhythm group contains. In the rhythmization of an undifferentiated series the recurrence of accentuation depends solely on subjective conditions, the temporal relations of which can be displaced only within the limits of single intervals; for example, if a trochaic rhythm characterizes a given tempo, the rhythm type persists under conditions of progressive acceleration only in so far as the total duration of the two intervals composing the unit approximates more closely to the subjective rhythm period than does that of three such intervals. When, in consequence of the continued reduction of the separating intervals, the latter duration presents the closer approximation, the previous rhythm form is overthrown, accentuation attaches to every third instead of to alternate elements, and a dactylic rhythm replaces the trochaic.

In objective rhythms, on the other hand, the determination of specific points of increased stress makes it impossible thus to shift the accentuation back and forth by increments of single intervals. The unit of displacement becomes the whole period intervening between any two adjacent points of accentuation. The rhythm form in such cases is displaced, not by those of proximately greater units, but only by such as present multiples of its own simple groups. Acceleration of the speed at which a simple trochaic succession is presented results thus, first, in a more rapid trochaic tempo, until the duration of two rhythm groups approaches more nearly to the period of subjective rhythmization, when—the fundamental trochaism persisting—the previous simple succession is replaced by a dipodic structure in which the phases of major and minor accentuation correspond to the elementary opposition of accented and unaccented phases. In the same way a triplicated structure replaces the dipodic as the acceleration still continues; and likewise of the dactylic forms.

We may say, then, that the relations of rate to complexity of structure present the same fundamental phenomena in subjective rhythmization and objectively determined types, the unit of change only differing characteristically in the two cases. The wider range of subjective adjustment in the latter over the former experience is due to the increased positive incentive to a rhythmical organic accompaniment afforded by the periodic reinforcement of the objective stimulus.

An investigation of the limits of simple rhythmical groups is not concerned with the solution of the question as to the extent to which a reactor can carry the process of prolonging the series of elements integrated through subordination to a single dominant accentuation. The nature of such limits is not to be determined by the introspective results of experiments in which the observer has endeavored to hold together the largest possible number of elements in a simple group. When such an attempt is made a wholly artificial set of conditions, and presumably of mechanisms, is introduced, which makes the experiment valueless in solving the present problem. Both the direction and the form of attention are adverse to the detection of rhythmical complications under such conditions. Attention is directed away from the observation of secondary accents and toward the realization of a rhythm form having but two simple phases, the first of which is composed of a single element, while within the latter fall all the rest of the group. Such conditions are the worst possible for the determination of the limits of simple rhythm groups; for the observer is predisposed from the outset to regard the whole group of elements lying within the second phase as undifferentiated. Thus the conditions are such as to postpone the recognition of secondary accents far beyond the point at which they naturally arise.

But further, such an attempt to extend the numerical scope of simple rhythm groups also tends to transform and disguise the mechanism by which secondary stresses are produced, and thereby to create the illusion of an extended simple series which does not exist. For we have no right to assume that the process of periodic accentuation in such a series, identical in function though it be, involves always the same form of differentiation in the rhythmical material. If the primary accentuation be given through a finger reaction, the fixating of that specific form of change will predispose toward an overlooking of secondary emphases depending on minor motor reactions of a different sort. The variety of such substitutional mechanisms is very great, and includes variations in the local relations of the finger reaction, movements of the head, eyes, jaws, throat, tongue, etc., local strains produced by simultaneous innervation of flexor and extensor muscles, counting processes, visual images, and changes in ideal significance and relation of the various members of the group. Any one of these may be seized upon to mediate the synthesis of elements and thus become an unperceived secondary accentuation.

Our problem is to determine at what point formal complication of the rhythmical unit tends naturally to arise. How large may such a group become and still remain fundamentally simple, without reduplication of accentual or temporal differentiation? The determination of such limits must be made on the basis of quantitative comparison of the reactions which enter into larger and smaller rhythmical series, on the one hand, and, on the other, of the types of structure which appear in subjective rhythmization and the apprehension of objective rhythms the forms of which are antecedently unknown to the hearer. The evidence from subjective rhythms is inconclusive. The prevailing types are of two and three beats. Higher forms appear which are introspectively simple, but introspection is absolutely unable to solve the problem as to the possible composite nature of these extended series. The fact that they are confined to even numbers, the multiples of two, and to such odd-numbered series as are multiples of three, without the appearance of the higher primes, indicates the existence in all these groups of secondary accentuation, and the resolution of their forms into structures which are fundamentally complications of units of two and three elements only. The process of positive accentuation which appears in every higher rhythmical series, and underlying its secondary changes exhibits the same reduction of their elementary structure to double and triple groups, has been described elsewhere in this report. Here it is in place to point out certain indirect evidence of the same process of resolution as manifested in the treatment of longer series of elements.

The breaking up of such series into subgroups may not be an explicitly conscious process, while yet its presence is indispensable in giving rhythmical form to the material. One indication of such undiscriminated rhythmical modification is the need of making or avoiding pauses between adjacent rhythmical groups according as the number of their constituents varies. Thus, in rhythms having units of five, seven, and nine beats such a pause was imperative to preserve the rhythmical form, and the attempt to eliminate it was followed by confusion in the series; while in the case of rhythms having units of six, eight, and ten beats such a pause was inadmissible. This is the consistent report of the subjects engaged in the present investigation; it is corroborated by the results of a quantitative comparison of the intervals presented by the various series of reactions. The values of the intervals separating adjacent groups for a series of such higher rhythms are given in Table XX. as proportions of those following the initial, accented reaction.

TABLE XX.

Rhythm. Initial Interval. Final Interval Five-Beat, 1.000 1.386 Six " 1.000 0.919 Seven " 1.000 1.422 Eight " 1.000 1.000 Nine " 1.000 1.732 Ten " 1.000 1.014

The alternate rhythms of this series fall into two distinct groups in virtue of the sharply contrasted values of their final intervals or group pauses. The increased length of this interval in the odd-numbered rhythms is unquestionably due to a subdivision of the so-called unit into two parts, the first of which is formally complete, while the latter is syncopated. In the case of five-beat rhythms, this subdivision is into threes, the first three of the five beats which compose the so-called unit forming the primary subgroup, while the final two beats, together with a pause functionally equivalent to an additional beat and interval, make up the second, the system being such as is expressed in the following notation: .q. q q; >q. q % . The pause at the close of the group is indispensable, because on its presence depends the maintenance of equivalence between the successive three-groups. On the other hand, the introduction of a similar pause at the close of a six-beat group is inadmissible, because the subdivision is into three-beat groups, each of which is complete, so that the addition of a final pause would utterly unbalance the first and second members of the composite group, which would then be represented by the following notation: >q. q q; .q. q q % ; that is, a three-group would alternate with a four-group, the elements of which present the same simple time relations, and the rhythm, in consequence, would be destroyed. The same conditions require or prevent the introduction of a final pause in the case of the remaining rhythm forms.

The progressive increase in the value of the final interval, which will be observed in both the odd-and even-numbered rhythms, is probably to be attributed to a gradual decline in the integration of the successive groups into a well-defined rhythmical sequence.

This subdivision of material into two simple phases penetrates all rhythmical structuring. The fundamental fact in the constitution of the rhythmical unit is the antithesis of two phases which we call the accented and the unaccented. In the three-beat group as in the two-beat, and in all more complex grouping, the primary analysis of material is into these two phases. The number of discriminable elements which enter each phase depends on the whole constitution of the group, for this duality of aspect is carried onward from its point of origin in the primary rhythm group throughout the most complex combination of elements, in which the accented phase may comprise an indefinitely great number of simple elements, thus:

_ __ ___ / / / > . > . >> . q q ; q q , q q q; q q q , q q q q; q q q q , etc. \_/ >

An indication of this process of differentiation into major and minor phases appears in the form of rhythm groups containing upwards of four elements. In these the tendency is, as one observer expresses it, 'to consider the first two beats as a group by themselves, with the others trailing off in a monotonous row behind.' As the series of elements thus bound up as a unit is extended, the number of beats which are crowded into the primary subgroup also increases. When the attempt was made to unite eleven or twelve reactions in a single group, the first four beats were thus taken together, with the rest trailing off as before. It is evident that the lowest groups with which attention concerned itself here were composed of four beats, and that the actual form of the (nominally) unitary series of eleven beats was as follows:

_____ / >> > > q q q q; q q q q; q q q q . . . .

The subscripts are added in the notation given above because it is to be doubted if a strictly simple four-beat rhythm is ever met with. Of the four types producible in such rhythm forms by variation in the accentual position, three have been found, in the course of the present investigation, to present a fundamental dichotomy into units of two beats. Only one, that characterized by secondary accentuation, has no such discriminable quality of phases. Of this form two things are to be noted: first, that it is unstable and tends constantly to revert to that with initial stress, with consequent appearance of secondary accentuation; and second, that as a permanent form it presents the relations of a triple rhythm with a grace note prefixed.

The presence of this tendency to break up the four-rhythm into subgroups of two beats explains a variety of peculiarities in the records of this investigation. The four-beat rhythm with final accent is found most pleasant at the close of a rhythmical sequence. The possibility of including it in a continuous series depends on having the final interval of 'just the right length.' If one keeps in mind that a secondary initial accent characterizes this rhythm form, the value required in this final interval is explained by the resolution of the whole group into two units of three beats each, the latter of the two being syncopated. The pause is of 'just the right length' when it is functionally equal to two unaccented elements with their succeeding intervals, as follows: .q. q q; .q % % .

Likewise in four-rhythms characterized by initial stress there appears a tendency to accent the final beat of the group, as well as that to accent the third. Such a series of four may therefore break up in either of two ways, into >q. q; .q q on a basis of two-beat units, or into .q. q q; >q % % on a basis of three-beat units.

The persistence of these simple equivalences appears also in the treatment of syncopated measures and of supplementary or displaced accents. Of the form >q. q >q. one reactor says, and his description may stand for all, "This deliberate introduction of a third accent on the last beat is almost impossible for me to keep. The single group is easy enough and rather agreeable, but in a succession of groups the secondarily accented third beat comes against the first of the next group with a very disagreeable effect." This is the case where no pause intervenes between the groups, in which case the rhythm is destroyed by the suppression, in each alternate simple group, of the unaccented phase; thus, >q. q >q. alone is pleasant, because it becomes .q. q; >q % , but in combination with preceding and succeeding groups it is disagreeable, because it becomes in reality >q. q; .q % , etc. A long pause between the groups destroys this disagreeableness, since the lacking phase of the second subgroup is then restored and the rhythm follows its normal course.

The amphibrachic form, >q q. q , is more difficult to maintain than either the dactylic or the trochaic, and in a continuous series tends to pass over into one of these, usually the former. 'With sufficient pause,' the reactors report, 'to allow the attitude to die away,' it is easily got. The same inability to maintain this form in consciousness appears when a continuous series of clicks is given, every third of which is louder than the rest. Even when the beginning of the series is made coincident with the initial phase of the amphibrachic group the rhythmic type slips over into the dactylic, in spite of effort. In this, as in the preceding type of reaction, if the interval separating adjacent groups be lengthened, the rhythm is maintained without trouble. The 'dying away' of the attitude lies really in such an arrangement of the intervals as will formally complete a phrase made up of simple two-beat units.

The positive evidence which this investigation affords, points to the existence of factors of composition in all rhythms of more than three beats; and a variety of peculiarities which the results present can be explained—and in my estimation explained only—on the basis of such an assumption. I conclude, therefore, that strictly stated the numerical limit of simple rhythm groups is very soon reached; that only two rhythmical units exist, of two and three beats respectively; that in all longer series a resolution into factors of one of these types takes place; and, finally, that the subordination of higher rhythmical quantities of every grade involves these simple relations, of which, as the scope of the synthesis increases, the opposition of simple alternate phases tends more and more to predominate over triplicated structures.

Variation in the number of elements which enter into the rhythmic unit does not affect the sense of equivalence between successive groups, so long as the numerical increase does not reach a point at which it lessens the definiteness of the unit itself. For the purpose of testing this relation the reactors beat out a series of rhythm forms from 'one-beat' rhythms to those in which the group consisted of seven, eight and nine elements, and in which the units were either identical with one another or were made up of alternately larger and smaller numbers of elements. Two questions were to be answered in each case; the manner in which these various changes affected the sense of rhythmical equivalence in the alternate groups, and the variations in affective quality which these changes introduced into the experience. With the former of these problems we are here concerned. From 'one-beat' to four-beat rhythms the increase in number of constituents in no way affects the sense of rhythmical equivalence. Beyond this point there is a distinct falling off. 'The first part of the rhythm begins to fade away before the end of the second,' says one; and another: 'The series then reverts to a monotonous succession without feeling of rhythm.' This decline marks those groups composed of an odd number of elements much earlier and more strongly than those which contain an even number. The sense of equivalence has fallen off at five and practically disappears at seven beats, while groups of six and eight retain a fairly definite value as units in a rhythmical sequence. This peculiar relation must be due to the subconscious resolution of the larger symmetrical groups into smaller units of three and four constituents respectively.

Likewise the introduction of variations in the figure of the group—that is, in the number of elements which enter into the groups to be compared, the distribution of time values within them, the position of accents, rests, and the like—does not in any way affect the sense of equivalence between the unlike units. Against a group of two, three, four, or even five elements may be balanced a syncopated measure which contains but one constituent, with the sense of full rhythmical equivalence in the functional values of the two types. Indeed, in the case of five-beat rhythms the definition of values is greater when such opposition finds place than when the five-beat group is continuously repeated. This is to be explained doubtlessly by the more definite integration into a higher rhythmical unity which is afforded under the former conditions.

The number and the distribution of elements are factors variable at will, and are so treated in both musical and poetical expression. The condition which cannot be transgressed is the maintenance of strict temporal relations in the succession of total groups which constitute the rhythmical sequence. These relations are, indeed, not invariable for either the single interval or the duration of the whole group, but they are fixed functions of the dynamic values of these elements and units. Two identically figured groups (e.g., >q. q q >q. q q ), no more possess rhythmically substitutionary values than does the opposition of a single beat to an extended series (e.g., >q. >q. q q ), apart from this factor of temporal proportion. Those groups which are identical in figure must also be uniform in duration if they are to enter as substitutionary groups into a rhythmical sequence.[5] When the acatalectic type is alternately departed from and returned to in the course of the rhythmical sequence, the metrical equivalents must present total time-values which, while differing from that of the full measure in direction and degree, in dependence on the whole form of their structure, maintain similar fixed relations to the primary type. The changes which these flexible quantities undergo will here only be indicated. If the substitutionary groups be of different figures, that which comprises the larger number of elements will occupy the greater time, that which contains fewer, the less.

[5] Theoretically and strictly identical; this abstracts from the cooerdination of such identical groups as major and minor components of a higher rhythmical synthesis, which is really never absent and in virtue of which the temporal values of the groups are also differentiated.

I do not forget the work of other observers, such as Bruecke, who finds that dactyls which appear among trochees are of less duration than the latter, nor do I impugn their results. The rhythmical measure cannot be treated as an isolated unit; it must always be considered in its structural relations to the rhythmical sequence of which it forms a part. Every non-conforming measure is unquestionably affected by the prevailing type of the rhythmical sequence in which it occurs. Bruecke points out the converse fact that those trochees and iambs are longest which appear in dactylic or other four-measures; but this ignores the complexity of the conditions on which the character of these intrusive types depends. The time-values of such variants are also dependent on the numerical preponderance of the typical form in the whole series. When a single divergent form appears in the sequence the dynamic relations of the two types is different from that which obtains when the numbers of the two approach equality, and the effect of the prevailing form on it is proportionally greater. Secondly, the character of such variants is dependent on the subordinate configuration of the sequence in which they appear, and on their specific functions within such minor rhythmical figures. The relative value of a single dactyl occurring in an iambic pentameter line cannot be predicated of cases in which the two forms alternate with each other throughout the verse. Not only does each type here approximate the other, but each is affected by its structural relation to the proximately higher group which the two alternating measures compose. Thirdly, the quantitative values of these varying forms is related to their logical significance in the verse and the degree of accentuation which they receive. Importance and emphasis increase the duration of the measure; the lack of either shortens it. In this last factor, I believe, lies the explanation of the extreme brevity of dactyls appearing in three-rhythms. When a specific rhythm type is departed from, for the purpose of giving emphasis to a logically or metrically important measure, the change is characteristically in the direction of syncopation. Such forms, as has been said elsewhere, mark nodes of natural accentuation and emphasis. Hence, the dactyl introduced into an iambic or trochaic verse, which, so far as concerns mere number of elements, tends to be extended, may, in virtue of its characteristic lack of accentuation and significance, be contracted below the value of the prevailing three-rhythm. Conversely the trochee introduced into a dactylic sequence, in consequence of its natural accentuation or importance, may exceed in time-value the typical four-rhythm forms among which it appears. The detailed examination of the relation of temporal variations to numerical predominance in the series, to subordinate structural organization, and to logical accentuation, in our common rhythms, is a matter of importance for the general investigation which remains still to be carried out. In so far as the consideration of these factors entered into the experimental work of the present research, such quantitative time relations are given in the following table, the two types in all cases occurring in simple alternation:

TABLE XXI.

Rhythm. 1st Meas. 2d Meas. Rhythm. 1st Meas. 2d Meas.

. > > > > . q q q; q q % 1.000 1.091 q q %; q q q 1.000 1.140 . > > . q q q; q q % 1.000 1.159 q q %; q q q 1.000 1.021 . > > . q q q; q q % 1.000 1.025 q q %; q q q 1.000 1.267 > . . > q q q; q q % 1.000 0.984 q q %; q q q 1.000 1.112 > . . > q q q; q q % 1.000 0.766 q q %; q q q 1.000 1.119

As the disparity in numerical constitution increases, so will also the divergence in time-value of the two groups concerned. When differentiation into major and minor phases is present, the duration of the former will be greater than that of the latter. Hence, in consequence of the combination of these two factors—e.g., in a syncopated measure of unusual emphasis—the characteristic time-values may be inverted, and the briefer duration attach to that unit which comprises the greater number of elements. Intensive values cannot take the place of temporal values in rhythm; the time form is fundamental. Through all variations its equivalences must be adhered to. Stress makes rhythm only when its recurrence is at regular intervals. The number of subordinate factors which combine with the accented element to make the group is quite indifferent. But whether few or many, or whether that element on which stress falls stands alone (as it may), the total time values of the successive groups must be sensibly equivalent. When a secondary element is absent its place must be supplied by a rest of equivalent time-value. If these proper temporal conditions be not observed no device of intensive accentuation will avail to produce the impression of metrical equivalence among the successive groups.

B. The Distribution of Elements Within the Group.

(a) The Distribution of Intensities.

In the analysis of the internal constitution of the rhythmic unit, as in other parts of this work, the investigation follows two distinct lines, involving the relations of rhythm as apprehended, on the one hand, and the relations of rhythm as expressed, on the other; the results in the two cases will be presented separately. A word as to the method of presentation is necessary. The fact that in connection with each experiment a group of questions was answered gives rise to some difficulty in planning the statement of results. It is a simple matter to describe a particular set of experiments and to tell all the facts which were learned from them; but it is not logical, since one observation may have concerned the number of elements in the rhythmic unit, another their internal distribution, and a third their coalescence in a higher unity. On the other hand, the statement of each of these in its own proper connection would necessitate the repetition of some description, however meager, of the conditions of experimentation in connection with each item. For economy's sake, therefore, a compromise has been made between reporting results according to distribution of material and according to distribution of topics. The evidence of higher grouping, for example, which is afforded by variations in duration and phases of intensity in alternate measures, will be found appended to the sections on these respective classes of material.

In all the following sections the hammer-clang apparatus formed the mechanism of experimentation in sensory rhythms, while in reactive rhythms simple finger-tapping was employed.

In comparing the variations in stress which the rhythmical material presents, the average intensities of reaction for the whole group has been computed, as well as the intensities of the single reactions which compose it. This has been done chiefly in view of the unstable intensive configuration of the group and the small amount of material on which the figures are based. The term is relative; in ascertaining the relations of intensity among the several members of the group, at least ten successive repetitions, and in a large part of the work fifty, have been averaged. This is sufficient to give a clear preponderance in the results to those characteristics which are really permanent tendencies in the rhythmical expression. This is especially true in virtue of the fact that throughout these experiments the subject underwent preliminary training until the series of reactions could be easily carried out, before any record of the process was taken. But when such material is analyzed in larger and smaller series of successive groups the number of reactions on which each average is based becomes reduced by one half, three quarters, and so on. In such a case the prevailing intensive relations are liable to be interfered with and transformed by the following factor of variation. When a wrong intensity has accidentally been given to a particular reaction there is observable a tendency to compensate the error by increasing the intensity of the following reaction or reactions. This indicates, perhaps, the presence of a sense of the intensive value of the whole group as a unity, and an attempt to maintain its proper relations unchanged, in spite of the failure to make exact cooerdination among the components. But such a process of compensation, the disappearance of which is to be looked for in any long series, may transpose the relative values of the accented elements in two adjacent groups when only a small number of reactions is taken into account, and make that seem to receive the major stress which should theoretically receive the minor, and which, moreover, does actually receive such a minor stress when the value of the whole group is regarded, and not solely that member which receives the formal accentuation.

The quantitative analysis of intensive relations begins with triple rhythms, since its original object was to compare the relative stresses of the unaccented elements of the rhythmic group. These values for the three forms separately are given in Table XXII., in which the value of the accented element in each case is represented by unity.

TABLE XXII.

Rhythm. 1st Beat. 2d Beat. 3d Beat.

Dactylic, 1.000 0.436 0.349 Amphibrachic, 0.488 1.000 0.549 Anapaestic, 0.479 0.484 1.000

The dactylic form is characterized by a progressive decline in intensity throughout the series of elements which constitute the group. The rate of decrease, however, is not continuous. There is a marked separation into two grades of intensity, the element receiving accentual stress standing alone, those which possess no accent falling together in a single natural group, as shown in the following ratios: first interval to third, 1.000:0.349; second interval to third, 1.000:0.879. One cannot say, therefore, that in such a rhythmic form there are two quantities present, an accented element and two undifferentiated elements which are unaccented. For the average is not based on a confused series of individual records, but is consistently represented by three out of four subjects, the fourth reversing the relations of the second and third elements, but approximating more closely to equivalence than any other reactor (the proportional values for this subject are 1.000; 0.443; 0.461). Moreover, this reactor was the only musically trained subject of the group, and one in whom the capacity for adhering to the logical instructions of the experiment appears decidedly highest.

In the amphibrachic form the average again shows three degrees of intensity, three out of four subjects conforming to the same type, while the fourth reverses the relative values of the first and third intervals. The initial element is the weakest of the group, and the final of median intensity, the relation for all subjects being in the ratio, 1.000:1.124. The amphibrachic measure begins weakly and ends strongly, and thus approximates, we may say, to the iambic type.

In the anapaestic form the three degrees of intensity are still maintained, three out of four subjects giving consistent results; and the order of relative values is the simple converse of the dactylic. There is presented in each case a single curve; the dactyl moves continuously away from an initial accent in an unbroken decrescendo, the anapaest moves continuously toward a final accent in an unbroken crescendo. But in the anapaestic form as well as in the dactylic there is a clear duality in the arrangement of elements within the group, since the two unaccented beats fall, as before, into one natural group, while the accented element is set apart by its widely differentiated magnitude. The ratios follow: first interval to second, 1.000:1.009; first interval to third, 1.000:2.084.

The values of the three elements when considered irrespective of accentual stress are as follows: First, 1.000; second, 1.001; third, 0.995. No characteristic preponderance due to primacy of position appears as in the case of relative duration. The maximum value is reached in the second element. This is due to the cooeperation of two factors, namely, the proximity of the accentual stress, which in no case is separated from this median position by an unaccented element, and the relative difficulty in giving expression to amphibrachic rhythms. The absolute values of the reactions in the three forms is of significance in this connection. Their comparison is rendered possible by the fact that no change in the apparatus was made in the course of the experiments. They have the following values: Dactylic, 10.25; amphibrachic, 12.84; anapaestic, 12.45. The constant tendency, when any difficulty in cooerdination is met with, is to increase the force of the reactions, in the endeavor to control the formal relations of the successive beats. If such a method of discriminating types be applied to the present material, then the most easily cooerdinated—the most natural—form is the dactyl; the anapaest stands next; the amphibrach is the most unnatural and difficult to cooerdinate.

The same method of analysis was next applied to four-beat rhythms. The proportional intensive values of the successive reactions for the series of possible accentual positions are given in the following table:

TABLE XXIII.

Stress. 1st Beat. 2d Beat. 3d Beat. 4th Beat.

Initial, 1.000 0.575 0.407 0.432 Secondary, 0.530 1.000 0.546 0.439 Tertiary, 0.470 0.407 1.000 0.453 Final, 0.492 0.445 0.467 1.000

The first and fourth forms follow similar courses, each marked by initial and final stress; but while this is true throughout in the fourth form, it results in the first form from the preponderance of the final interval in a single individual's record, and therefore cannot be considered typical. The second and third forms are preserved throughout the individual averages. The second form shows a maximum from which the curve descends continuously in either direction; in the third a division of the whole group into pairs is presented, a minor initial accent occurring symmetrically with the primary accent on the third element. This division of the third form into subgroups appears also in its duration aspect. Several inferences may be drawn from this group of relations. The first and second forms only are composed of singly accented groups; in the third and fourth forms there is presented a double accent and hence a composite grouping. This indicates that the position in which the accent falls is an important element in the cooerdination of the rhythmical unit. When the accent is initial, or occurs early in the group, a larger number of elements can be held together in a simple rhythmic structure than can be cooerdinated if the accent be final or come late in the series. In this sense the initial position of the accent is the natural one. The first two of these four-beat forms are dactylic in structure, the former with a postscript note added, the latter with a grace note prefixed. In the third and fourth forms the difficulty in cooerdinating the unaccented initial elements has resulted in the substitution of a dipodic division for the anapaestic structure of triple rhythms with final accent.

The presence of a tendency toward initial accentuation appears when the average intensities of the four reactions are considered irrespective of accentual position. Their proportional values are as follows: First, 1.000; second, 0.999; third, 1.005; fourth, 0.981. Underlying all changes in accentuation there thus appears a resolution of the rhythmic structure into units of two beats, which are primitively trochaic in form.

The influence exerted by the accented element on adjacent members of the group is manifested in these forms more clearly than heretofore when the values of the several elements are arranged in order of their proximity to that accent and irrespective of their positions in the group. Their proportional values are as follows:

TABLE XXIV.

2d Remove. 1st Remove. Accent. 1st Remove. 2d Remove. 0.442 0.526 1.000 0.514 0.442

This reinforcing influence is greater—according to the figures just given—in the case of the element preceding the accent than in that of the reaction which follows it. It may be, therefore, that the position of maximal stress in the preceding table is due to the close average relation in which the third position stands to the accented element. This proximity it of course shares with the second reaction of the group, but the underlying trochaic tendency depreciates the value of the second reaction while it exaggerates that of the third. This reception of the primitive accent the third element of the group indeed shares with the first, and one might on this basis alone have expected the maximal value to be reached in the initial position, were it not for the influence of the accentual stress on adjacent members of the group, which affects the value of the third reaction to an extent greater than the first, in the ratio 1.000:0.571.

The average intensity of the reactions in each of the four forms—all subjects and positions combined—is worthy of note.

TABLE XXV.

Stress. Initial. Secondary. Tertiary. Final. Value, 1.000 1.211 1.119 1.151

The first and third forms, which involve initial accents—in the relation of the secondary as well as primary accent to the subgroups—are both of lower average value than the remaining types, in which the accents are final, a relation which indicates, on the assumption already made, a greater ease and naturalness in the former types. Further, the second form, which according to the subjective reports was found the most difficult of the group to execute—in so far as difficulty may be said to be inherent in forms of motor reaction which were all relatively easy to manipulate—is that which presents the highest intensive value of the whole series.

In the next group of experiments, the subject was required to execute a series of reactions in groups of alternating content, the first to contain two uniform beats, the second to consist of a single reaction. This second beat with the interval following it constitutes a measure which was to be made rhythmically equivalent to the two-beat group with which it alternated. The time-relations of the series were therefore left to the adjustment of the reactor. The intensive relations were separated into two groups; in the first the final reaction was to be kept uniform in strength with those of the preceding group, in the second it was to be accented.

The absolute and relative intensive values for the two forms are given in the following table:

TABLE XXVI.

Rhythm. 1st Beat. 2d Beat. 3d Beat. Value.

Syncopated Measures 13.00 15.12 16.50 Absolute. Unaccented, 1.000 1.175 1.269 Relative.

Syncopated Measures 10.95 11.82 16.11 Absolute. Accented, 1.000 1.079 1.471 Relative.

These averages hold for every individual record, and therefore represent a thoroughly established type. In both forms the reaction of the syncopated measure receives the greatest stress. In the first form, while the stress is relatively less than in the second, it is at the same time absolutely greater. The whole set of values is raised (the ratio of average intensities in the two forms being 1.147:1.000), as it has already been found to be raised in other forms difficult to execute. To this cause the preponderance is undoubtedly to be attributed, as the reports of every subject describe this form as unnatural, in consequence of the restraint it imposes on an impulse to accent the final reaction, i.e., the syncopated measure.

In the next set of experiments the series of reactions involved the alternation of a syncopated measure consisting of a single beat with a full measure of three beats. The same discrimination into accented and unaccented forms in the final measure was made as in the preceding group. The series of absolute and relative values are given in the following table.

TABLE XXVII.

Rhythm. 1st Beat. 2d Beat. 3rd Beat. 4th Beat. Value.

Syncopated Measures 9.77 8.96 9.61 13.78 Absolute. Unaccented, 1.000 0.915 0.983 1.165 Relative.

Syncopated Measures 11.57 11.07 11.53 21.50 Absolute. Accented, 1.000 0.957 0.996 1.858 Relative.

These averages hold for every subject where the syncopated measure receives accentuation, and for two out of three reactors where it is unaccented. The latter individual variation shows a progressive increase in intensity throughout the series.

Here, as in the preceding forms, a well-established type is presented. Not only when accentuation is consciously introduced, but also when the attempt is made—and in so far as the introspection of the reactor goes, successfully made—to maintain a uniformity among the reactions of the full and syncopated measures, the emphasis on the latter is unconsciously increased. In the accented form, as before, there is a clear discrimination into two grades of intensity (ratio of first three elements to final, 1.000:1.888) while in the unaccented no such broad separation exists (ratio of first three elements to final, 1.000:1.156).

The type of succession in each of these forms of reaction is a transformed dactylic, in which group should now be included the simple four-beat rhythm with final accent, which was found to follow the same curve. The group begins with a minor stress in both of the present forms, this stress being greater in the unaccented than in the accented type. This preponderance I believe to be due to the endeavor to repress the natural accent on the syncopated measure. In both forms the intensive value of the second element is less than that of the third, while the intensity of the initial reaction is greater than that of either of these subsequent beats. This form of succession I have called a transformed dactylic. It adheres to the dactylic type in possessing initial accentuation; it departs from the normal dactylic succession in inverting the values of the second and third members of the group. This inversion is not inherent in the rhythmic type. The series of three beats decreasing in intensity represents the natural dactylic; the distortion actually presented is the result of the proximity of each of these groups to a syncopated measure which follows it. This influence I believe to be reducible to more elementary terms. The syncopated measure is used to mark the close of a logical sequence, or to attract the hearer's attention to a striking thought. In both cases it is introduced at significant points in the rhythmical series and represents natural nodes of accentuation. The distortion of adjacent measures is to be attributed to the increase in this elementary factor of stress, rather than to the secondary significance of the syncopation, for apart from any such change in the rhythmical structure we have found that the reactions adjacent to that which receives accentual stress are drawn toward it and increased in relative intensity.

Further quantitative analysis of rhythmical sequences, involving a comparison of the forms of successive measures throughout the higher syntheses of verse, couplet and stanza, will, I believe, confirm this conception of the mutable character of the relations existing between the elements of the rhythmical unit, and the dependence of their quantitative values on fixed points and modes of structural change occurring within the series. An unbroken sequence of dactyls we shall expect to find composed of forms in which a progressive decrease of intensity is presented from beginning to end of the series (unless we should conceive the whole succession of elements in a verse to take shape in dependence on the point of finality toward which it is directed); and when, at any point, a syncopated measure is introduced we shall look for a distortion of this natural form, at least in the case of the immediately preceding measure, by an inversion of the relative values of the second and third elements of the group. This inversion will unquestionably be found to affect the temporal as well as the intensive relations of the unit. We should likewise expect the relations of accented and unaccented elements in the two-beat rhythms to be similarly affected by the occurrence of syncopated measures, and indeed to find that their influence penetrates every order of rhythm and extends to all degrees of synthesis.

To the quantitative analysis of the intensive relations presented by beaten rhythms must be added the evidence afforded by the apprehension of auditory types. When a series of sounds temporally and qualitatively uniform was given by making and breaking an electric circuit in connection with a telephone receiver, the members of a group of six observers without exception rhythmized the stimuli in groups—of two, three and four elements according to rate of succession—having initial accentuation, however frequently the series was repeated. When the series of intervals was temporally differentiated so that every alternate interval, in one case, and every third in another, stood to the remaining interval or intervals in the ratio, 2:1, the members of this same group as uniformly rhythmized the material in measures having final accentuation. In triple groups the amphibrachic form (in regard to temporal relations only, as no accentuation was introduced) was never heard under natural conditions. When the beginning of the series was made to coincide with the initiation of an amphibrachic group, four of those taking part in the investigation succeeded in maintaining this form of apprehension for a time, all but one losing it in the dactylic after a few repetitions; while the remaining two members were unable to hold the amphibrachic form in consciousness at all.

(b) The Distribution of Durations.

The inquiry concerning this topic took the direction, first, of a series of experiments on the influence which the introduction of a louder sound into a series otherwise intensively uniform exerts on the apparent form of the series within which it occurs. Such a group of experiments forms the natural preliminary to an investigation of the relation of accentuation to the form of the rhythm group. The apparatus employed was the fourth in the series already described. The sounds which composed the series were six in number; of these, five were produced by the fall of the hammer through a distance of 2/8 inch; the sixth, louder sound, by a fall through 7/8 inch. In those cases in which the intensity of this louder sound was itself varied there was added a third height of fall of two inches. The succession of sounds was given, in different experiments, at rates of 2.5, 2.2, and 1.8 sec. for the whole series. The durations of the intervals following and (in one or two cases) preceding the louder sound were changed; all the others remained constant. A longer interval intervened between the close and beginning of the series than between pairs of successive sounds. After hearing the series the subject reported the relations which appeared to him to obtain among its successive elements. As a single hearing very commonly produced but a confused impression, due to what was reported as a condition of unpreparedness which made it impossible for the hearer to form any distinct judgment of such relations, and so defeated the object of the experiment, the method adopted was to repeat each series before asking for judgment. The first succession of sounds then formed both a signal for the appearance of the second repetition and a reinforcement of the apperception of its material.

In order to define the direction of attention on the part of the observer it was made known that the factors to be compared were the durations of the intervals adjacent to the louder sound in relation to the remaining intervals of the series, and that all other temporal and intensive values were maintained unchanged from experiment to experiment. In no instance, on the other hand, did any subject know the direction or nature of the variation in those quantities concerning which he was to give judgment. In all, five subjects shared in the investigation, C., E., F., H. and N. Of these C only had musical training. In the tables and diagrams the interval preceding the louder sound is indicated by the letter B, that following it by the letter A. Totals—judgment or errors—are indicated by the letter T, and errors by the letter E. The sign '+' indicates that the interval against which it stands is judged to be greater than the remaining intervals of the series, the sign '=' that it is judged equal, and the sign '-' that it is judged less.

The first series of changes consisted in the introduction of variations in the duration of the interval following the loud sound, in the form of successive increments. This loud sound was at the third position in the series. All intensive relations and the duration of the interval preceding the louder sound remained unchanged. The results of the experiment are presented in the following table.

TABLE XXVIII.

Ratio of A to B A Errors Total Per cent. Other Intervals. + = - + = - B A T judgts. of errors

1.000 : 0.625 2 2 2 4 2 0 4 2 6 12 50 1.000 : 0.666 4 2 0 1 3 2 4 5 9 12 75 1.009 : 0.714 5 3 0 2 2 4 5 6 11 16 69 1.000 : 0.770 5 4 0 1 1 7 5 8 13 18 72 1.000 : 0.833 1 5 0 0 0 6 1 6 7 12 50

Totals, 17 16 2 8 8 19 19 27 46 70

The value of the interval following the louder sound is correctly reported eight times out of thirty; that preceding it is correctly reported sixteen times out of thirty. The influence which such a change in intensive value introduced at a single point in a series of sounds exerts on the apparent relation of its adjacent intervals to those of the remainder of the series is not equally distributed between that which precedes and that which follows it, but affects the latter more frequently than the former in a ratio (allowing latitude for future correction) of 2:1. In the case of interval A the error is one of underestimation in twenty-seven cases; in none is it an error of overestimation. In the case of interval B the error is one of overestimation in seventeen instances, of underestimation in two. The influence of the introduction of such a louder sound, therefore, is to cause a decrease in the apparent duration of the interval which follows it, and an increase in that of the interval which precedes it. The illusion is more pronounced and invariable in the case of the interval following the louder sound than of that preceding it, the proportion of such characteristic misinterpretations to the whole number of judgments in the two cases being, for A, 77 per cent.; for B, 54 per cent. The effect on interval A is very strong. In the second group, where the ratio of this interval to the others of the series is 3:2, it is still judged to be equal to these others in 50 per cent. of the cases, and less in 35 per cent. Further, these figures do not give exhaustive expression to the whole number of errors which may be represented in the judgments recorded, since no account is taken of greater and less but only of change of sign; and an interval might be underestimated and still be reported greater than the remaining intervals of the series in a group of experiments in which the relation of the interval in question to these remaining intervals ranged from the neighborhood of equivalent values to that in which one was double the other. If in a rough way a quantitative valuation of errors be introduced by making a transference from any one sign to that adjacent to it (e.g., - to =, or = to +) equal to one, and that from one extreme sign to the other equal to two, the difference in the influence exerted on the two intervals will become still more evident, since the errors will then have the total (quantitative) values of A 46, and B 19, or ratio of 1.000:0.413.