Glue and Stain Bench. $ 15.00

Lockers for individual work for 360 pupils. 360.00

Nail and Screw Cabinet. 35.00 ———- $410.00

Individual Tools. $640.74

General Tools. 189.83 ———- $830.57

Discount for schools, 10 per cent. 83.06 ———- $747.51 Cabinets, lockers, etc. 410.00 ————- $1,157.51

THE CARE OF THE WOODWORKING SHOP

The general arrangement of the room. The important factors are the source or sources of light, and the lines of travel. The common arrangement of benches where two sides of the room are lighted, is shown in a, Fig. 238. By this arrangement, as each worker faces his bench, he also faces one set of windows and has another set of windows at his left. The advantage of this arrangement is that it is easy to test one's work with the try-square by lifting it up to the light. Another arrangement, shown in b, Fig. 238, has this advantage, that there are no shadows on the work when it is lying on the bench and the worker is holding his rule or try-square on it with his left hand. When all the windows are on one side of the room the latter is the more advantageous arrangement.

In determining the position of the benches, especially with reference to their distance from each other, thought should be given to the general lines of travel, from the individual benches to the general tool-rack, to the finishing-table, to the lockers, etc. Even if all the aisles cannot be wide enough both for passage and for work, one wider one thru the center of the room may solve the difficulty. Where rooms are crowded, space may be economized by placing the benches in pairs, back to back, c and d, Fig. 238. In any case, room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teacher's bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and to think.



The Tools. Every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observing. (1) It is an old saying that there should be "a place for everything and everything in its place." This is eminently true of a well-ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as important. (2) Things of the same sort should be arranged together, and arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. In arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. In the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another. Where the rack must needs be high, all the tools can be brought within reach, by placing long tools, like files, screwdrivers, etc., at the top. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 239.

As to the individual benches, those without high backs are to be preferred, not only because of their convenience when it is desired to work on large pieces, like table tops, and because the backs do not interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to look over the room to see that everything is in order. If the equipment is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place.



In general, there are two methods of keeping guard over tools, the open and the closed. In the open method, everything is kept in sight so that empty places can be discovered readily. This method is a convenient one, and, besides, the tools are always easily accessible. In the closed method, the tools are kept in drawers and cases where they can be locked up. This method is suitable where pupils are equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. In such a case, the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual pupils' tools in separate drawers. This method has the disadvantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediately. On the other hand, where the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum. Sometimes a combination of both methods is tried, the tools being kept in unlocked drawers. This method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing.



Even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious difficulties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. Pupils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not where they belong. Labels at the places of the different sets may help somewhat; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. Pupils will see that, when they will not stop to read a label.

In spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. A plan to cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. Then at the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is returned pro rata.



There is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches. Some tools, like the plane and chisel, and try-square, are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand. As to others, the demand must determine the supply. One other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be discouraged, should be kept remote. Some tools, like files, it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for.



A cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in Fig. 240, for holding nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a material aid in preserving the order of the shop.

As for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To clean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli. They may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli.

The Lockers. In order to maintain good order in the shop, an almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding the unfinished work of pupils. An inexpensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and 18" long, Fig. 241. Ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of shelves to conceal and protect the contents. Such a case should cost at the rate of about 40c. for each compartment. A more substantial and more convenient case, shown in Fig. 242, consists of compartments each 9-1/2" high, 6" wide, and 18" deep. These proportions may be changed to suit varying conditions. In front of each tier of 12 compartments is a flap door opening downward. Such a case built of yellow pine (paneled) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per compartment.



There should, of course, be a separate compartment for each pupil using the shop. Where possible, there should be a special table for staining and gluing. Where strict economy must be practiced, a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc.

Where no staining-table is possible, temporary coverings of oilcloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose.



Care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood. Shellac should be kept in glass or pottery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin, which darkens it. A good plan is to have a bottle for fresh, untouched shellac, a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used, and an enameled cup for use. There should also be a special brush, Fig. 244. At the time of using, first see that the brush is soft and pliable. If it is stiff, it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. This alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. Then pour out a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with some fresh shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. What little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cup until required. The important things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only, (indeed, it is a good plan to label them "SHELLAC ONLY,") and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate. In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to be frequently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar.

Varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using. If they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty.

Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with water and then laying them flat in a box. Cups in which the water stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water.

Brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good condition, by being hung in a brush-keeper, Fig. 245, (sold by Devoe & Reynolds, 101 Fulton St., N. Y. C.) partly filled with turpentine. The same brushes may also be used for fillers.

Oil stains should be poured back into their respective bottles, and the cups wiped out with cotton waste. When they get in bad condition, they can be cleaned readily after a preliminary soaking in a strong solution of potash. The same treatment may be given to brushes, but if they are left soaking too long in the solution, the bristles will be eaten off.



EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP

REFERENCES:[*]

Murray, Year Book 1906, p. 69. Bailey, M. T. Mag., 9: 138. Dec. '07. Robillion, pp. 48-90. Hammacher and Schlemmer, passim.

[Footnote *: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]



CHAPTER VII.

THE COMMON JOINTS.

Wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we have what is properly called joinery. In common usage the term indicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships, but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of constructing furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage-maker, and cooper. Since joinery involves the constant use of joints, a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and directions for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers in wood.

HEADING JOINTS

No. 1. A lapped and strapped joint, Fig. 264, p. 177, is made by laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which they may be tightened. It is a very strong joint and is used where the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and flag poles.

No. 2. A fished joint, Fig. 264, is made by butting the squared ends of two timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron, called fish-plates, over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking the whole firmly together. It is used for joining timbers in the direction of their length, as in boat construction.

No. 3. In a fished joint, Fig. 264, keys are often inserted between the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to tension. In wide pieces and for extra strength, as in bridge work, the bolts may be staggered.

Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7. A scarf or spliced joint, Fig. 264, is made by joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in No. 4; tension, as in No. 5; both, as in No. 6, where the scarf is tabled; or cross strain as in No. 7. No. 4 is used in house sills and in splicing out short posts, Nos. 5 and 6 in open frame work. No. 7 with or without the fish-plate, is used in boats and canoes, and is sometimes called a boat-builder's joint, to distinguish it from No. 4, a carpenter's joint. A joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction of the strain than across it. No. 7 is the plan, not elevation, of a joint to receive vertical cross strain.

BUTT JOINTS

No. 8. A doweled butt-joint, Fig. 264, is made by inserting, with glue, dowel-pins into holes bored into the two members. The end of one member is butted against the face or edge of the other. It is used in cabinet-making where the presence of nails would be unseemly.



In a doweled butt-joint the dowels may go clear thru the outside member, and be finished as buttons on the outside, where they show. To lay out this joint mark near the ends of the edges of the abutting member, X, Fig. 246, center-lines A B. Draw on the other member Y, a sharp pencil-line to which when the lines AB on X are fitted, X will be in its proper place. Carry the line around to the other side of Y and locate on it the proper centers for the dowel-holes E and F. Then fasten on the end of X a handscrew in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end. With another handscrew, clamp this handscrew to Y in such a way that the marks on the two pieces match, A to C and B to D, Fig. 247. Bore at the proper places, E and F, holes directly thru Y into X.



Fig. 248 illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in which the joints are made in this way. The cross-lap joints of the stretchers are first glued together, then the other joints are assembled without glue, to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite sides are glued at a time. Pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs.



In case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate the holes properly. One method of procedure is as follows: To dowel the end of one member against the face of the other as a stringer into a rail or a rail into a table leg, first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member, X, Fig. 249. Gage a center-line, A B, across this end lengthwise, locate the centers of the dowel-holes, and square across with a knife point, as CD and EF. Gage a line on the other member to correspond with the line AB. On the face so gaged, lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies along this gaged line and prick off the points D and F, to get the centers of the dowel-holes.



If, as is usual, there are a number of similar joints to be made, a device like that shown in Fig. 249 will expedite matters. 1 and 2 are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood, which has been notched out, and are as far apart as the dowels. A-1 is the distance from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel. The same measure can be used from the end of the leg.

When the centers are all marked, bore the holes. Insert the dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly. If any rail is twisted from its proper plane, note carefully where the error is, take apart, glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it off flush with the surface, and re-bore in such a place that the parts, when assembled will come up true. When everything fits, glue and clamp together.

No. 9. A toe-nailed joint, Fig. 264, is made by driving nails diagonally thru the corners of one member into the other. It is used in fastening the studding to the sill in balloon framing.

No. 10. A draw-bolt joint, Fig. 264, is made by inserting an iron bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut inserted from the side of the second member. It is very strong and is used in bench construction, wooden machinery, etc.

No. 11. A plain butt-joint, Fig. 264, is one in which the members join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. It is used on returns as in ordinary boxes and cases.

No. 12. A glued and blocked joint, Fig. 264, is made by gluing and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which are butted and glued together. It is used in stair-work and cabinet-work, as in the corners of bureaus.

No. 13. A hopper-joint, Fig. 264, is a butt-joint, but is peculiar in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on account of the pitch of the sides. It is used in hoppers, bins, chutes, etc. The difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper angle for the edges of the pieces. This may be done as follows: After the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by the pitch of the sides. Lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper on the outside of the end pieces. From the ends of these lines, on the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with the knife and try-square. Connect these lines on what will be the inside of the hopper. Saw off the surplus wood and plane to the lines thus scored. The side pieces may be finished in the same way, and the parts are then ready to be assembled.

HALVING-JOINTS

A halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the notch in the other, so that the upper and under surfaces of the members are flush.

No. 14. A cross-lap joint, Fig. 264, is a halved joint in which both members project both ways from the joint. This is a very common joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers cross each other in the same plane.

The two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see Chap. IX, p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across the other in the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y, on one arris, and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the upper piece, X. From this point square across Y with the knife and try-square. Lay X again in its place, exactly along the line just scored. Then mark with the knife on Y the width of X, which may then be removed and the second line squared across Y. From these two lines square across both edges of Y to approximately one-half the thickness. Now turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark it in the same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit.

Cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks, Fig. 91, p. 66, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and 71, p. 56.

The bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford surface for gluing. When well made, a cross-lap joint does not need to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands.

No. 15. A middle-lap joint or halved tee, Fig. 265, is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint, but one member projects from the joint in only one direction, it is used to join stretchers to rails as in floor timbers.

No. 16. An end-lap joint, Fig. 265, is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint except that the joint is at the end of both members. It is used at the corners of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats.

To make an end-lap joint, place the members in their relative positions, faces up, and mark plainly. Mark carefully on each member the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly (1/16") to overlap the other. Square across at these points with a sharp knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the upper side of the lower member. Now proceed as in the cross-lap joint, except that the gaged line runs around the end and the cutting must be done exactly to this line.

No. 17. In an end-lap joint on rabbeted pieces, Fig. 265, the joint must be adapted to the rabbet. The rabbet should therefore be plowed before the joint is made. The rabbet at the end of the piece X is cut not the entire width of the piece Y, but only the width of the lap,—c-f=a-e. This joint is used occasionally in picture-frames.

No. 18. A dovetail halving or lap-dovetail, Fig. 265, is a middle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better able to resist tension. It is used for strong tee joints.

No. 19. A beveled halving, Fig. 265, is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. It is very strong when loaded above. It was formerly used in house framing.

MODIFIED HALVING JOINTS

No. 20. A notched joint, Fig. 265, is made by cutting out a portion of one timber. It is used where it is desired to reduce the height occupied by the upper timber. Joists are notched on to wall plates.

No. 21. A checked joint or double notch, Fig. 265, is made by cutting out notches from both the timbers so as to engage each other. It is used where a single notch would weaken one member too much.

No. 22. A cogged or corked or caulked joint, Fig. 265, is made by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower piece, leaving a "cog" uncut. From the upper piece a notch is cut only wide enough to receive the cog. A cogged joint is stronger than a notched because the upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. It is used in heavy framing.

No. 23. A forked tenon joint, Fig. 265, is made by cutting a fork in the end of one member, and notching the other member to fit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. It is used in knock-down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, where it is desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be continuous.

No. 24. A rabbet or rebate or ledge joint, Fig. 266, is made by cutting out a portion of the side or end of a board or timber X to receive the end or side of another, Y. It may then be nailed from either the side or end or from both. The neatest way in small boxes is from the end, or better still it may be only glued.

No. 25. A dado or grooved joint, Fig. 266, is made by cutting in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other member fits. Properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado. Where the whole of the end of one member is let into the other, such a dado is also called a housed dado. Treads of stairs are housed into string boards.

To lay out a dado joint: After carefully dressing up both pieces to be joined, locate accurately with a knife point, on the member to be dadoed, called X, one side of the dado, and square across the piece with a try-square and knife. Then locate the other side of the dado by placing, if possible, the proper part of the other member, called Y, close to the line drawn. If this method of superposition is not possible, locate by measurement. Mark, with a knife point, on X, the thickness thus obtained. Square both these lines as far across the edges of X as Y is to be inserted. Gage to the required depth on both edges with the marking-gage.

To cut the joint: First make with the knife a triangular groove on the waste side of each line, as indicated in Fig. 91, p. 66, and starting in the grooves thus made, saw with the back-saw to the gaged lines on both edges. The waste may now be taken out either with a chisel or with a router, Fig. 122, p. 83. The second member, Y, should just fit into a dado thus made, but if the joint is too tight, the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel. In delicate work it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only the knife and chisel.

No. 26. A dado and rabbet, Fig. 266, is made by cutting a dado in one member, X, and a rabbet on the other, Y, in such a way that the projecting parts of both members will fit tight in the returns of the other member. It is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface for gluing.

No. 27. A dado, tongue and rabbet, Fig. 266, is a compound joint, made by cutting a rabbet on one member, Y, and then a dado in this rabbet, into which fits a tongue of the other member, X. It is used in machine-made drawers.

No. 28. A dovetail dado or gain, Fig. 266, is made by cutting one or both of the sides of the infitting member, Y, on an angle so that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise. It is used in book-cases and similar work, in which the shelves are fixed.

To make this joint, first lay out the dovetail on the member to be inserted, called Y, thus: Across one end square a line (A B, No. 28), at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in. Set the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail, Fig. 250. Score this angle on the edges of the member, as at C D. Cut a groove with a knife on the waste side of A B. Saw to the depth A C, and chisel out the interior angle A C D.

Then lay out the other member, X, thus: mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of Y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado. Lay out the thickness of Y on the face of X by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point. Gage the required depth on the edges. Now with the bevel-square as already set, lay out the angle A C D on the edges of X, and across the face at C score a line with knife and try-square. Cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado, and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle. Chisel or rout out the waste and when complete, fit the pieces together.



No. 29. A gain joint, Fig. 266, is a dado which runs only partly across one member, X. In order to make the edges of both members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner of the other member, Y, is correspondingly notched out. In book shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado.

A gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. Knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. Before sawing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth. To avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately, a little at a time, till the required depth is reached. It is easy to measure the depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper amount from a trial stick, Fig. 251. The use of the router, Fig. 122, p. 83, facilitates the cutting, and insures an even depth.



MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINTS

The tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the part left in the middle. The mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is made slightly deeper than the tenon is long. The sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "shoulders" of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece.

No. 30. A stub mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 266, is made by cutting only two sides of the tenon beam. It was formerly used for lower ends of studding or other upright pieces to prevent lateral motion.

No. 31. A thru mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 266, is made by cutting the mortise clear thru one member and by cutting the depth of the tenon equal to or more than the thickness of the mortised member. The cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. It is used in window sashes.

A thru mortise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a blind mortise-and-tenon (see below), except that the mortise is laid out on the two opposite surfaces, and the boring and cutting are done from both, cutting first from one side and then from the other.

No. 32. A blind mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 266, is similar to the simple mortise-and-tenon described in 30. The tenon does not extend thru the mortised member and the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides.

To make a blind mortise-and-tenon, first make the tenon thus: Locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and square entirely around the piece. On the working edge near the end mark the thickness of the tenon. Set the marking-gage at the proper distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. Reset the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same way from the working face. Then mark and gage the width of the tenon in the same way. Whenever there are several tenons of the same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all back cheeks. If a mortise-gage is available, use that. Always mark from the working face or working edge. Cut out a triangular groove on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a dado, Fig. 91, p. 66.

In cutting the tenon, first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines, then crosscut at the shoulder lines. Do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting. If the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts. It is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise.

Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished piece. Then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. As in the case of like tenons, if there are a number of mortises all alike, set the gage only twice for them all.

In cutting the mortice, first fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench. This may be done either in a tail vise or by a handscrew, or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. Then tap the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held tightly down on the bench. See Fig. 76, p. 58.

It is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. Take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 137, p. 86, and no deeper than necessary. Dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines, taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise perpendicular to the face. This may be tested by placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a try-square with its head resting on the surface.

Finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. The tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint.

Many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. For this purpose a mortise-chisel, Fig. 68, p. 54, is desirable. The method is to begin at the middle of the mortise, placing the chisel—which should be as wide as the mortise—at right angles to the grain of the wood. Chisel out a V shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, and then from this hole work back to each end, occasionally prying out the chips. Work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise.

No. 33. In a mortise-and-tenon joint on rabbeted pieces, Fig. 266, the tenon is as much shorter on one side than the other as the rabbet is wide. In Fig. 33, ab=cd.

No. 34. A wedged mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 266, is a thru joint in which after the tenon is driven home, wedges are driven in between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. The wedges are dipped in glue or white lead before being inserted. The sides of the mortise may be slightly dovetailed. It is used to keep a tenon tightly fixed as in wheel spokes.

No. 35. A wedged mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 266, may also be made by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in No. 34. It is used in ornamental joints as well as in carpentry.

No. 36. A fox-tail tenon, Fig. 266, is a blind mortise-and-tenon in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the width of the tenon. Wedges are driven into saw kerfs in the tenon before inserting into the mortise; then when it is driven home the wedges spread out the tenon and make it fill out the mortise. It is used in strong doors and also where the mortised member is already in place so that a wedged mortise-and-tenon is impossible.

No. 37. A dovetail mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 266, is a thru mortise-and-tenon beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail. The corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide enough so that when the tenon is pressed well up against its beveled side a wedge may be driven into the space left on the straight side. It is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is fixed against a wall. It is also used in machinery frames which are made of wood.

No. 38. A pinned mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which a pin is driven thru holes bored thru the mortised beam and thru the tenon to keep them from drawing apart. It is used in heavy framing as in bridges, in wagon-making, in window-sash, etc.

No. 39. A keyed mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. It is used in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases and in other mission furniture.

The keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and-tenon, except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges should be laid out thus: measuring from the shoulder of the tenon, locate by superposition or measurement the outside of the mortised member. Deduct from this 1/16" and square a fine pencil-line across the face and opposite side. This line will be the inside of the hole for the wedge, and the 1/16" is deducted to make sure that the key wedges against the mortised member. On the upper surface of the tenon, lay off toward the end the width of the wedge at this point, A B, Fig. 252, and square across. On the under surface, lay off the width of the wedge at this point, C D, and square across.



Gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower surfaces of the tenon. After cutting the mortise and tenon, bore and chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side toward the end on a bevel to fit the wedge.

No. 40. A tusk tenon or shoulder tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder called a "tusk." The upper shoulder is beveled. The object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at the same time to increase the strength of the tenon. It is used in joining tail beams to headers in floor framing.

No. 41. A double mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, consists of two tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mortises. It is used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry.

No. 42. A haunched mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is made by cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much shorter than the rest. The haunch gives the tenon great lateral strength and saves cutting so large a mortise hole. It is used in panel construction, as where the rails are joined to the stiles of doors.

First plow the groove in all the members. This should be of the same width as the thickness of the tenons, which is ordinarily one-third of the thickness of the frame. The groove is approximately as deep as it is wide. Lay out and cut the tenon the width of the entire piece, minus, of course, the depth of the groove. The mortise should not come too near the end, or the portion of wood outside it will shear out. Hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to insure strength in the mortised piece. The rule is that the tenon should be one-half the width of the rail, minus the groove. But enough of the tenon is left full width to fill up the groove at the outer end of the mortised piece. This is called the haunch. The width of the mortise is equal to the width of the groove, its length to the width of the tenon. Before assembling the panel frame, put soap or tallow on the corners of the panel to prevent its being glued to the frame.

No. 43. Table or taper haunching, Fig. 267. Sometimes, as in table construction, for the sake of stiffening the rail, or in places where it is desirable that the haunch does not show, the haunch is beveled from the tenon to the edge of the rail.

No. 44. A bare-faced tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which a cheek is cut from only one side. It is used where the rail is thinner than the stile and it is desirable to keep the mortise near the middle of the stile.

No. 45. A housed mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is one in which the whole of the end of one member is let in for a short distance or "housed" into the other. It is common in grill work and in railings.

No. 46. A slip-joint or end or open mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, is what would remain if a mortised member were sawn off along one side of the tenoned member. Window screens and other light frames such as those for slates and for printing photographs have this joint. This joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes, and is then called corner locking.

DOVETAIL JOINTS

"Dovetail" refers to the shape of the projections of one member, when looked at broadside. These projections are called dovetails, or merely tails.

The projections on the other member are called tenons or pins, and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets.

No. 47. A thru single dovetail, Fig. 267, is similar to a slip-joint except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail. It is used in window-sashes.

No. 48. A thru-multiple dovetail, Fig. 267, consists of a series of alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely. It is used in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes.

To make a thru multiple dovetail joint, first square lines with a sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends of the dovetails and the pins, d e on X, Fig. 250, and l m on Y. The distance of this line from the ends of each member may, if desired, be slightly (1/32") greater than the thickness of the other member. Divide this line, d e, on the member to be dovetailed, X, into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails). From the division points of these spaces, a b c, to the right and left lay off one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also the same distance from d and from e, as at f f f f and g g g g.

The strongest arrangement of dovetails is to make them equal in width to the spaces between them, as in No. 48, p. 267. For the sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than 1-3/4".

Set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle A B C, Fig. 250, p. 159, in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is 3" and the short side 5/8". This is approximately an angle of 80 deg. or a little more than one to five. From the points f f f f and g g g g lay off this angle to the end of the piece. Carry these lines across the end at right angles to the surface, h i, Fig. 250, and repeat the dovetail angles on the other surface. Mark plainly the parts to be cut out (the mortises), as on X in Fig. 250. Score with a knife point the inner ends of the mortises, d to f, g to f, etc., and across the edge at d and at e. With a dovetail-saw, Fig. 93, p. 66, cut on the mortise side of each line down to the cross line, d-e, and also along the cross line from d to f and e to g. Chisel out the mortises taking care to keep the line d-e straight and square. The ends (not the sides) of the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit.

Fasten the other member, Y, upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will be flush with the top of the bench, and with the working face toward the bench. Place on it the working face of X, (the member already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the mortises are in line with the working face of Y, and that the edges of the two members are in the same plane, as X on Y in Fig. 250. Scribe with a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of Y (f'-j' and g'-h'). Remove Y from the vise and square down these lines to the cross line l-m (j'-n and h'-o). Score with the knife point the inner ends of the mortises of Y (n-o). Saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the parts together. When glued together, the joints should be dressed off.

Where there are several parts to be made alike, it is necessary to lay out the dovetails on only one X member. This may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn separately. Or all the X members may be clamped carefully together, with one X already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and ends flush, the depth mark gaged all around, and then all sawn at once.

The dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins, and then superposing this on the piece to be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins.

No. 49. A lap or half blind dovetail, Fig. 267, is a dovetail joint in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the thickness of the other member. It is used in joining the sides to the fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen.

If the joint is to be used for a drawer front, the groove for the drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the joint. See also drawers, p. 190, and Fig. 287, p. 191. On the end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the joint. Gage the same distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides, marking from the front ends. Lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint, taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within the lower tail. Take care also to make the sides, one right and one left, not both alike, so that the groove will come inside. Lay out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side, X, on the end of the front, Y, as in a thru dovetail. Saw and chisel out the mortises and fit together.

No. 50. A stopped lap dovetail, Fig. 267, is one in which neither the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. Hence the joint is concealed. The lap may be rounded. It is used in fine boxes, trays, etc.

No. 51. The blind miter or secret dovetail, Fig. 267, is a joint in which only part, say one-half, of both boards is dovetailed, the outer portion being mitered. The edges of the boards are also mitered right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are invisible. It is used in highly finished boxes.

BEVELED JOINTS

A beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet. This is called the "miter" and may be 45 degrees or any other angle. It is a neat but weak joint unless reinforced by a spline, nails, or in some other way.



No. 52. A plain miter, Fig. 268, is a joint where the beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed together. It is commonly used in picture-frames, inside trim, columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided.



For gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way is with the aid of the picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, p. 101. Nails are driven or splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued. Where this vise is not available, an ordinary metalworking vise may be used, as follows: Fasten one member, X, face side up, firmly in the vise. Bore holes in the other member, Y, at the proper places for the nails. Insert nails in the holes, apply the glue to both mitered surfaces, place the glued surfaces together, letting Y project about 1/8" beyond X. A convenient way to hold Y in place is in the left hand, palm up, while the left forearm rests upon X. Drive one of the nails home, and continue driving until the parts exactly fit. Then drive home the other nail. Now fasten together in the same way the other two members of the picture-frame, and then, one at a time, the third and fourth joint. This is the method used in picture-frame factories, and when once learned is very simple.



For gluing together at once all the members of a mitered frame, the device shown in Fig. 253 is convenient and is easily made. Out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of the ends, as shown in the illustration. By applying two clamps lengthwise on the frame, all four joints may be glued together at once. If the frame does not come up square, it may be squared by means of a temporary brace, A, in Fig. 253.

The device shown in Figs. 254 and 255, is also an easily made and efficient tool. At least the small pieces, which receive the corners of the frame, should be made of hard wood such as maple. It is self-adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow frame by over pressure. It is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to prevent their being glued to the frame.



In gluing together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided taborets or columns, in which the members meet edgewise, one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, Fig. 256. Another method is to wrap a stout rope, such as is used for window weights, around all the pieces, properly set up, then to tighten it by twisting it with a stick thru a loop, Fig. 257. A still more effective way is by means of the Noxall Column Clamp, a powerful device, used chiefly for gluing up such pieces as the pillar of a centrally supported table, Fig. 259. Care must be taken with all these devices to protect the corners, unless they are to be rounded off afterward. A good way to protect them is with pieces fastened together in the shape shown in Fig. 258, b, and Fig. 257, the interior angle being equal to the exterior angle of the piece to be glued. In the case of a taboret with slender legs, care must be taken to insert blocks between the separate legs as well, to brace them apart and to keep them from bending under the pressure. These methods have the advantage that they are speedy, since all the pieces go together at once; but unless the pieces fit exactly the joints will not close.

Another method is to glue and clamp the pieces of the taboret together two by two, using blocks as shown in Fig. 258, a. Care should be taken to put the pressure of the handscrews as far out as possible so as to be sure that the outside of the joint closes. This method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, the work can be done more deliberately. Moreover, if when three pairs of a six-sided taboret are together, the other three joints do not fit exactly, they can then be refitted.

Another method is to glue pieces of soft wood on the exterior of each pieces as shown in Fig. 258, c. These blocks should be of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. When the glue is dry, they are used as corners on which to clamp the handscrews. This method has the disadvantage that the blocks may break loose at a critical moment.



In addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints, to make sure that the ends of the joints close tight, pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, p. 103, may be driven into the end grain, and corrugated fasteners, Fig. 228, p. 125, also driven into the ends, make the joint quite secure.

No. 53. A doweled miter, Fig. 268, is one in which one or more dowels are inserted and glued into holes bored into the beveled edges. It may be used instead of nails, as in large picture frames.

No. 54. A spline or tongue miter, Fig. 268, is one which has a spline or tongue inserted at right angles to the joint. Since it furnishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter.

No. 55. A slip-feather or slip-key miter, Fig. 268, is one which is strengthened by a slip of hardwood glued into a saw kerf cut across the mitered angle. It is used in picture-frames and in boxes.

No. 56. A slip-dovetail miter, Fig. 268, is one in which a trapezoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter. When dressed off, it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face. It is used for the same purpose as a spline miter.

No. 57. A double dovetail keyed miter, Fig. 268, is one in which a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the joint. This is a favorite joint with Oriental joiners.



No. 58. A ledge and miter or lipped miter joint, Fig. 268, is made by rabbeting and mitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a miter. It is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed. It is used for fine boxes.

No. 59. A stopped miter, Fig. 268, is useful for joining pieces of different widths, when both sides can be seen.



No. 60. A double-tongue miter, Fig. 268, is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other. It is used in high class joinery, on members that join lengthwise of the grain.

No. 61. A stretcher joint, Fig. 268, is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered. It is used in frames for stretching canvass for paintings by driving wedges from the inside. Two forms are shown in 61a and 61b.

No. 62. A strut joint, Fig. 268, is a form of miter joint used in making trusses.

No. 63 and 64. A thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint, Fig. 268, is one in which two beams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. The toe may be either square as in 63, or oblique as in 64. The pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. It is used for the batter braces of bridges.

No. 65. A plain brace joint, Fig. 269, is one in which the brace is simply mitered and nailed into place. It is used for bracket supports.

No. 66. A housed brace joint, Fig. 269, is a joint in which the brace is housed into the rectangular members except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diagonally to receive the brace which is cut to correspond. It is much stronger than 65.

No. 67. An oblique mortise-and-tenon or bevel-shoulder joint, Fig. 269, is one in which the shoulders of the tenoned beam are cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. The cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk. By these means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against the abutment. Thus a much larger bearing surface is obtained. The whole is bolted or strapped together. It is used in heavy truss work.

No. 68. A bridle joint, Fig. 269, is an oblique joint in which a bridle or "tongue" is left in an oblique notch cut out of one beam. Over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut obliquely in the other beam. It is used in truss construction.

No. 69. A bird's mouth joint, Fig. 269, is an angular notch cut in a timber to allow it to fit snugly over the member on which it rests. It is used in rafters where they fit over the plate.

No. 70. A plain or rubbed or squeezed or glue joint, Fig. 269, is one in which the edges of two boards are glued and rubbed together tight. It is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc.

To make this joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by side, and arranged in the proper order. Three considerations determine what this order is to be: (1), if the grain is of prime importance, as in quartered oak, then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain. (2), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjacent ones. For this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direction with the annual rings of the next, Fig. 280, a, p. 188. (3), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. When the above requirements have been met so far as possible, this order should be marked on adjoining edges for later identification. The edges of the boards to be joined should be finished with a jointer.

There are two principal methods of gluing edge-to-edge joints, rubbing and squeezing. In a rubbed joint, the surfaces to be joined should be planed so as to meet thruout exactly. After properly planing one edge of each board, keep one board in the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. Then use these four tests for an exact fit. (1) Sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (2) Examine the crack from both sides. Be sure that both ends touch. Test this by pulling down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in contact. If the other end opens, swing the upper board horizontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it. (3) See if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board by feeling gently to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board. (4) Slide the top board slowly on the lower one to see if it adheres or "sucks."



After the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if possible, the glue is spread on them, Fig. 260, and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain, pressure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the joint in the least. As the glue sets, the rubbing becomes more difficult. It should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions. In rubbing together the edges of two boards, handscrews may be fastened to one in such a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between, Fig. 261. Care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board.



Another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and projecting above the lower board. This spare board acts as a guide against which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. The rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards.

In joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. In this case, the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. The object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle. The pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in No. 75, the joint will be strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards.

When the fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set away to dry for at least six hours. Then another piece may be added in the same manner. If the boards are thin and wide, and therefore likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to prevent their buckling. The cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint.

No. 71. A rebated, rabbeted or fillistered joint, Fig. 269. Rebating is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood. The re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabbet. A rebated joint, then, is one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap. It is used in flooring and siding.

A board is rebated and filleted when two adjoining rebates are filled with a fillet.



No. 72. A matched or tongue-and-groove joint, Fig. 269, is made by making a projection or "tongue" in the center of the edge of one board, and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match together. When used for flooring, the lower side of the grooved board is slightly rebated so that the upper edges will surely touch. This sort of flooring can be blind-nailed.

No. 73. A beaded joint, Fig. 269, is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes.

No. 74. A spline-joint, Fig. 269, is made by plowing corresponding grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip-feather. It is used in plank flooring.

No. 75. A doweled joint, Fig. 269, is made by jointing the two edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together. It is used in table tops, etc.

Where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels.

The essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. The following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge, Fig. 262. Place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush. Determine approximately where the dowels are to be inserted. With the gage, mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge, gaging from the outside faces. Across these lines score accurately with a try-square and knife. Then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines, Fig. 263. If this is carefully done, the holes will be directly opposite one another, and equidistant from the faces of both boards. All the holes should be of equal depth, say 1", in order that the dowel-pins, which should also be cut of equal lengths, may be interchangeable. After boring, the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place. The latter result may also be obtained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel-pointer, Fig. 123, p. 83. It is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. The dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is applied to the joint.



THE COMMON JOINTS

REFERENCES:[*]

Rivington, Vol. I, pp. 57-77, 135-137, 238-242; Vol. II, pp. 291-295. Adams, pp. 1-30. Sickels, pp. 86-124. Goss, pp. 128-152. Ellis, pp. 135-151. Barter, pp. 211-275. Selden, pp. 56-130. Building Trades Pocketbook, pp. 217-221, 237. Griffith, pp. 86-104, 164-170.

[Footnote *: For general bibliography, see p. 4]



CHAPTER VIII.

TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES.

The articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes: (1) Unjoined pieces; (2) board structures; (3) panel structures; (4) framed structures. A few illustrations of each class are given below.

(1) SIMPLE OR UNJOINED PIECES

Of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learning of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design, and when finished are of use.

Examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve-boards, ironing-boards, coat- and skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. Some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72.



Where there is more than one process involved, the order of procedure is of importance. In general, a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square, or, in technical language, to "true" it up. At least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." Where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first. For example, in making a gouged tray with curved outline, Fig. 270, the working face, the working edge, and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. Then, after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel. If there is incised decoration it should be cut before the molding is cut, so that while being incised, the piece will lie flat without tipping.

These simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by chamfering. A chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an arris. It differs from a bevel in that a bevel inclines all the way to the next arris, while a chamfer makes a new arris, Fig. 271. A thru chamfer extends the whole length or width of a piece, while a stop chamfer extends only part way. For the laying out of a chamfer see p. 115.



Thru chamfering is best done with a plane, Fig. 272. For this purpose the piece may be held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped to the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in turn is held in the vise as in Fig. 175, p. 102. The chamfers with the grain should be planed before those across the grain.



In chamfering a four-square stick into an eight-square, the piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally, Fig. 273, or it may be held in a trough made of two strips of wood from each of which an arris has been chamfered and then the two nailed together, Fig. 274. A dowel or nail may be inserted in the trough for a stop. Stop chamfers are pared best with a chisel, Fig. 275, held according to convenience either flat side or bevel side up. See under chisel, p. 53.



(2) BOARD STRUCTURES.

These include such pieces as wall brackets, sets of shelves, book-racks, plate-racks, drawing-boards, foot-stools, taborets, and boxes.

The advantage of this form of construction is that it is comparatively easy to make; the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide, they are sure to shrink and swell. It is wise in all such work to true and smooth up all the pieces at once, and if the wood is not thoroly seasoned, to keep the boards under pressure till they are assembled. In the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece, they should be glued together before the surfaces are smoothed. Suggestions regarding a few typical pieces follow:

Wall Brackets. (1) There are three essential parts, the shelf, the support or supports, and the back: the shelf to hold the articles, the support to hold up the shelf, and the back to hold all together, Fig. 276, a. The grain of the wood in the shelf should run left and right, not forward and back, because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break easily, and it also acts as a stiffener for the back. In case the back extends above the shelf, as in Fig. 276, a, the shelf can be secured firmly to the back, since there is side grain in which to drive nails or screws. As to the direction of the grain of the support and the back, this should run in the direction of the largest dimension of each. Where the back is long horizontally, for security in hanging, it is better to have two supports.[10]

[Footnote 10: See the School Arts Book for Nov., 1906, "Design in the Woodworking Class," by Anna and William Noyes.]



Wall book-shelves, Fig. 277, plate-racks, etc., are simply compound brackets. The shelf is the essential piece, the sides take the place of the supports, and the back is often reduced to strips merely wide enough to give rigidity.

The shelves may be either gained into the supports, Fig. 266, No. 28 or No. 29, p. 179, or a keyed mortise-and-tenon may be used, Fig. 277. In the latter case the back strip may have a short barefaced blind tenon which is mortised into the upright, Fig. 278. It also fits into a rabbet on the upper back side of the shelf. Made in this way the shelves can be knocked down easily.



Foot Stool or Cricket, Fig. 279. The grain of the supports should run up and down, because pieces with the grain horizontal would be likely to break under pressure. Braces or a rail give additional support. The top should not be larger than the base of the legs; otherwise a person standing carelessly on the stool is in danger of being upset.



A Drawing-Board is made up of narrow boards, with glued joints, with the boards so laid that the annual rings will alternate in direction, Fig. 280, a. It must be made so that it can shrink and swell and yet remain flat. For the purpose of giving lateral stiffness cleats are added. They may simply be screwed on the underside, the screw holes being large enough to allow for shrinkage, or they may be dadoed in with a dovetail dado, Fig. 280, b, or they may be grooved to admit a tongue on the end of a board, Fig. 280, c. In this case screws passing thru large holes in the cleats hold them in place.



Taborets. The term taboret originally meant a little tabor or drum, and was therefore used to designate a small stool, the seat of which consisted of a piece of stretched leather. The term now includes small, tablelike structures for holding flowerpots, vases, etc. It might more properly be called a "table-ette."

When made up with boards having their long edges mitered, it has from four to eight sides. A six-sided one is shown in Fig. 281. In making, it is best to fit the joints exactly first, while the board is stiff, and then to cut out the pattern of the legs. Directions for gluing are given on p. 169.



Scrap-boxes, Fig. 282, and flower-pot boxes may be made with the same construction.



Rectangular Boxes. There are various methods of joining their sides. The butt joint, Fig. 264, No. 11, p. 177, is plain, simple, and good for coarse work. This joint may be reinforced as in packing boxes, Fig. 283.



Mitered joints, Fig. 268, No. 52, p. 181, are neat but weak, unless reinforced by a spline, Fig. 268, No. 54.

The rabbet or ledge joint, Fig. 266, No. 24, p. 179, is both strong and neat. It can be glued and also nailed if desired.

The rabbet and dado joint, Fig. 266, No. 26, can be glued without nails and is good for small boxes.

The housed dado, Fig. 266, No. 25, is good for water-tight boxes.

The mitered ledge, Fig. 268, No. 58, makes a very neat, strong joint which can be nailed or glued, but is more difficult to fit than a simpler joint.

The dovetail joint, Fig. 267, No. 48, is very strong and honest, but the joint is prominent from the outside and it takes much time and labor to make. It is glued.

The blind dovetail, Fig. 267, No. 51, is very neat and strong, and the joint is entirely concealed when done, but is very difficult to make.

The Bottoms of Boxes. The plain or full bottom, Fig. 284, A, is likely to shrink (see dotted line), and it is held in place only by the friction of the nails. The extended bottom, Fig. 284, B, overcomes the objection to shrinkage and adds a decorative feature. The bottom may be set in, Fig. 284, C. This is stronger than the plain bottom, but the nail holes show. The bottom may be rabbeted in, Fig. 284, D. This is better than the set-in bottom so far as the showing of the nail holes goes, for the nails may be driven in from below, and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous. It is practicable, if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides, but if the side pieces are butted or dadoed, the rabbet for the bottom shows. This may be cleverly concealed by an insert, but that is patchwork, and not first-rate construction.

Reinforced bottom, Fig. 284, E. A plain or full bottom is sometimes covered by a base or cover strip to hide the joint and secure the bottom, as in tool chests. This strip may be mitered at the corners.



The Lids of Boxes. The simplest form is a full flat cover, Fig. 285, A, which may be nailed or screwed to the box, as in packing cases. The cover may slide into a groove, Fig. 285, B, along the sides and into one end, the other end being lowered to admit it. The cover may have cleats on its underside, Fig. 285, C, which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place. The cleats also prevent the top from warping. This is a common Japanese construction, even in fine boxes. The Japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon.

The lid may be boxed, Fig. 285, D, that is, portions of the sides may be affixed to the top. These extra pieces are a help to stiffen the top and to keep it from warping. A boxed top may have the top board flush with the sides, Fig. 285, E. The disadvantage of this is that the top may shrink and part from the sides and give a bad appearance. The overlapping top, Fig. 285, F, obviates this trouble of shrinkage and adds a decorative element. In this case the top may be glued on or screwed from below thru the side strips.

The top may be mitered into the sides, Fig. 285, G. The shrinkage trouble still obtains here. Otherwise the appearance is excellent. The top may be paneled into the sides, Fig. 285, H. This has a good appearance if the sides are mitered and ledged but not if the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for the top shows.



Any of these lids may be made removable or hinged, except the sliding top. For methods of hinging see p. 132.

In gluing boxes together, it is a good plan to glue the ends and sides together first and to let these joints dry before gluing on the bottom and, in the case of a boxed top, Fig. 285, D, the top. Care must be taken to see that the sides do not bow under the pressure. To prevent this, one or more false, temporary partitions as A, B, in Fig. 286, of exactly the length to keep the sides straight, may be inserted. In gluing together boxes with rabbeted joints, Fig. 285, H, pressure should be applied in both directions. In gluing on the bottom of a box that is also to be nailed, the nails should be driven into the bottom first, so that the points just come thru. These points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom from slipping when pressure is applied. It is often undesirable to have nail heads show, as in a top. In such a case, and also to prevent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads may be driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bitten off with the nippers, and points filed on the projecting portion.



Drawers. In the best form, the sides are dovetailed to the front for strength, Fig. 287, for whenever the drawer is opened the front tends to pull away from the sides. This dovetail is half blind, so that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut. In order that the drawer may always run freely and yet the front fit the opening as close as possible, it is common practice to cut a shallow rabbet on the ends of the front, so that the body of the drawer is a little narrower than the front is long, Fig. 287. Or the front may be attached to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint, Fig. 266, No. 27, p. 179.



The bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play for shrinkage. The back is dadoed into the sides, with either a straight dado, Fig. 266, No. 25, p. 179, or dovetail dado, Fig. 266, No. 28, and rests on the bottom. The extension of the bottom beyond the back allows ample room for shrinkage.

The best machine-made drawers are now made with the bottom paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot slip out. The back, as well as the front, is dovetailed.

Directions for Making a Table Drawer. Dress the front and sides to size. Fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet, leaving a little play all around it. Plow the groove in the front and sides for the drawer bottom. For ordinary drawers, a groove 1/4" wide is proper. If the ends of the front are to be rabbeted (see above), do this next. The sides are best joined to the front with the half-blind dovetail joint. (For directions see p. 166). After fitting these, lay out and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer. Prepare the bottom of the drawer thus: the grain should run right and left, never front and back. If the drawer is so long as to require it, glue-joint the bottom, and fit it snugly to place. There need be no play right and left, and the bottom should extend as far back as the sides. If necessary, bevel the under side to fit the grooves. Assemble all the parts to see that they fit, take them apart, glue the sides to the front and back, slip the bottom into place, apply the clamps, and see to it that all joints are square, using a diagonal brace if necessary, Fig. 294. Fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom and the back side of the front. When dry, clean up the drawer and fit it to its place.

(3) PANEL STRUCTURES

These include doors and cabinets of all sorts. The principle of panel or cabinet construction is that there shall be a frame composed of narrow members whose grain follows the principal dimensions. In the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together and within this frame there is set a thin board or panel which is free to shrink or swell but is prevented from warping by the stiffer frame. The object is to cover an extended surface in such a way that the general dimensions and good appearance will not be affected by whatever shrinkage there is. Since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces, there is but little shrinkage in them. That shrinkage is all that affects the size of the whole structure, because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable extent. The shrinking or swelling of the panel does not affect the general size. The cross construction of the frame also prevents warping, since, in the best construction every joint is mortised and tenoned. The panel may simply be fastened on the back of the frame, but a better construction is to insert it in a groove made in the inside of the frame in which the panel is to lie and have free play. The panel may be made of one board or of matched boards, may be plain or have raised or carved surfaces, or be of glass; and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases.

The frame of a door, Fig. 288, illustrates the panel construction. The upright, outside pieces are called the "stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails." There are also the "top-rail," the "bottom-rail," the "lock-rail" (where the door-knob and lock are inserted), and sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the lock rail and the top rail. The "muntin" is the upright between the two stiles.



The joint commonly used is the haunched or relished mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267, No. 42, p. 180; (See p. 163 for directions for making). The tenon is sometimes doubled, Fig. 288, and a fillet (f) may be inserted to cover the ends of the tenons, or the joint may be a blind mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 266, No. 32, or in cheap construction, dowels may be used. The best doors are now made with cores of pine covered on the visible sides with heavy veneer. Large surfaces are covered by increasing the number of parts rather than their size, as in wainscoting.

Picture-frames also belong in this class of structures, the glass taking the place of the panel. They are made with mortise-and-tenon joints, Fig. 266, No. 33, slip joints, Fig. 267, No. 46, dowelled butt joints, Fig. 264, No. 8, end lap joints, Fig. 265, No. 17, and, far more commonly, mitered joints, Fig. 268, No. 52. Mitered joints are the easiest to make, for the joints can be cut in a miter-box, Fig. 181, p. 104, and glued in a picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, p. 101. This joint needs reinforcement by nails, Fig. 268, No. 52, by dowels, No. 53, or by splines, No. 55. If the sides are of different widths, the fitting of the joint is more difficult. Mitered joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames. The rabbets are cut out with a rabbeting-plane before mitering and assembling.

The principle disadvantage of a mitered joint is that, if the wood shrinks at all, it opens at the inside corners, as in Fig. 289, because wood shrinks sidewise but not lengthwise.



In window sashes, the dovetail joint, Fig. 267, No. 47, is the common one at the upper end of the lower sash and the lower end of the upper sash, and the mortise-and-tenon joint modified is used at the lower end of the lower and upper end of the upper sash. The glass takes the place of the panel. In blind sashes, the pinned mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 267, No. 38, is commonly used.

When panels are joined together to enclose a space, then we have what is properly called cabinet construction. Illustrations are cabinets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc.

In all these cases, the constructed panels may be treated as separate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework, tho the corners are often reinforced by cleats or blocks glued into them. Sometimes, however, as in chests, Fig. 290, posts are used instead of stiles, and rails are mortised or doweled into them and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails. In this case the bottom is raised from the floor, and may be dadoed into the bottom rails, or dowelled into them or even supported by strips attached along their lower inside edges. The chest really is a union of both paneled and framed structures.



(4) FRAMED STRUCTURES

The principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage without harm to construction and also to economize materials. Common examples are tables, chairs, work-benches, and frame houses.

The Making of a Table. The standard height of a table is 30". There should be 25" clearance under the rails. This leaves approximately 4" for the width of the rails. Assuming that the table is to be of a simple straight line type with one drawer, the following method of procedure is suggested:

Cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, (see p. 47) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as possible before jointing.

Dress to size the legs and rails. Stand the legs in their proper positions relative to each other, and mark them F R (front right), F L (front left), B R (back right), and B L (back left). Plow out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top, Fig. 297, D, if they are to be used. Lay out and cut the tenons and mortises for the end rails and back rail.

The proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above it so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. The rails should be set near the outside of the leg so that the tenon may be as long as possible and the portion of the leg inside it as strong as possible. A haunched mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 267, No. 43 is sometimes used, giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail. The proper proportions are shown in Fig. 291. When cut, these parts should be temporarily assembled to see if they fit.



Inasmuch as a drawer takes the place of a front rail, the front legs must be tied together in some other way. For this purpose two stringers or drawer rails may be used, their front edges being as far from the face of the legs as are the rails from the side and back. The upper drawer rail may be dovetailed at both ends into the tops of the legs, as shown in Fig. 292. If this takes more room than can well be spared from the depth of the drawer, it may be omitted, but it adds greatly to the stiffness of the table and is an excellent means of fastening on the top by the use of screws passing thru it.



The drawer rail, also called the fore edge, is long enough to partly overlap the side rails, into the lower edges of which it is gained so as to be flush with them, and may be fastened to them with screws, Fig. 293. The construction may be further strengthened by also doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs. If there are two drawers, the partition between them may be doweled or gained into these upper and lower stretchers.



If the legs are to be tapered or otherwise shaped, that should be done next. Then glue and assemble the end rails with their proper legs, taking care to see not only that the joints come up square, but that the legs are in the same plane. Finally assemble the whole, inserting, if necessary, a temporary diagonal brace to insure squareness, Fig. 294. When dry, clean up the joints. For the making of a table drawer, see above, p. 191.



To fit the drawer to its place, runners and guides, Fig. 295, must first be fastened in. The runners are in line with the drawer rail, and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the back of the lower stringer and the back posts. On top of them and in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between the front and back posts. Or the runner and guide may be made of one piece properly rabbeted out.



If there are two drawers, a double runner lies between, and is gained into the middles of the back rail and the stringer, and on it is a guide for both drawers, equal in width to the partition between the drawers. The drawers should run easily in their proper places. In order to insure this, the drawer should be slightly narrower than the opening which receives it. A little French chalk, rubbed on the sides and runners, makes the running smoother. Sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of the front rail, as in Fig. 296. In this case the drawer runners are supported between the front and back rails, into which they may be gained.



For the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint, p. 172. Dress up the top to size, taking special pains with the upper surface. If the grain is crossed, use the veneer-scraper, Fig. 151, p. 92, then sand, first with No. 1, then with No. 00 sandpaper, finish the edges carefully, and attach to the frame.

For fastening the top to the table rails, several methods are used. The top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up, Fig. 297, A, or diagonally from the inside, B, or thru blocks or angle irons, C, which are screwed to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons, D, which are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail. The last method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and swelling of the top.



Chairs may be so simplified in form as to be possible for the amateur to construct. The two front legs and the rail and stretcher between them offer little difficulty because the angles are square.

The two back legs, may, for the purpose of simplification, be kept parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between them, as in Fig. 298, A, and not at an angle as in B. The joining of the back will then offer little difficulty. The principal difficulties lie in the facts that for comfort and appearance the back of the chair should incline backward both above and below the seat, and that the back of the seat should be narrower than the front. By keeping at right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which receives the seat rail, the side seat rails will meet the back legs at a right angle in a side view, Fig. 298. The back legs should be slightly shorter than the front legs, as shown in D.



The second difficulty involves the making of inclined mortise-and-tenon joints, A, where the side rails fit into the legs. The making of these can be facilitated by laying out a plan of the full size and taking the desired angles directly from that. It is common to reinforce these joints with corner blocks glued and screwed in place as shown in A. If there are additional rails below the seat rails, the easiest way to fit them in place is first to fit and clamp together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have all angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair. The same method may be used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails.

If it is desired to bow the rails of the back, which are above the seat rail, this can be done by boiling them in water for 30 minutes and then clamping them over a form of the proper shape, with a piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside, as in Fig. 299. They should be thoroly dried in a warm place. Then the tenons may be laid out on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side. The chair bottom may be made of solid wood, either flat or modeled into a "saddle seat;" it may be covered with cane or rush, or it may be upholstered.



To upholster a chair seat, a frame should first be made of the shape shown in Fig. 298, C. The strips are about 2" wide and 1/2" thick with their ends half-lapped. The seat rails are rabbeted 1/2" deep and 1/2" wide to receive this frame, which should be 1/8" smaller all around than the place to receive it. The returns at the corners fit around the legs at 1/8" distance from them. This 1/8" provides space for the coverings. After the frame is fitted, it is covered with 3" webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. The webbing which goes back and forth is interwoven with that which goes from right to left. Over this is stretched and tacked (also to the upper side) a piece of unbleached muslin. A second piece of muslin is tacked to the back edge and part way along the side edges, leaving for the time the corners unfinished. In the pocket thus formed horsehair or other stuffing is pushed, care being taken to distribute it evenly and not too thick. When the pocket is filled, the muslin is tacked farther along the sides and more hair put in, until the front is reached, when the muslin is tacked to the front edge. The corners are now drawn in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so as to lie in well. The partings may be turned down and tacked on the under side of the frame.