In no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in the plane. To remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen the clamp lever and remove the clamp. Carefully remove the cap and cutter taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane, then using the clamp as a screwdriver, loosen the cap-screw and slide the cap back along the slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast by a turn of the cap-screw. The edge is now free and can readily be whetted. When the cap needs to be entirely removed, for instance, for grinding, after it has been slid along the cutter slot, as before, it is turned at right angles to the cutter, and then slid down the slot until the cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter. The object in sliding the cap up the slot before turning it, is to prevent the danger of injuring the edge. Some caps are now made with the buttonhole at the upper end of the slot.

After sharpening, (see under sharpening, p. 117.) the order is reversed for replacing the cutter. The cap is set at right angles to the cutter, the cap-screw dropped into the slot, the cap is slid up the slot, and turned into line with the cutter, and then slid down the slot till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter. Then the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap screw is turned tight.

In replacing the cutter and cap in the plane, care should be taken not to injure the edge and to see that the Y adjustment lever fits into the little slot in the cap; then finally the lever is thrown down tight. Then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down it, the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment lever are made. When the plane is not being used, it should rest either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough), or on its side. In no case should it be dropped sole down flat on the bench.

The block-plane, Fig. 108, gets its name from the fact that it was first made for planing off the ends of clap-boards, a process called "blocking in".



The names of the parts of the Bailey block-plane are[6]:

1. Cutter or bit or plane-iron. 2. Clamp or lever cup. 3. Cap-screw. 4. Adjusting lever. 5. Adjusting nut. 6. Lateral adjustment. 7. Bottom. 8. Mouth piece. 9. Eccentric plate. 10. Knob.

[Footnote 6: See footnote p. 70]

The block-plane was devised for use with one hand, as when it is used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in planing with a bench-hook. Hence it is made small, 3-1/2" to 8" long, the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is lowered to an angle of about 20 deg. to make the plane easy to grasp. The lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the upper side. Otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be made so long and so thin as to be weak. By putting the bevel up, the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically as in the smooth-plane. Since the block-plane is intended chiefly for use on end grain, no cap is needed to break the shavings. The adjustable throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. To facilitate the cutting action, several forms of block-planes with a very low angle are now made.

Where both hands are free to hold the plane, the block-plane has no advantage over a smooth-plane, even on end grain. Moreover, the cutter cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane, so that it requires constant adjustment. Hence it is not an easy tool for amateurs to handle. There is considerable lost motion in the adjusting nut, and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to work loose and be lost. It is hardly to be recommended as a part of the equipment of the individual bench in school shops.

The piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either in the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook, Fig. 109. In end planing in the vise, in order to avoid splintering the precaution should be taken to trim off a corner on the undressed edge, as directed on page 73, or else the planing must be done from both edges toward the center. The sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut, and hence there is a constant temptation to turn the plane at an angle perhaps at an expense of the flat surface desired.



In using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed with the working edge against the block, with the end to be planed to the right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which position it is held with the left hand. The block-plane, held in the right hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work. In planing, the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the bench-hook, pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane. The right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses it to the left against the bench-hook and work. Held in this position the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed. Considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well.

The scrub-plane is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter, Fig. 110, is quite curved. It is used to reduce surfaces rapidly.

The scratch-plane, Fig. 111, has a toothed cutter which scratches fine lines along its course. It is used to roughen surfaces of hard wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would not adhere well. Some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces can be reduced only by a scratch-plane. It is also useful in preparing the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed without chipping. By first scratching it carefully in all directions, it can then be scraped smooth. It is also called a scraper-plane, because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. This plane-stock prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the surface. See also veneer-scraper, p. 91.



The rabbeting- or rebating-plane, Fig. 112, is designed for use in cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the back of the picture-frames. In line with the right hand corner of the cutter is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which follows may be cut out clean and not torn out. With the addition of a guiding fence it is called a filletster. This may be used on either the right or left side. In the form shown in Fig. 112, there is also a depth gage.

In using this plane see that the corner of the cutter is in line with the sole, and that both it and the spur are sharp. Set the fence and the stop at the desired width and depth of the rabbet. At the first stroke the spur will score the width. This and every stroke should be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were the only one. In the effort to keep the fence pressed close to the side of the wood, the tendency is to tilt the plane over. This causes the very opposite effect from that desired, for the spur runs off diagonally, as in Fig. 114.



If this happens stop planing at once, clean out the recess properly with a chisel and then proceed.

The dado-plane is much like the rabbeting-plane, except that it is provided with two spurs, one at each side of the cutting edge, to score the wood before cutting.

The molding-plane, Fig. 113, as it name indicates, is for making moldings of various forms; as, quarter-round, half-round, ogee, etc.



The tonguing-and-grooving-plane, Fig. 115, is for matching boards, i.e. making a tongue in one to fit into a groove in another. See Fig. 269, No. 72, p. 182.

The circular-plane, Fig. 116, has a flexible steel face which can be adjusted to any required arc, convex or concave, so that curved surfaces may be planed.



The universal plane, Fig. 117, is a combination of various molding-, rabbeting-, matching- and other planes. It is capable of many adjustments and applications. The principal parts of this plane are: a main stock, A, with two sets of transverse sliding arms, a depth-gage, F, adjusted by a screw, and a slitting cutter with stop, a sliding section, B, with a vertically adjustable bottom, the auxiliary center bottom, C, to be placed when needed in front of the cutter as an extra support or stop. This bottom is adjustable both vertically and laterally. Fences, D and E. For fine work, fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a thumb-screw. The fences can be used on either side of the plane, and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any desired angle up to 45 deg., by loosening the screws on the face. Fence E can be reversed for center-beading wide boards. For work thinner than the depth of the fence, the work may overhang the edge of the bench and fence E be removed. An adjustable stop, to be used in beading the edges of matched boards, is inserted on the left side of the sliding section B. A great variety of cutters are supplied, such as: molding, matching, sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow, round, plow, rabbet, and filletster. Special shapes can be obtained by order.



The Use of the Universal Plane. Insert the proper cutter, adjusting it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, A, will project below the sole the proper distance for cutting.

Adjust the bottom of the sliding section, B, so that the lowest portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cutting. Tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and then tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms. The sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet or bead.

When an additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary center bottom, C, may be adjusted in front of it. This may also be used as a stop.



Adjust one or both of the fences, D and E, and fasten with the thumb-screws. Adjust the depth-gage, F, at the proper depth.

For a dado remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the edges of the cutter. Insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand of the sliding section. For slitting, insert the cutter and stop on the right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide.

For a chamfer, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood guides on the fences to the required angle. For chamfer beading use in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down by means of the adjusting thumb-nut.

There are also a number of planelike tools such as the following:

The spoke-shave, Fig. 118, works on the same principle as a plane, except that the guiding surface is very short. This adapts it to work with curved outlines. It is a sort of regulated draw-shave. It is sometimes made of iron with an adjustable mouth, which is a convenient form for beginners to use, and is easy to sharpen. The pattern-makers spokeshave, Fig. 119, which has a wooden frame, is better suited to more careful work. The method of using the spokeshave is shown in Fig. 120. (See p. 100.)



The router-plane, Figs. 121 and 122, is used to lower a certain part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part, and it is particularly useful in cutting panels, dadoes, and grooves. The cutter has to be adjusted for each successive cut. Where there are a number of dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it is wise not to finish them one at a time, but to carry on the cutting of all together, lowering the cutter after each round. In this way all the dadoes will be finished at exactly the same depth.



The dowel-pointer, Fig. 123, is a convenient tool for removing the sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. It is held in a brace. The cutter is adjustable and is removable for sharpening.

The cornering tool, Fig. 124, is a simple device for rounding sharp corners. A cutter at each end cuts both ways so that it can be used with the grain without changing the position of the work. The depth of the cut is fixed.



2. BORING TOOLS.

Some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some, like augers, remove material.

The brad-awl, Fig. 125, is wedge-shaped, and hence care needs to be taken in using it to keep the edge across the grain so as to avoid splitting the wood, especially thin wood. The size is indicated by the length of the blade when new,—a stupid method. The awl is useful for making small holes in soft wood, and it can readily be sharpened by grinding.



Gimlets and drills are alike in that they cut away material, but unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while the cutting edge of the drill is on the end.

Twist-drills, Fig. 126, are very hard and may be used in drilling metal. They are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting nails, as in repair work. Their sizes are indicated by a special drill gage, Fig. 220, p. 117.

Twist-bits, Fig. 127, are like twist-drills except that they are not hard enough to use for metal. Their sizes are indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. Both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood.

Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance.

German gimlet-bits, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering well. The size is indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. They are useful in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. They cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced.

Bit-point drills, Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are expensive.

Auger-bits, Fig. 130, have several important features. The spur centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed screw draws the auger into the wood. Two sharp nibs on either side score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. The size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in 16ths of an inch. Thus 9 means a diameter of 9/16".

There are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. (1) One is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. A good way to do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see that the bit is perpendicular both ways. The test may also be made with the try-square, Fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the worker, or in difficult pieces, by a fellow worker. The sense of perpendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. (2) Another precaution is that, in thru boring, the holes should not be bored quite thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. When the spur pricks thru, the bit should be removed, the piece turned over, and the boring finished, putting the spur in the hole which is pricked thru in boring from the first side. It is seldom necessary to press against the knob of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur will pull the bit thru, especially in soft wood. Indeed, as the bit reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then when the spur pricks thru the bit will be pulled out of its hole. This avoids the necessity of constantly watching the back of the board to see if the spur is thru. (3) In stop boring, as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise, care should be taken not to bore thru the piece. For this purpose an auger-bit-gage, Fig. 219, p. 116, may be used, or a block of wood of the proper length thru which a hole has been bored, may be slipped over the bit, or the length of bit may be noted before boring, and then the length of the projecting portion deducted, or the number of turns needed to reach the required depth may be counted on a trial piece. Tying a string around a bit, or making a chalk mark on it is folly.



Auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file, Fig. 142, p. 90, a small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide safe edges at the other. The "nibs" should be filed on the inside so that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body of the bit. The cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward the spur, care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to give clearance. If sharpened from the upper side, that is, the side toward the shank, the nibs will tend to become shorter.

The plug-cutter, Fig. 131, is useful for cutting plugs with which to cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk.

Center-bits, Fig. 132, work on the same principle as auger-bits, except that the spurs have no screw, and hence have to be pushed forcibly into the wood. Sizes are given in 16ths of an inch. They are useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in thin material which is likely to split. They are sharpened in the same way as auger-bits.

Foerstner bits, Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. The size is indicated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. They are useful in boring into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appliances.

Expansive-bits, Fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. There are two sizes, the small one with two cutters, boring from 1/2" to 1-1/2" and the large one with three cutters boring from 7/8" to 4". They are very useful on particular occasions, but have to be used with care.

Reamers, Fig. 135, are used for enlarging holes already made. They are made square, half-round and six cornered in shape.

Countersinks, Fig. 136, are reamers in the shape of a flat cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. The rose countersink is the most satisfactory form.



The washer-cutter, Fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. The size is adjustable.

3. CHOPPING TOOLS.

The primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been differentiated into three modern hand tools, the chisel, see above, p. 53, the ax, Fig. 139, and the adze, Fig. 141.

The ax has also been differentiated into the hatchet, with a short handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use with two hands. Its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. It is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade. The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it from slipping thru the hand. In both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled edge. This is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at any angle.

There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted ax, the latter used chiefly in lumbering. There is also a wedge-shaped ax for splitting wood. As among all tools, there is among axes a great variety for special uses.



The hatchet has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails, and a notch for drawing them, thus combining three tools in one. The shingling hatchet, Fig. 140, is a type of this.

The adze, the carpenter's house adze, Fig. 141, is flat on the lower side, since its use is for straightening surfaces.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.

REFERENCES:[*]

(1) Cutting. Goss, p. 22. Smith, R. H., pp. 1-8.

Chisel. Barnard, pp. 59-73. Selden, pp. 44-50, 145-147. Barter, pp. 93-96. Griffith, pp. 53-64. Goss, pp. 20-26. Sickels, pp. 64-67. Wheeler, 357, 421, 442.

Knife. Barnard, pp. 48-58. Selden, pp. 26-28, 158.

Saw. Griffith, pp. 20-27. Barnard, pp. 114-124. Selden, pp. 41-43, 179-182. Wheeler, pp. 466-473. Hammacher, pp. 309-366. Goss, pp. 26-41. Sickels, pp. 76-79, 84. Smith, R. H., 43-55. Diston, pp. 129-138.

Plane. Barnard, pp. 74-80. Selden, pp. 11-26, 165-175. Sickels pp. 72-75, 116. Wheeler, pp. 445-458. Hammacher, pp. 377-400. Smith, R. H., 16-31. Larsson, p. 19. Goss, pp. 41-52. Barter, pp. 96-109. Griffith, pp. 28-45.

(2) Boring Tools. Barnard, pp. 125-135. Goss, pp. 53-59. Griffith, pp. 47-52. Seldon, pp. 38-40, 141-144. Wheeler, pp. 353-356.

(3) Chopping Tools. Barnard, pp. 80-88.

[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]



CHAPTER IV, CONTINUED.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.

4. SCRAPING TOOLS.

Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or smooth surfaces.



Files. Figs. 142-146, are formed with a series of cutting edges or teeth. These teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and then the tool is hardened. There are in use at least three thousand varieties of files, each of which is adapted to its particular purpose. Lengths are measured from point to heel exclusive of the tang. They are classified: (1) according to their outlines into blunt, (i. e., having a uniform cross section thruout), and taper; (2) according to the shape of their cross-section, into flat, square, three-square or triangular, knife, round or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; (3) according to the manner of their serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, parallel, chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each other obliquely,) open cut, (having series of parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and safe edge, (or side,) having one or more uncut surfaces; and (4) according to the fineness of the cut, as rough, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The "mill file," a very common form, is a flat, tapered, single-cut file.



Rasps, Fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having cutting teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indentations with a triangular point when the iron is soft. The difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 149.

It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. It is better to file only on the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained.

Both files and rasps can be cleaned with a file-card, Fig. 148. They are sometimes sharpened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are discarded.



Scrapers are thin, flat pieces of steel. They may be rectangular, or some of the edges may be curved. For scraping hollow surfaces curved scrapers of various shapes are necessary. Convenient shapes are shown in Fig. 150. The cutting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges. When properly sharpened they take off not dust but fine shavings. Scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc.

There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles, such as the scraper-plane, Fig. 111, p. 79, the veneer-scraper, and box-scrapers. The veneer-scraper, Fig. 151, has the advantage that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in the middle of the back, just as an ordinary scraper is when held in the hands.

In use, Fig. 152, the scraper may be either pushed or pulled. When pushed, the scraper is held firmly in both hands, the fingers on the forward and the thumbs on the back side. It is tilted forward, away from the operator, far enough so that it will not chatter and is bowed back slightly, by pressure of the thumbs, so that there is no risk of the corners digging in. When pulled the position is reversed.



One method of sharpening the scraper is as follows: the scraper is first brought to the desired shape, straight or curved. This may be done either by grinding on the grindstone or by filing with a smooth, flat file, the scraper, while held in a vise. The edge is then carefully draw-filed, i. e., the file, a smooth one, is held (one hand at each end) directly at right angles to the edge of the scraper, Fig. 153, and moved sidewise from end to end of the scraper, until the edge is quite square with the sides. Then the scraper is laid flat on the oilstone and rubbed, first on one side and then on the other till the sides are bright and smooth along the edge, Fig. 154. Then it is set on edge on the stone and rubbed till there are two sharp square corners all along the edge, Fig. 155. Then it is put in the vise again and by means of a burnisher, or scraper steel, both of these corners are carefully turned or bent over so as to form a fine burr. This is done by tipping the scraper steel at a slight angle with the edge and rubbing it firmly along the sharp corner, Fig. 156.



To resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every time, but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with slightly more bevel. Instead of using the oilstone an easier, tho less perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper flat on the bench near the edge. The scraper steel is then passed rapidly to and fro on the flat side of the scraper, Fig. 157. After that the edge should be turned as before.



Sandpaper. The "sand" is crushed quartz and is very hard and sharp. Other materials on paper or cloth are also used, as carborundum, emery, and so on. Sandpaper comes in various grades of coarseness from No. 00 (the finest) to No. 3, indicated on the back of each sheet. For ordinary purposes No. 00 and No. 1 are sufficient. Sandpaper sheets may readily be torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of the sheet projecting over the square edge of the bench. With a quick downward motion the projecting portion easily parts. Or it may be torn straight by laying the sandpaper on a bench, sand side down, holding the teeth of a back-saw along the line to be torn. In this case, the smooth surface of the sandpaper would be against the saw.



Sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into shape, but only to obtain an extra smoothness. Nor ordinarily should it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools is done, for the fine particles of sand remaining in the wood dull the edge of the tool. Sometimes in a piece of cross-grained wood rough places will be discovered by sandpapering. The surface should then be wiped free of sand and scraped before using a cutting tool again. In order to avoid cross scratches, work should be "sanded" with the grain, even if this takes much trouble. For flat surfaces, and to touch off edges, it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular block of wood, of which the corners are slightly rounded, or it may be fitted over special shapes of wood for specially shaped surfaces. The objection to using the thumb or fingers instead of a block, is that the soft portions of the wood are cut down faster than the hard portions, whereas the use of a block tends to keep the surface even.



Steel wool is made by turning off fine shavings from the edges of a number of thin discs of steel, held together in a lathe. There are various grades of coarseness, from No. 00 to No. 3. Its uses are manifold: as a substitute for sandpaper, especially on curved surfaces, to clean up paint, and to rub down shellac to an "egg-shell" finish. Like sandpaper it should not be used till all the work with cutting tools is done. It can be manipulated until utterly worn out.

5. POUNDING TOOLS.

The hammer consists of two distinct parts, the head and the handle. The head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be indented by hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, punches, etc., which are comparatively soft. It can easily be injured tho, by being driven against steel harder than itself. The handle is of hickory and of an oval shape to prevent its twisting in the hand.



Hammers may be classified as follows: (1) hammers for striking blows only; as, the blacksmith's hammer and the stone-mason's hammer, and (2) compound hammers, which consist of two tools combined, the face for striking, and the "peen" which may be a claw, pick, wedge, shovel, chisel, awl or round head for other uses. There are altogether about fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty pounds or more. They are named mostly according to their uses; as, the riveting-hammer, Fig. 159, the upholsterer's hammer, Fig. 160, the veneering-hammer, Fig. 162, etc. Magnetized hammers, Fig. 161, are used in many trades for driving brads and tacks, where it is hard to hold them in place with the fingers.



In the "bell-faced" hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the surface. It is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with a plain-faced hammer. For ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that is, flat-faced claw-hammer, Fig. 158, is best. It is commonly used in carpenter work.

It is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the nail. Hammers should be used to hit iron only; for hitting wood, mallets are used. In striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow and the shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the hardness of the blow. The essential precautions are that the handle be grasped at the end, that the blow be square and quick, and that the wood be not injured. At the last blow the hammer should not follow the nail, but should be brought back with a quick rebound. To send the nail below the surface, a nailset is used. (See below.)



The claw is used for extracting nails. To protect the wood in withdrawing a nail a block may be put under the hammer-head. When a nail is partly drawn, the leverage can be greatly increased by continuing to block up in this way, Fig. 163.



The mallet, Fig. 164, differs from the hammer in having a wooden instead of a steel head. A maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet. The effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of a hammer, in that the force is exerted more gradually; whereas the effect of the hammer blow is direct, immediate, and local, and is taken up at once. But a mallet continues to act after the first impulse, pushing, as it were. This is because of the elasticity of the head. A chisel, therefore, should always be driven with a mallet, for the chisel handle would soon go to pieces under the blows of a hammer, because of their suddenness; whereas the mallet blow which is slower will not only drive the blade deeper with the same force, but will not injure the handle so rapidly. Mallet-heads are made square, cylindrical, and barrel-shaped. Carver's mallets are often turned from one piece, hammer and head on one axis.

Nailsets, Fig. 165, are made with hardened points, but softer butts, so that the hammer will not be injured. They were formerly made square when nail heads were square, but now round ones are common. To obviate slipping, some have "cup points," that is, with a concave tip, and some spur points.



To keep the nailset in its place on the nail-head it may be held closely against the third finger of the left hand, which rests on the wood close to the nail. When a nailset is lacking, the head of a brad, held nearly flat, may be used. But care is necessary to avoid bruising the wood.

6. HOLDING TOOLS.

A. Tools for Holding Work.

The advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by the facilities for holding materials or other tools. The primitive man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. The Japanese, who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely use their fingers and toes. On the other hand, Anglo-Saxons have developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools.



Benches. The essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady table with a vise and places for tools. The joints are either pinned or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. The best benches are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved together. It is common also to have a trough at the back of the top of the bench, i. e., a space 6" or 8" wide, set lower than the upper surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off. A low pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured, is an advantage. The tool-rack is of capital importance. It has been common in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises considerably above the top of the bench, Fig. 169, but a better plan is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top, Fig. 166. Then the light on the bench is not obscured, and when a flat top is needed for large work it can readily be had by removing the tools. Elaborate benches with lock drawers are also much used in the shops of large city schools.



Vises for holding wood are of three general styles, (1) those with an upright wooden jaw, Fig. 167, which holds wide pieces of work well. They are now made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw and the face of the bench are kept parallel; (2) wooden vises with a horizontal jaw, guided by parallel runners, Fig. 166, and, (3) metal rapid-acting vises, Fig. 168. The latter are the most durable and in most respects more convenient. Special vises are also made for wood-carvers, for saw-filing, etc.



The best woodworking benches are equipped with both side- and tail-vises. The tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for holding pieces of different lengths. In planing the side of a board it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. A board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise when it is to be planed, lest it be bent out of shape. In planing the edge of a board it is ordinarily held in the side-vise. A long board, one end of which is in the vise, may also need to be supported at the other end. This may be done by clamping to it a handscrew, the jaw of which rests on the top of the bench, Fig. 169. When the vise is likely to be twisted out of square by the insertion of a piece of wood at one end of it, it is well to insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise to keep it square, as in Fig. 120, p. 82. In this case, (Fig. 120,) the extra piece also supports the piece being worked upon.



The vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes, but a good workman does not use it to the exclusion of the saw-horse and bench-hook.

Horses are of great use both for the rough sawing of material and in supporting large pieces during the process of construction. The common form is shown in Fig. 170, but a more convenient form for sawing has an open top, as in Fig. 171.



The picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, is a very convenient tool for making mitered joints, as in picture-frames. The vise holds two sides firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together or a spline inserted in a saw cut previously made. See Fig. 268, No. 55, p. 181. If the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite match, a kerf may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which can then be drawn close together.



Handscrews, Fig. 173, consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and the screw jaw, made of maple, and the end spindle and the middle spindle, made of hickory. The parts when broken can be bought separately. Handscrews vary in size from those with jaws four inches long to those with jaws twenty-two inches long. The best kind are oiled so that glue will not adhere to them. In adjusting the jaws, if the handle of the middle spindle is held in one hand, and the handle of the end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together, the jaws may be closed or opened evenly, Fig. 174. In use care must be taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest pressure and to prevent the spindles from being broken. It is always important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. To secure this, the middle spindle should be tightened first, and then the end spindle. Handscrews are convenient for a great variety of uses, as clamping up glued pieces, holding pieces together temporarily for boring, Fig. 247, p. 153, holding work at any desired angle in the vise, as for chamfering or beveling, Fig. 175, etc.



Clamps are made of both wood and iron, the most satisfactory for speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter clamps, Fig. 176. They vary in length from 1-1/2 ft. to 8 ft. The separate parts are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip C into which fits the screw D, on the other end of which is the crank E, and the slide F with its dog G, which engages in the notches on the bar. Any part, if broken, can be replaced separately.



Iron Handscrews, also called C clamps and carriage-makers' clamps. Fig. 177, are useful in certain kinds of work, as in gluing in special places and in wood-carving. All iron clamps need blocks of soft wood to be placed between them and the finished work.

Pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, are a convenient device for drawing together two pieces of wood, when injury to the surfaces in which they are driven does not matter. They vary in size from 3/4" to 2-3/4". For ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. For especially fine work, double-pointed tacks, properly filed, are convenient.

The bench-hook, Fig. 179, is a simple device for holding firmly small pieces of work when they are being sawn, chisled, etc. It also saves the bench from being marred. The angles should be kept exactly square.



The miter-box, Fig. 180, is a similar device with the addition of a guide for the saw. The iron miter-box, Fig. 181, with the saw adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work.

Such tools as pliers, Fig. 182, pincers, Fig. 183, and nippers, Fig. 184, made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodworking shop. So are various sorts of wrenches; as fixed, socketed, adjustable, monkey- and pipe-wrenches.



B. Tools for holding other tools.

The brace or bit-stock, Fig. 185, holds all sorts of boring tools as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. The simple brace or bit-stock consists of a chuck, a handle, and a knob, and is sufficient for ordinary use; but the ratchet-brace enables the user to bore near to surfaces or corners where a complete sweep cannot be made. It is also useful where sufficient power can be applied only at one part of the sweep. By means of pawls which engage in the ratchet-wheel, the bit can be turned in either direction at the will of the user. The size of the brace is indicated by the "sweep," that is, the diameter of the circle thru which the swinging handle turns. To insert a bit or other tool, Fig. 186, grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve of the chuck pointing it upward, and revolve the handle with the other hand, unscrewing the sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit. Then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place. Various hand-, breast-, bench-, bow-drills and automatic drills are of use in doing quick work and for boring small holes, Fig. 187.



The screwdriver, Fig. 188, is a sort of holding tool for turning, and so driving screws. Various devices have been tried to prevent the twisting in the handle. This is now practically assured in various makes. The other important matter in a screwdriver is that the point be of the right temper, so as neither to bend nor to break. If the corners break they can be reground, but care should be taken not to make the angle too obtuse or the driver will slip out of the slot in the screw-head. The bevel should have a long taper. A shop should be equipped with different sizes of screwdrivers to fit the different sizes of screws. Screwdrivers vary in size, the shank ranging in length from 2-1/2" to 18". A long screwdriver is more powerful than a short one, for the screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw, but the handle revolves in a circle. This means an increased leverage, so that the longer the screwdriver, the greater the leverage.



For heavy work, screwdriver-bits, Fig. 189, in a bit-stock are useful, and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, Fig. 190, and for small work, the ratchet-screwdriver.

7. MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS.

It is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width of the thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the measuring of distances and of angles which vary almost infinitesimally. No such accuracy is necessary in measuring wood as in measuring metal, but still there is a considerable variety of tools for this purpose.



For measuring distances, the rule, Fig. 191, is the one in most common use. It is usually made of boxwood. For convenience it is hinged so as to fold. A rule is called "two-fold" when it is made of two pieces, "four-fold" when made of four pieces, etc. When measuring or marking from it, it can be used more accurately by turning it on edge, so that the lines of the graduations may come directly against the work. The one in most common use in school shops, is a two-foot, two-fold rule. Some instructors prefer to have pupils use a four-fold rule, because that is the form commonly used in the woodworking trades. Steel bench-rules, Fig. 192, are satisfactory in school work because unbreakable and because they do not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. They need to be burnished occasionally.



The steel square, Figs. 193, 194, 196, 197, is useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square, but also for a number of graduations and tables which are stamped on it. There are various forms, but the one in most common use consists of a blade or "body" 24"x2" and a "tongue," 16"x1-1/2", at right angles to each other. Sargent's trade number for this form is 100. It includes graduations in hundredths, thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square measure, and the Essex board-measure. Another style, instead of an Essex board-measure, and the hundredths graduation has a rafter-table. The side upon which the name of the maker is stamped, is called the "face," and the reverse side the "back."

The brace-measure is to be found along the center of the back of the tongue, Fig. 193. It is used thus: the two equal numbers set one above the other represent the sides of a square, and the single number to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the diagonal of that square. E. g., 54/54 76.37 means that a square the sides of which are 54" would have a diagonal of 76.37".

For determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or another steel square may be laid diagonally across the blade and arm, and applied directly to the proper graduations thereon, and the distance between them measured on the rule. If the distance to be measured is in feet, use the 1/12" graduations on the back of the square.



To use the octagonal (or 8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which is along the center of the face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the number of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the piece of wood is square, and lay this distance off from the center point, on each edge of the board. Connect the points thus obtained, diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon will be had. E.g., on a board 12" square, Fig. 195, find A.B.C.D., the centers of each edge. Now with the dividers take 12 spaces from the 8-square scale. Lay off this distance on each side as A' A" from A, B' B" from B, etc. Now connect A" with B', B" with C', C" with D', D" with A', and the octagon is obtained.



In making a square piece of timber octagonal, the same method is used on the butt, sawed true. When the distance from one center is laid off, the marking-gage may be set to the distance from the point thus obtained to the corner of the timber, and the piece gaged from all four corners both ways. Cutting off the outside arrises to the gaged lines leaves an octagonal stick.



The board-measure is stamped on the back of the blade of the square, Fig. 196. The figure 12 on the outer edge of the blade is the starting point for all calculations. It represents a 1" board, 12" wide, and the smaller figures under it indicate the length of boards in feet. Thus a board 12" wide, and 8' long measures 8 square feet and so on down the column. To use it, for boards other than 12" wide:—find the length of the board in feet, under the 12" marked on the outer edge of the blade, then run right or left along that line to the width of the board in inches. The number under the width in inches on the line showing the length in feet, gives the board feet for lumber 1" thick.

For example, to measure a board 14' long, and 11" wide,—under the figure 12, find 14 (length of the board); to the left of this, under 11 is the number 12.10; 12' 10" is the board-measure of the board in question. Since a board 12' long would have as many board feet in it as it is inches wide, the B. M. is omitted for 12' boards. Likewise a board 6' long would have 1/2 the number of board feet that it is inches wide. If the board is shorter than the lowest figure given (8) it can be found by dividing its double by 2.; e. g., to measure a board 5' long and 9" wide, take 10 under the 12, run to the left of the number under 9, which is 7' 6": 1/2 of this would be 3' 9", the number of board feet in the board.

If the board to be measured is longer than any figure given, divide the length into two parts and add the result of the two parts obtained separately. For example, for a board 23' long and 13" wide,—take 12'x13" = 13'; add to it, 11'x13" = 11' 11"; total, 24'11".



A good general rule is to think first whether or not the problem can be done in one's head without the assistance of the square.

The table is made, as its name, Board-Measure (B. M.) implies, for measuring boards, which are commonly 1" thick. For materials more than 1" thick, multiply the B. M. of one surface by the number of inches thick the piece measures.

The rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square, Fig. 197. Auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the outside edges, which may represent either feet or inches.



By the "run" of the rafter is meant the horizontal distance when it is set in place from the end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge end, i. e., one half the length of the building, Fig. 198. By the "rise" of the rafter is meant the perpendicular distance from the ridge end to the level of the foot of the rafter. By the pitch is meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the building. In a 1/2 pitch, the rise equals the run, or 1/2 the width of the building; in a 1/3 pitch the rise is 1/3 the width of the building; in a 3/4 pitch the rise is 3/4 the width of the building.



To find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find the required pitch, at the left end of the table. Opposite this and under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will be found the length of the rafter; e.g., a rafter having a run of 12' with a 1/4 pitch, is 13' 5" long, one with a run of 11' and a 1/3 pitch, is 13' 2-8/12", one with a run of 7' and a 5/8 pitch, is 11' 2-6/12" long, etc.

When the run is in inches, the readings are for 1/12 of the run in feet: e.g., a rafter with a run of 12" and a 1/4 pitch is 13-5/12", one with a run of 11" and a 1/3 pitch, is 13-3/12". Where the run is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; and add together; e.g., a rafter with a run of 11' 6", and a 1/2 pitch, is 15' 6-8/12" + 8-6/12" = 16' 3-2/12".



The lumberman's board-rule, Fig. 199. To measure wood by it, note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. The dot nearest the width (measured in inches) gives the B. M. for lumber 1" thick.

The try-square, Fig. 200, which is most commonly used for measuring the accuracy of right angles, is also convenient for testing the width of a board at various places along its length, for making short measurements, and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or knife at right angles to a surface or edge. The sizes are various and are indicated by the length of the blade. A convenient size for the individual bench and for ordinary use has a blade 6" long. It is also well to have in the shop one large one with a 12" blade.



In testing the squareness of work with the try-square, care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from which the test is made, and then slipped down till the blade touches the edge being tested, Fig. 203. The edge should be tested at a number of places in the same way: that is, it should not be slid along the piece. The try-square is also of great use in scribing lines across boards, Fig. 204. A good method is to put the point of the knife at the beginning of the desired line, slide the square, along until it touches the knife-edge; then, resting the head of the square firmly against the edge, draw the knife along, pressing it lightly against the blade, holding it perpendicularly. To prevent the knife from running away from the blade of the try-square, turn its edge slightly towards the blade.

The miter-square, Fig. 201, is a try-square fixed at an angle of 45 deg.

The sliding T bevel, Fig. 202, has a blade adjustable to any angle. It may be set either from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from a given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. It is used similarly to the T-square.



Winding-sticks, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of exactly the same width thruout. They are used to find out whether there is any twist or "wind" in a board. This is done by placing them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other at the other end. By sighting across them, one can readily see whether the board be twisted or not, Fig. 206. The blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner.



Compasses or dividers, Fig. 207, consist of two legs turning on a joint, and having sharpened points. A convenient form is the wing divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws. A pencil can be substituted for the removable point. They are used for describing circles and arcs, for spacing, for measuring, for subdividing distances, and for scribing. In scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks the desired line. Used in this way they are very convenient for marking out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point.

The beam-compass, Fig. 208, consists of two trammel-points running on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. It is used for describing large circles. A pencil may be attached to one point.

Calipers, outside and inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the accurate gaging of diameters, as in wood-turning.



The marking-gage, Fig. 211, consists of a head or block sliding on a beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. On the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing. Projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be filed to a flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the edge toward which the gage is to be moved, Fig. 212. It should project about 1/8" from the beam. If the spur be at all out of place, as it is likely to be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. Hence it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always to measure with the rule from the head to the spur, Fig. 213.



In use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its corner, Fig. 214. In this way the depth of the gage line can be regulated. Ordinarily, the finer the line the better. The head must always be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump away from its desired course. Care should also be taken, except in rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work. To secure accuracy, all gaging on the surface of wood, should be done from the "working face" or "working edge."



It is sometimes advisable, as in laying out chamfers, not to mark their edges with a marking-gage, because the marks will show after the chamfer is planed off. A pencil mark should be made instead. For this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a marking-gage, and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub with a blunt point, or a small notch may be cut in the back end of the beam, in which a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as usual except that its position is reversed. For work requiring less care, the pencil may be held in the manner usual in writing, the middle finger serving as a guide, or a pair of pencil compasses may be used, one leg serving as a guide. A special gage is made for gaging curved lines, Fig. 215.



The cutting-gage, Fig. 216, is similar to a marking-gage, except that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur. It is very useful in cutting up soft, thin wood even as thick as 1/4".



The slitting-gage is used in a similar way, but is larger and has a handle.

The mortise-gage, Fig. 217, is a marking-gage with two spurs, with which two parallel lines can be drawn at once, as in laying out mortises. One form is made entirely of steel having, instead of spurs, discs with sharpened edges.

The scratch-awl, Fig. 218, has a long, slender point which is useful not only for marking lines, but for centering.



The auger-bit-gage, Fig. 219, is a convenient tool for measuring the depth of holes bored, but for ordinary purposes a block of wood sawn to the proper length thru which a hole is bored, is a satisfactory substitute.

Screw- and wire-gages, Fig. 220, are useful in measuring the lengths and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering.

The spirit-level, and the plumb-line which it has largely replaced, are in constant use in carpentering, but are rarely needed in shopwork.



Blackboard compasses, triangles, etc., are convenient accessories in a woodworking classroom.



8. SHARPENING TOOLS.

The grindstone for woodworking tools is best when rather fine and soft. The grinding surface should be straight and never concave. The stone should run as true as possible. It can be made true by using a piece of 1" gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone when run dry. Power grindstones usually have truing devices attached to them, Fig. 221. A common form is a hardened steel screw, the thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they both revolve, shears off the face of the stone. The surface should always be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone and steel, and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to keep the tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which would show by its turning blue. But a grindstone should never stand in water or it would rot.

It is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a cisternlike box under it, Fig. 221. In this box the sediment will settle while the water overflows from it into the drain. Without such a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain. The box is to be emptied occasionally, before the sediment overflows.



In order that the tool may be ground accurately, there are various devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone. A good one is shown in Figs. 221 and 222. This device is constructed as follows: A board A is made 2" thick, 6" wide, and long enough when in position to reach from the floor to a point above the level of the top of the stone. It is beveled at the lower end so as to rest snugly against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor. The board is held in place by a loop of iron, B, which hooks into the holes in the trough of the grindstone. In the board a series of holes (say 1" in diameter) are bored. These run parallel to the floor when the board is in place, and receive the end of the tool-holder. The tool-holder consists of four parts: (1) a strip C, 1-1/2" thick, and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. The forward end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the main board A. Its length is determined by the distance from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole in A, into which the rear end is to be inserted. It is better to use as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down, the stick will still be serviceable; (2) a strip, D, of the same width as A and 7/8" thick, and 15" to 18" long; (3) a cleat, E, 5/8"x3/4", nailed across D; (4) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, F, which passes around the farther end of the two strips, C and D, and is fastened loosely to D by staples or screws.



The tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip C, and is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of D, which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum E.

Any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened, by choosing the proper hole in A for the back end of C or by adjusting the tool forward or backward in the clamp. As much pressure may be put on the tool as the driving belt will stand without slipping off.

A still simpler holder for the plane-bit only, is a strip of wood 1-1/2" thick and 2" wide, cut in the shape G shown in Fig. 223. The plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf K, and in grinding is easily held firmly in place by the hand. By inserting the rear end of the stick G into a higher or lower hole in the board A, any desired angle may be obtained. G is shown in position in Fig. 221.



All such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone. The essential features are, to have a rigid support against which the tool may be pushed by the revolving stone, to hold the tool at a fixed angle which may be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stone with considerable pressure. The wheel should revolve toward the edge which is being ground, for two reasons. It is easier to hold the tool steadily thus, and the danger of producing a wire edge is lessened. The edge as it becomes thin, tends to spring away from the stone and this tendency is aggravated if the stone revolves away from the edge. If the stone does not run true and there is a consequent danger of digging into the stone with the tool which is being sharpened, the stone would better revolve away from the edge. The grinding should continue until the ground surface reaches the cutting edge and there is no bright line left along the edge. If the grinding is continued beyond this point, nothing is gained, and a heavy wire edge will be formed.

A very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold as the "Agacite grinder,"[7] has a number of different shaped grinding stones made chiefly of carborundum.

The oilstone. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is done on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. The fine white ones are called Arkansas stones, and the coarser ones Washita stones. The latter are better for ordinary woodworking tools. The India oilstone, an artificial stone, Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. It is made in several grades of coarseness. The medium grade is recommended for ordinary shop use. Oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose as water on a grindstone. When an oilstone becomes hollow or uneven by use, it may be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood.



Slipstones, Fig. 225, are small oilstones, made into various shapes in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc.

Files are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. See above, p. 90.

9. CLEANING TOOLS.

The bench duster. One may be noted hanging on the bench shown in Fig. 166, p. 98. Bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are essential if the shop is to be kept tidy.

Buffer. Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very valuable for polishing tools. The addition of a little tripoli greatly facilitates the cleaning.

[Footnote 7: Made by the Empire Implement Co., Albany, N. Y.]

WOOD HAND TOOLS.—Continued.

REFERENCES:[*]

(4) Scraping Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Wheeler, pp. 465, 473. Griffith, pp. 71-75. Selden, pp. 149, 177, 182. Hodgson, I, pp. 61-74.

(5) Pounding Tools. Barnard, pp. 24-47. Sickels, p. 70. Wheeler, pp. 414, 428-432. Selden, pp. 31, 111, 156. Goss, p. 60. Barter, p. 128.

(6) Punching Tools. Barnard, p. 29. Wheeler, p. 433. Selden, p. 161.

(7) Gripping Tools. For holding work: Goss, p. 63. Wheeler, pp. 65-75, 475. Selden, pp. 140, 147, 186, 194. Hammacher, pp. 286-291.

For holding other tools: Goss, pp. 56-59. Selden, p. 143.

(8) Measuring and Marking Tools. Goss, pp. 9-20. Griffith, pp. 9-19. Hodgson, The Steel Square. Wheeler, p. 465. Tate, pp. 21-25. Building Trades Pocketbook, pp. 234-237. Selden, pp. 149, 150-152, 175. Sargent's Steel Squares.

(9) Sharpening Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Sickels, pp. 80-85. Wheeler, pp. 480-488. Selden, pp. 153, 162, 172, 180. Goss, pp. 39, 64-69.

[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]



CHAPTER V.

WOOD FASTENINGS.

The following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges, and locks.

NAILS

Nails, Fig. 226, may be classified according to the material of which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. Iron nails may be galvanized to protect them from rust. Copper and brass nails are used where they are subject to much danger of corrosion, as in boats.

Nails may also be classified according to the process of manufacture; as, cut nails, wrought nails, and wire nails. Cut nails are cut from a plate of metal in such a way that the width of the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate, and the length of the nail to the width of the plate. In the third dimension, the nail is wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at the head. Unless properly driven, such nails are likely to split the wood, but if properly driven they are very firm. In driving, the wedge should spread with and not across the grain.



Wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking, as when clinched. Horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort. They are of the same shape as cut nails.

Wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed, headed, and roughened by machinery. They are comparatively cheap, hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched.

Nails are also classified according to the shape of their heads; as, common or flat-heads, and brads or finishing nails. Flat-heads are used in ordinary work, where the heads are not to be sunk in the wood or "set."

Some nails get their names from their special uses; as, shingle-nails, trunk-nails, boat-nails, lath-nails, picture-nails, barrel-nails, etc.

The size of nails is indicated by the length in inches, and by the size of the wire for wire nails. The old nomenclature for cut nails also survives, in which certain numbers are prefixed to "penny." For example, a threepenny nail is 1-1/4" long, a fourpenny nail is 1-1/2" long, a fivepenny nail is 1-3/4" long, a sixpenny nail is 2" long. In other words, from threepenny to tenpenny 1/4" is added for each penny, but a twelvepenny nail is 3-1/4" long, a sixteenpenny nail is 3-1/2" long, a twentypenny nail is 4" long. This is explained as meaning that "tenpenny" nails, for example, cost tenpence a hundred. Another explanation is that originally 1000 of such nails weighed a pound. The size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. Nails are sold by the pound.

The advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily applied, they are strong and cheap, and the work can be separated, tho with difficulty. The disadvantages are the appearance and, in some cases, the insecurity.

The holding power of nails may be increased by driving them into the wood at other than a right angle, especially where several nails unite two pieces of wood. By driving some at one inclination and some at another, they bind the pieces of wood together with much greater force than when driven in straight.

The term brads was once confined to small finishing nails, but is now used for all finishing nails, in distinction from common or flat-headed nails. The heads are made round instead of flat so that they may be set easily with a nailset and the hole filled with a plug, or, where the wood is to be painted, with putty. They are used for interior finishing and other nice work.



Tacks, Fig. 227, vary in size and shape according to their use; as, flat-headed, gimp, round-headed, and double-pointed or matting tacks, a sort of small staple. Their size is indicated by the word "ounce." For example, a two-ounce tack is 1/4" long, a three-ounce tack is 3/8" long, a four-ounce tack is 7/16" long, a six-ounce tack is 1/2" long, etc. This term once meant the number of ounces of iron required to make 1000 tacks.

Tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. Tinner's tacks, which are used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. Wire tacks, altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point, which is essential.



Corrugated fasteners, Fig. 228, or fluted nails, are used to fasten together two pieces of wood by driving the fastener so that one-half of it will be on each side of the joint. Their size is indicated by the length and the number of corrugations, as 1/2", four. They are often useful where nails are impracticable.

Glaziers' points are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten glass into sashes.

SCREWS

(a) Wood-screws, Fig. 229, may be classified by the material of which they are made; as, steel or brass. Steel screws may be either bright,—the common finish,—blued by heat or acid to hinder rusting, tinned, or bronzed. Brass screws are essential wherever rust would be detrimental, as in boats.

(b) Screws are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round-headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed screws. Flat-heads are most commonly used. There are also special shapes for particular purposes. Round-heads may be used either for decoration or where great drawing power is desirable. In the latter case, washers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them from sinking into the wood. Oval-heads are used decoratively, the head filling the countersunk hole, as with flat-heads, and projecting a trifle besides. They are much used in the interior finish of railway cars. They are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest.

The thread of the screw begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily where no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood. The thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screw. Any longer thread would only weaken the screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not need friction with the piece thru which it passes.

The size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by the diameter of the wire from which they are made, using the standard screw-gage, Fig. 220, p. 117. They vary in size from No. 0 (less than 1/16") to No. 30 (more than 7/16") in diameter, and in length from 1/4" to 6".



The following is a good general rule for the use of screws: make the hole in the piece thru which the screw passes, large enough for the screw to slip thru easily. Countersink this hole enough to allow the head to sink flush with the surface. Make the hole in the piece into which the screw goes small enough for the thread of the screw to catch tight. Then all the strength exerted in driving, goes toward drawing the pieces together, not in overcoming friction. The hole must be deep enough, especially in hard wood and for brass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking the screw. Soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving of screws. Where it is desirable that the heads do not show, a hole may first be bored with an auger-bit large enough to receive the head and deep enough to insert a plug of wood, which is cut out with a plug-cutter, Fig. 131, p. 84, and glued in place. If pains are taken to match the grain, the scar thus formed is inconspicuous.

In rough work, the screw may be driven into place with a hammer thru most of its length, and then a few final turns be given with a screwdriver, but this breaks the fibers of the wood and weakens their hold. In "drive-screws," Fig. 229, e, the slot is not cut all the way across the head, in order that the blows of the hammer may not close the slot.

The advantages of screws are, that they are very strong and that the work can easily be taken apart. If they loosen they can be retightened. The disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that they take time to insert, that they show very plainly, and that they do not hold well in end grain.

BOLTS

Bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. There are three chief varieties, Fig. 230.



Stove-bolts are cheaply made (cast) bolts having either flat or round heads with a slot for the screwdriver, like ordinary screws.

Carriage-bolts are distinguished by having the part of the shank which is near the head, square.

Machine-bolts have square, hexagonal, or button heads.

Machine-screws, Fig. 231, are similar to stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are measured with a screw-gage. The varieties are, a, flat-head, b, round-head, c, fillister-head, d, oval-countersunk-head, all with slots for screwdriver.

Plates, Fig. 232, include corner-irons, straight plates and panel-irons. These are made of either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc.

Dowel-rods. Dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from 3/16" to 1" in diameter, and 36", 42", and 48" long. They are commonly made of birch or maple, but maple is more satisfactory as it shrinks less and is stronger than birch.

Dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as a substitute for mortise-and-tenon joints.



There is, to be sure, a prejudice against dowels on the part of cabinet-makers due, possibly, to the willingness to have it appear that doweling is a device of inferior mechanics. But doweling is cheaper and quicker than tenoning, and there are many places in wood construction where it is just as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. Certain parts of even the best furniture are so put together.

Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. They are dipped in glue and driven into brad-awl holes.



Wedges are commonly used in door construction between the edges of tenons and the insides of mortises which are slightly beveled, No. 34, Fig. 266, p. 179. Or the end of a tenon may be split to receive the wedges, No. 35, Fig. 266. The blind wedge is used in the fox-tail joint, No. 36, Fig. 266.

GLUE

Glue is an inferior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds,—animal glue and fish glue. Animal glue is made of bones and trimmings, cuttings and fleshings from hides and skins of animals. Sinews, feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. Cattle, calves, goats, pigs, horses, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues.

The best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in lime water until fatty or partly decayed matter is eaten out and only the glue is left. The product is cleaned, boiled down and dried.

The best and clearest bone glues are obtained by leaching the bones with dilute acid which dissolves out the lime salts and leaves the gelatinous matters. Such leached bone is sold as a glue stock, under the name of "osseine." This material together with hides, sinews, etc., has the gelatin or glue extracted by boiling again and again, just as soup stock might be boiled several times. Each extraction is called a "run." Sometimes as many as ten or fifteen runs are taken from the same kettle of stock, and each may be finished alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a great variety of commercial glues.

Manufacturers use many tests for glue, such as the viscosity or running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested between the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or adhesive tests. This latter varies so much with different materials that what may be good glue for one material is poor for another.

Putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade 10 to 160, 10 being the poorest. The higher standards from 60 and upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and grease. The lower standards are chiefly bone glues, used for sizing straw hats, etc. They are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues. For wood joints the grade should be 70 or over. For leather, nothing less than 100 should be used, and special cements are better still.

The best glue is transparent, hard in the cake, free from spots, of an amber color, and has little or no smell. A good practical test for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like. The more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. Poor glue dissolves. Glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby.

Fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of fish. Isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of certain fish, as cod and sturgeon.

Liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. The LePage liquid glue is made in Gloucester, Mass., one of the greatest fish markets in the country. Liquid glue is very convenient because always ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive odor. Liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-gelatinizing, which can be done by several means; as, for instance, by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue solution.

To prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and heat in a glue-pot or double boiler, Fig. 243, p. 148. The fresher the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. When used it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream, so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. Two surfaces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated by a mass of glue. It is essential that the glue be hot and the wood warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the surfaces are forced together. Glue holds best on side grain. End grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the pores. Pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary way, but such joints are seldom good. Surfaces of hard wood that are to be glued should first be scratched with a scratch-plane, Fig. 111, P. 79.

To make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate to fifty parts of glue. It will harden when exposed to the air and light and be an insoluble liquid.[8]

[Footnote 8: For recipes for this and other glues, see Woodcraft, May '07, p. 49.]

General directions for gluing.[9] Before applying glue to the parts to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them temporarily without glue, to see that all the parts fit. When it is desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction, should not be glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax, soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. Since hot glue sets quickly, it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as soon as possible. One must learn to work fast but to keep cool. To expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the process is begun, clamps, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet, try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required.

[Footnote 9: For special directions, for particular joints, see under the various joints, (Chap. VII.)]

Whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each step can be taken with more deliberation. For example, in assembling framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were. Time is thus saved for the final assembling when haste is imperative. The superfluous glue around the dowels should be carefully wiped off.

Likewise in gluing up framed pieces, sections may be put together separately: as, the ends of a table, and when they are dry then the whole may be assembled. When the pieces are together the joints should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no twists.

A good way to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on the inside, corner to corner, as in Fig. 294, p. 195. Such a brace should be provided when the trial assembly is made. Another good way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally opposite posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners toward each other until the frame is square.

The superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. Or by waiting a few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled off with an edge tool. Either of these ways makes the cleaning easier than to let the superfluous glue harden.

The work when glued should remain at least six hours in the clamps to harden.

HINGES

Hinges, Fig. 233, are made in several forms. The most common are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of which are long and strap-shaped; the Tee-hinge, one leaf of which is a butt, and the other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint; the blank hinge or screen-hinge which opens both ways; the stop-hinge, which opens only 90 deg.; and the "hook-and-eye" or "gate" hinge.



The knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the two leaves, Fig. 234. The "acorn" is the head of the "pintle" or pin that passes thru the knuckle. Sizes of butts are indicated in inches for length, and as "narrow," "middle," "broad" and "desk" for width. The pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. Sometimes, as in blind-hinges, the pintle is fastened into one knuckle, but turns freely in the other.

A butt-hinge may be set in one of three positions, Fig. 235: (1) Where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a door. Here the knuckle is set well out from the wood. (2) Where it is desired to have the hinged portion open flat and no more. Here the center of the pin is in line with the outside surface of the wood. This is less likely to rack the hinge than the other two positions. (3) Where it is desired to have the knuckle project as little as possible.



HINGING

In setting the hinges of a box cover, first see that the cover fits the box exactly all the way around.

In the case of a door, see that it fits its frame, evenly all the way around, but with a little play. To insure a tighter fit at the swinging edge this edge should be slightly beveled inwards.

In attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. The gains may be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together.

With these matters determined proceed as follows: In the case of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends of the box as the hinge is long.

In the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. Mark with the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square across approximately the width of the gain to receive it. Do this for both hinges. Between these lines gage the proper width of the gains. Set another gage to one half the thickness of the knuckle and gage on the door face the depth of the gains. Chisel out the gains, set the hinges in place, bore the holes, and drive the screws. Place the door in position again to test the fit. If all is well, mark the position of the hinges on the frame, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the hinges. Where the hinge is gained its full thickness into the door, no gain, of course, is cut in the frame. If the hinges are set too shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a little deeper. If they are set too deep the screws may be loosened and a piece of paper or a shaving inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain.

LOCKS

The chief parts of a lock are: the bolt, its essential feature, the selvage, the plate which appears at the edge of the door or drawer, the box, which contains the mechanism including the tumbler, ward, spring, etc., the key-pin, into or around which the key is inserted, the strike, the plate attached opposite the selvage, (often left out as in drawer-locks, but essential in hook-bolt locks, and self-locking locks,) and the escutcheon, the plate around the keyhole.



Locks may be classified: (1) According to their uses, of which there are two types. (a), Fig. 236, For drawers, cupboards, tills, wardrobes, and doors. In these the bolt simply projects at right angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of the lock. (b), Fig. 237, For desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and sliding doors. In these, the bolt includes a hook device of some kind to resist pressure perpendicular to the selvage. In some locks, the hook or hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in others the bolt engages in hooks or eyes attached to the strike.



(2) According to the method of application, as rim locks, which are fastened on the surface, and mortise locks which are mortised into the edge of a door or drawer or box.

INSERTING LOCKS

To insert a rim-lock, measure the distance from the selvage to the key-pin, locate this as the center of the keyhole, and bore the hole. If the lock has a selvage, gain out the edge of the door or drawer to receive it. If the lock box has to be gained in, do that next, taking care that the bolt has room to slide. Cut the keyhole to the proper shape with a keyhole-saw or small chisel. Fasten the lock in place, and if there is a strike or face-plate, mark its place and mortise it in.



To insert a mortise-lock, locate and bore the keyhole, mortise in the box and the selvage, finish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the escutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place.

WOOD FASTENINGS

REFERENCES:[*]

Hammacher & Schlemmer. Catalog No. 151.

Nails. Goss, p. 153. Purfield, Wood Craft, 5: 181. Park, pp. 129-135. Griffith, pp. 75-78. Wood Craft, 5: 103. Wheeler, pp. 428-433.

Tacks. Wheeler, pp. 429-433. Sickels, p. 70. Goss, p. 155. Barter, pp. 84-86.

Screws. Goss, p. 155. Wheeler, p. 476. Barter, p. 86. Griffith, pp. 78-80. Park, pp. 136-140.

Dowels. Goss, p. 153. Wheeler, p. 374. Sickels, p. 104. Griffith, p. 92.

Wedges. Goss, p. 151.

Glue. Goss, p. 156. Rivington, III, p. 432. Barter, p. 82. Standage, Wood Craft, 7: 48. Park, pp. 141-146. Sickels, p. 106. Wheeler, pp. 391-396. Alexander, Wood Craft, 5: 168. Griffith, pp. 80-83.

Hinges. Sickels, p. 118. Wheeler, p. 402.

[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]



CHAPTER VI.

EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.

Tool equipment. The choice of tools in any particular shop best comes out of long experience. Some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. The following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty-four students. One bench and its tools may be added for the teacher.

The prices given are quoted from Discount Sheet No. 1 for Catalogue of Tools, No. 355 issued by Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City, dated 1908, and are correct at the present date (1910). Aggregate orders, however, are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that before ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for which special figures will be quoted.

There are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the market, but those specified below are typical good ones.

Following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other more elaborate to cost approximately $750.

$400 TOOL EQUIPMENT.

INDIVIDUAL TOOLS.

24 Manual Training School Benches, H. & S. "L," @ $8.50. $204.00 24 Stanley Jack-Planes, No. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each. 41.76 24 Disston's Back-Saws, No. 4, 10", @ 93c each. 22.32 12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, 1/4", handled and sharpened. 2.21 12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, 1/2", handled and sharpened. 2.68 24 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, 1", handled and sharpened. 7.31 24 Sloyd Knives, No. 7, 2-1/2". 6.50 12 Hammond's Adze-eye Claw-Hammer, No. 3, 7 oz. 4.90 24 Try-squares, No. 5-1/2, 6". 5.32 24 Beech Marking-Gages, No. 64-1/2. 4.86 24 Boxwood Rules, No. 3, 12" long. 1.80 12 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752. 1.50 12 Bench-Hooks. 2.00 12 Bench-Dusters, No. 10. 2.70 ———- Total for individual tools. $309.86

GENERAL TOOLS

6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7, 22", 10 points. $6.75 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points. 6.75 2 Turning-Saws in frames, 14", M. F. & Co. 1.74 1 Dozen Turning-Saw Blades, 14", H. S. & Co. 1.06 1 Hack-Saw Frame, No. 50. .45 1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6", iron back. .48 1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240. 8.20 2 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 65-1/2. 1.56 1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6. 2.22 1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78. 1.10 1 Stanley "Bed Rock" Plane, No. 603. 1.58 6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54. 1.42 1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80. .70 6 Each Molding-Scrapers, No. 2 and No. 7. .90 1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's. .10 3 Flat Bastard Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .45 3 Half-Round Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .55 3 Rat-tail Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .33 4 Files, K. & F., 6", slim taper. .36 1 Auger-Bit-File. .13 1 File-Card, No. 1. .14 1 Empire Tool-Grinder. 2.80 1 Grindstone, No. 11, with stone. 15.00 1 India Oilstone, No. 0, in box. .95 1 Soft Arkansas Oil Slipstone, No. 6. .18 1 Copperized Steel Oiler, No. 14A, 1/2 pint. .23 2 Disston's Sliding T Bevel, No. 3, 6". .46 1 Stanley Miter-Square, No. 16, 10". .60 1 Sargent Steel Square, No. 2. .69 1 Pair Starrett's Winged Dividers, No. 92, 8". .75 1 Chisel, No. 2, 1/8", handled. .20 3 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Gouges, No. 8, 1". 1.29 1 Buck Brothers' Gouge, No. 10, inside bevel, regular sweep, 3/4". .43 4 Barber's Braces, No. 14, 6" sweep. 3.52 1 Barber's Ratchet-Brace, No. 31, 12" sweep. 1.62 5 Gimlet-Bits, 1 each of 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32". .40 1 Set Auger-Bits, R. Jennings'. 4.46 1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, small. .57 2 Screwdriver-Bits, 1/2", round blade, No. 10, 4". .32 3 Rose Countersinks, No. 10, 5/8". .68 6 Brad-Awls, assorted 1"-1-1/2". .30 1 Hand-Drill, No. 5-1/2. 2.45 Extra Drills, 2 each of No. 107, size, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60. 1.42 6 New Century Screwdrivers, 4". .96 1 New Century Screwdriver, 12". .54 6 O. K. Nailsets, assorted. .42 6 Carpenter's Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft. 9.60 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 16, 10". 4.79 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 17-1/2, 6". 3.42 4 Carriage-Maker's Clamps, 6". 1.32 1 Automatic Miter-Clamp. 1.80 1 Pair Pliers, No. 200, 5". .21 1 Coe's Monkey-Wrench, 10". .60 1 Glue-Pot, No. 3. .82 1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 276. 8.07 1 Gas Stove, 99A. .55 1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154, 5". .88 1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10. .27 3 Flat Varnish Brushes, No. 54, 1-1/2", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). .96 6 Cheap Brushes, 1", tin-bound (for stains), "EE". .90 6 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters (No. 5). 1.80 6 Enamel Cups, 1/2 pint. .60 1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41. .17 ———- Total for general tools. $114.97 Total for individual tools. 309.86 ———- $424.83 Discount for schools, 10 per cent. 42.48 ———- $382.35 Lockers for individual work. $150.00



$750 TOOL EQUIPMENT

INCLUDING 1 BENCH AND SET OF TOOLS FOR INSTRUCTOR AND INDIVIDUAL TOOLS

25 Manual Training School Benches, Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co.'s "J" with Toles' quick-acting Vise on side, @ $20. $500.00 25 Stanley Jack-Planes, No. 5, 14", @ $1.74 each. 43.50 25 Disston's Back-Saws, No. 4, 10", @ 93c each. 23.25 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1/4", handled and sharpened, @ $2.21 doz. 4.61 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1/2", handled and sharpened, @ $2.68 doz. 5.58 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1", handled and sharpened, @ $3.65 7.61 30 Sloyd Knives, No. 7, 2-1/2" blade (6 extra) @ $3.25 doz. 8.12 25 Hammond's Adze-eye Hammers, No. 3, 7 oz., @ $4.90 doz. 10.21 25 Round Hickory Mallets, No. 4, @ $1.40 doz. 2.91 25 Hardened Blade Try-Squares, No. 5-1/2, 6", @ $2.66 doz. 5.57 25 Beech Marking-Gages, No. 64-1/2, 8", @ $2.43 doz. 5.07 25 Steel Bench-Rules, No. 300D, @ $4.80 doz. 10.00 36 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752 (12 extra). 4.50 25 Maple Bench-Hooks, @ $2.00 doz. 4.18 25 Bench-Dusters, No. 10, @ $2.70 doz. 5.63 ———- Total for individual tools. $640.74



GENERAL TOOLS

6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 7, 22", 10 points. $ 6.75 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No. 7, 22", 8 points. 6.75 4 Turning-Saws in frames, 14". 3.48 1 Doz. Turning-Saw Blades, 14". 1.06 1 Compass-Saw, Disston's No. 2, 10". .27 1 Stanley Miter-Box, No. 240. 8.20 1 Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6", iron back. .48 2 Coping-Saws, No. 110. .40 1 Gross Coping-Saw Blades, 6". 1.00 6 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 65-1/2. 4.68 1 Stanley Fore-Plane, No. 6. 2.22 1 Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78. 1.10 2 Stanley's "Bed Rock" Smooth-Planes, No. 603 or 3.16 Sargent's Adjustable-Frog Smooth-Plane. 12 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters (No. 5), 2". 3.60 1 Stanley Beading Rabbet, and Matching Plane, No. 45. 5.85 1 Stanley Router-Plane, No. 71. 1.37 6 Iron Spokeshaves, No. 54. 1.42 6 Pattern-Makers' Spokeshaves, applewood, small, 1-1/2". 1.52 2 Drawing-Knives, White's No. 31, 6". 1.60 1 Stanley Adjustable Scraper-Plane, No. 112, with toothing cutter. 1.43 1 Veneer-Scraper, No. 80. .70 3 Each Molding-Scrapers, No. 2, No. 7. .45 2 Dowel-Pointers, No. 1. .60 1 Dowel-Plate. .30 1 Scraper Steel, Richardson's. .10 1 Iron Screw-Box, French, 3/8". 1.80 4 Flat Bastard Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .60 4 Half-Round Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .72 4 Rat-tail Files, K. & F., 8", handled. .44 4 Files, 6", slim taper. .36 2 Auger-Bit-Files. .25 1 File-Card, No. 1. .14 1 Empire Tool-Grinder. 2.80 1 Grindstone, No. 11, (iron frame and stone). 15.00 2 India Oilstones, No. 29 (medium), in iron box. 1.34 1 Soft Arkansas Oil Slipstone, No. 6. .18 2 Copperized Steel Oilers, 14A, 1/2 pint. .46 6 Disston's Sliding T Bevels, No. 3, 6". 1.38 1 Stanley Miter-Square, No. 16, 10". .60 1 Sargent Steel Square, No. 2. .60 2 Pairs Dividers, Starrett's winged, No. 92, 8". 1.50 3 Scratch-Awls, Collier's, 4". .33 1 Pair Trammel-Points, No. 1. .74 1 Try-Square, No. 5-1/2, 12", hardened blade. .52 1 Mortise-Gage, No. 77. .55 1 Cutting-Gage, No. 70. .17 3 Each Firmer-Chisels, Buck Bros.' No. 2, handled and sharpened; 1/16", 1/8", 3/16", 3/8", 3/4", 1-1/2". 4.42 3 Each outside-Bevel Gouges, Buck Bros.' Firmer, No. 8 handled and sharpened: 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1". 3.55 3 Addis' Carving-Tools, round maple handles, No. 11, 5/32". .96 3 Addis' Veining-Tools, round maple handles, No. 11, 1/16". .96 3 Inside-Bevel Gouges, regular sweep, No. 10, 3/4". 1.29 6 Barber's Nickel-Plated Braces, No. 14, 6" sweep. 5.25 1 Barber's Ratchet-Brace, No. 31, 12" sweep. 1.62 3 Each German Gimlet-Bits, 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32". 1.00 3 Each Russell Jennings' Auger-Bits, 3/16", 4/16", 5/16", 6/16", 7/16", 8/16". 4.18 2 Each Russell Jennings' Auger-Bits, genuine, 10/16", 11/16", 12/16", 13/16", 14/16", 15/16", 16/16". 6.19 1 Each Foerstner's Auger-Bits, 1/4", 3/8", 1/2". 1.79 1 Clark's Expansive-Bit, 1/2" to 1-1/2". .57 3 Buck Bros.' Rose Countersinks, No. 10, 5/8". .78 1 Washer-Cutter, No. 350. .65 1 Plug-Cutter, 3/8". .32 2 Screwdriver-Bits, 1/2", round blade, 4" long. .32 4 Each Brad-Awls, handled, 1", 1-1/4", 1-1/2". .60 6 New Century Screwdrivers, 4". .96 1 New Century Screwdriver, 12". .54 1 New Century Screwdriver, 8". .36 1 New Century Screwdriver, 3-1/2", slim. .16 1 Dowel-Plate, cast steel. .30 6 O.K. Nailsets, assorted 1/16", 3/32", 1/8". .42 6 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 3 ft. 9.60 2 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 5 ft. 3.60 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 16, 10". 4.79 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 17-1/2, 6". 3.42 4 Carriage-Makers' Clamps, 6". 1.32 1 Automatic Miter-Clamp. 1.80 2 Doz. Acme Pinch-Dogs, 3/4". .30 1 Glue-Pot, No. 3. .82 1 Gas Stove, No. 99A. .55 1 Coe's Monkey-Wrench, 10". .60 1 Glass-Cutter, No. 10. .27 6 Flat Varnish Brushes No. 54. 1-1/2", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). 1.58 12 Cheap Brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), EE, 1". 1.80 6 Enameled Cups, 1/2 pint. .60 1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41. .17 1 Pair Blackboard Compasses or Dividers. 1.50 1 Blackboard Triangle, 45 deg. .50 1 Blackboard Triangle, 30 deg.x60 deg. .50 ———- Total for general tools. $189.83

METAL WORKING TOOLS

1 Bench, No. 1, without vises. $ 8.00 1 Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 276. 8.07 1 Hand-Vise, No. 1230-1/2, 4". .54 1 Hay-Budden Anvil, 10 lb. 3.07 1 Riveting-Hammer, Atha, 4 oz. .32 1 Rivet-Set, No. 4. .27 1 Cold-Chisel, 3/8" cutting edge. .11 1 Cold-Chisel, 5/8" cutting edge. .15 1 Cape-Chisel, 3/8" cutting edge. .13 1 Round-nosed Chisel, 3/8". .13 1 Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154, 5". .88 1 Pair Compton's Metal Snips, No. 12, 2". .63 2 Pair Flat-nose Pliers, No. 1806-1/2, 5". .58 1 Die-Holder, No. 11. .32 1 Die, 5/8"x1/4", 6/32". .27 1 Hand-Drill, No. 5-1/2. 2.45 Extra Drills, Morse's No. 107, 2 each, Nos. 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60. 1.42 1 Metal Countersink, No. 15, 5/8". .18 1 Hack-Saw Frame, No. 50. .45 6 Hack-Saw Blades, 8", H. S. & Co. .25 1 Melting Ladle, 3". .19 1 Soldering Copper, 1 lb. .31 1 Mill Bastard File, 8", 1 safe edge, handled.} 1 Mill Smooth File, 6", handled. } 1 Square Bastard File, 8", handled. } 1 Half-round Bastard File, 8", handled. } 1 Slim Taper Saw-File, 6", handled. } 1 Round Bastard File, 4", handled. } .85 1 Atha Machinist's Hammer, Ball-peen, 6 oz. .38 ——— Total for metal working tools. $29.95