They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:—

The Past is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the Past Participle never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the Present may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.

Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:—

1. Lay down your pen. 2. Lie down, Rover. 3. I laid down my pen. 4. The dog then lay down. 5. I have laid down my pen. 6. The dog has lain down. 7. Set the pail down. 8. Sit down and rest. 9. I then set it down. 10. I sat down and rested. 11. I have set it down. 12. I have sat down. 13. My work was laid aside. 14. I was lying down. 15. The trap was set by the river. 16. I was sitting by the river. 17. The garment sits well. 18. The hen sits on her eggs. 19. He came in and lay down. 20. The Mediterranean lies between Europe and Africa.

Notice that we may speak of laying something or setting something, or may say that something is laid or is set; but we cannot speak of lying or sitting something, or of something being lain or sat. Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun set;" "He set out on a journey."

Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past of lie, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed.

POSSESSIVE FORMS.

Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:—

The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats.

This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:—

('s) and (') are the possessive signs, (') being used when s has been added to denote more than one, ('s) in other cases.

Such expressions as the following may be copied:—

Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.

This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only.

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.

The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:—

In "It made him sad," made does not fully express the action performed upon him—not "made him," but "made sad (saddened) him." Sad helps made to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object him.

Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an Objective Complement.

Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,

"They made Victoria queen," "It made him weep;" "It kept him laughing."

They made / queen Victoria ====== =========================

Explanation.—The line that separates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object.

A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.

The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be him," in which it is object complement and to be him is objective complement. Him, the attribute complement of be, is in the objective case because it, the assumed subject of be, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to be him" with "I proved that it was he;" "Whom did you suppose it to be?" with "Who did you suppose it was?" etc.

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.

The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.

1. He gave John a book. 2. He bought me a book.

John and me, as here used, are generally called Indirect Objects. The "indirect object" names the one to or for whom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book to John;" "He bought a book for me."

Nouns denoting measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as,

1. We walked four miles an hour. 2. It weighs one pound. 3. It is worth a dollar. 4. The wall is ten feet, six inches high. 5. I went home that way.

The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"—

They offered Caesar the crown three times.

They offered crown ======= ==================== he times hree Caesar

Explanation.—Caesar (the "indirect object") and times (denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases.

SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.

These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.

Scheme for the Sentence.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

PARTS.

Subject. Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19). Phrase (49). Clause (61).

Predicate. Verb (6,16).

Complements. Object. Noun or Pronoun (39). Phrase (49). Clause (61). Attribute. Adjective (39). Noun or Pronoun (42). Phrase. Clause (61).

Modifiers. Adjectives (20, 22). Adverbs (24, 27). Participles (48). Nouns and Pronouns (53). Phrases (31, 48, 49). Clauses (57, 59).

Connectives. Conjunctions (35, 36, 62). Pronouns (57). Adverbs (59).

Independent Parts (36, 64).

Classes—Meaning.—Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (63).

Classes—Form.—Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).

Scheme for the Noun.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

NOUN (14).

Uses. Subject (6). Object Complement (39). Attribute Complement (42). Adjective Modifier (53). Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34). Independent (64).

Classes. Common (71). Proper (71).

Modifications. Number Singular (78, 79). Plural (78, 79).

Gender. Masculine (80). Feminine (80). Neuter (80).

Person. First (81-83). Second (81-83). Third (81-83).

Case. Nominative (81-85). Possessive (81-85). Objective (81-85).

Scheme for the Pronoun.

PRONOUNS.

Uses.—Same as those of the Noun.

Classes. Personal (71, 72). Relative (71, 72). Interrogative (71, 72). Adjective (71, 72).

Modifications.—Same as those of the Noun (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).

Scheme for the Verb.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

VERB. Uses To assert action, being, or state.—Predicate (6, 16). To assume action, being, or state. Participles (48). Infinitives (49).

Classes. Form. Regular (74). Irregular (74, 91). Meaning. Transitive (74), Intransitive (74).

Modifications. Voice. Active (89). Passive (89). Mode. Indicative (90-94). Potential (90-94). Subjunctive (90-94). Imperative (90-94). Tense. Present (90-94). Past (90-94). Future (90-94). Present Perfect (90-94). Past Perfect (90-94). Future Perfect (90-94). Number. Singular (90, 92-95). Plural (90, 92-95). Person. First (90, 92-95). Second (90, 92-95). Third (90, 92-95).

Participles.— Classes. Present (90-94, 96, 98). Past (90-94, 96, 98). Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).

Infinitives.— Tenses. Present (90, 92-94). Present Perfect (90, 92-94).

Scheme for the Adjective.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

ADJECTIVE.

Uses. Modifier (20, 23). Attribute Complement (39).

Classes. Descriptive (73). Definitive (73).

Modification.—Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).

Scheme for the Adverb.

ADVERB.

Classes. Time (75). Place (75). Degree (75). Manner (75).

Modification—Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).

Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int.

THE CONJUNCTION.— Classes. Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.

THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).—No Classes. No Modifications.

THE INTERJECTION (36).—No Classes. No Modifications.

Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech.—Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away.

CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. Sentence. Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent. Sub-C.: Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of has. Sub-C.: Per. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: Pred. of it.

has Class: Vb. Voice: Act. Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of voice. Sub-C.: Def. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ——

voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of has. Sub-C.: Com. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:

for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of Sub-C.: Mode: has to Tense: those. Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: for. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:



who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of lie and Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: waste. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.:

on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of lie Sub-C.: Mode: to beds. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of Sub-C.: Per. Mode: beds. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Pos. Deg. of Comp.:

sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of beds. Sub-C.: Des. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: Pos.

beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Com. Mode: on. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:

lie Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who. Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. lie and Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: waste. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

waste Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who. Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of waste. Sub-C.: Place Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ——

For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis.

LIST OF CONNECTIVES.

Remark.—Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.

CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

Copulative.—And, both...and, as well as, [Footnote: The as well as in "He, as well as I, went"; and not that in "He is as well as I am."] are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.

Adversative.—But and whereas are conjunctions proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.

Alternative.—Neither, nor, or, either... or, and neither...nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs.

SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

Connectives of Adjective Clauses.

That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunctive adverbs.

Connectives of Adverb Clauses.

Time.—After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.

Place.—Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.

Degree.—As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.

Manner.—As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb.

Real Cause.—As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper.

Reason.—Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper.

Purpose.—In order that, lest (=that not) that, and so that are conjunctions proper.

Condition.—Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.

Concession.—Although, if (=even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

Connectives of Noun Clauses.

If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Remarks.—Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur.

Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated.

Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names.

Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, Jul. for "July," Jno. for "John," da. for "day," etc.

1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations.

@, At. A. B. or B. A. (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Arts. Acct., acct., or a/c, Account. A. D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. Adjt., Adjutant. Aet. or aet. (aetatis), Of age, aged. Ala., Alabama. Alex., Alexander. A. M. or M. A. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. A. M. (ante meridiem), Before noon. Amt., Amount. And., Andrew. Anon., Anonymous. Ans., Answer. Anth., Anthony. Apr., April. Arch., Archibald. Ark., Arkansas. Arizona or Ariz., Arizona Territory. Atty., Attorney. Atty.-Gen., Attorney-General. Aug., August; Augustus. Av. or Ave., Avenue. Avoir., Avoirdupois. Bart., Baronet. bbl., Barrels. B. C., Before Christ. Benj., Benjamin. Brig.-Gen., Brigadier-General. B. S., Bachelor of Science. bu., Bushels. c or ct., Cents. Cal., California. Cap., Capital. Caps., Capitals. Capt., Captain. C. E., Civil Engineer. cf. (confer), Compare. Chas., Charles. Chron., Chronicles. Co., Company; County. c/o, In care of. C. O. D., Collect on delivery. Col., Colonel; Colossians. Coll., College; Collector. Conn., Connecticut. Colo, or Col., Colorado. Cr., Credit; Creditor. cub. ft., Cubic feet. cub. in., Cubic inches. cwt., Hundred-weight. d., Days; Pence. Danl. or Dan., Daniel. D. C., District of Columbia. D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Law. D. D. (Divinitatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. D. D. S., Doctor of Dental Surgery. Dec., December. Del., Delaware. Deut., Deuteronomy. D. G. (Dei gratia), By the grace of God. Dist.-Atty., District-Attorney. D. M., Doctor of Music. do. (ditto), The same. doz., Dozen. Dr., Doctor; Debtor. D. V. (Deo volente), God willing. E., East. Eben., Ebenezer. Eccl., Ecclesiastes. Ed., Edition; Editor. Edm., Edmund. Edw., Edward. e. g. (exempli gratia), For example. E. N. E., East-northeast. Eng., English; England. Eph., Ephesians; Ephraim. E. S. E., East-southeast. Esq., Esquire. et al. (et alibi), And elsewhere. et al. (et alii), And others. et seq. (et sequeniia), And following. etc. or &c. (et caetera), And others; And so forth. Ex., Example; Exodus. Ez., Ezra. Ezek., Ezekiel. Fahr. or F., Fahrenheit (thermometer). Feb., February. Fla., Florida. Fr., French; France. Fran., Francis. Fred., Frederic. Fri., Friday. ft., Feet. Ft., Fort. fur., Furlong. Ga., Georgia. Gal., Galatians. gal., Gallons. Gen., General; Genesis. Geo., George. Gov., Governor. gr., Grains. h., Hours. Hab., Habakkuk. Hag., Haggai. H. B. M., His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. hdkf., Handkerchief. Heb., Hebrews. H. H., His Holiness (the Pope). hhd., Hogsheads. H. M., His (or Her) Majesty. Hon., Honorable. Hos., Hosea. H. R. H., His (or Her) Royal Highness. ib. or ibid, (ibidem), In the same place. id. (idem), The same. Idaho, Idaho. i.e. (id est), That is. I. H. S. (Jesus hominum Salvator), Jesus, the Savior of Men. Ill., Illinois. in., Inches. incog. (incognito), Unknown. Ind., Indiana. Ind. T., Indian Territory. inst., Instant, the present month. Iowa or Io., Iowa. I. O. O. F., Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Isa., Isaiah. Jac., Jacob. Jan., January. Jas., James. Jer., Jeremiah. Jona., Jonathan. Jos., Joseph. Josh., Joshua. Jr. or Jun., Junior. Judg., Judges. Kans. or Kan., Kansas. Ky., Kentucky. l., Line; ll., Lines. l. or lb., Pounds sterling. La., Louisiana. Lam., Lamentations. L., Latin. lb. or lb-. (libra or librae), Pound or pounds in weight. l.c., Lower case (small letter). Lev., Leviticus. L. I., Long Island. Lieut., Lieutenant. LL. B.(Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. M. or Mons., Monsieur. M. (meridies), Noon. m., Miles; Minutes. Mad., Madam. Mme., Madame. Maj., Major. Mal., Malachi. Mar., March. Mass., Massachusetts. Matt., Matthew. M. C., Member of Congress. M. D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. Md., Maryland. mdse., Merchandise. Me., Maine. Mem., Memorandum; Memoranda. Messrs., Messieurs. Mic., Micah. Mgr., Monseigneur. Mich., Michigan; Michael. Minn., Minnesota. Miss., Mississippi. Mlle., Mademoiselle. Mmes., Mesdames. Mo., Missouri. mo., Months. Mon., Monday. M. P., Member of Parliament. Mont., Montana. Mr., Mister. Mrs., Mistress (pronounced Missis). MS., Manuscript. MSS., Manuscripts. Mt., Mountain. N., North. N. A., North America. Nath., Nathaniel. N. B. (nota bene), Mark well. N. C., North Carolina. N. Dak., North Dakota. N. E., New England. N. E., Northeast. Nebr. or Neb., Nebraska. Neh., Nehemiah. Nev., Nevada. N. H., New Hampshire. N. J., New Jersey. N. Mex. or N. M., New Mexico. N. N. E., North-northeast. N. N. W., North-northwest. N. O., New Orleans. No. (numero), Number, Nov., November. N. W., Northwest N. Y., New York. Obad., Obadiah. Oct., October. Ohio or O., Ohio. Oreg. or Or., Oregon. Oxon. (Oxonia), Oxford, oz., Ounces. p., Page, pp., Pages. Pa. or Penn., Pennsylvania. Payt. or payt., Payment. per cent, or per ct. (per centum) or %, By the hundred. Ph. D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. Phil., Philip; Philippians. Phila., Philadelphia. pk., Pecks. P. M., Postmaster. P. M. or p. m. (post meridiem), Afternoon. P. O., Post-Office. Pres., President. Prof., Professor. Pro tem. (pro tempore), For the time being. Prov., Proverbs. prox. (proximo), The next month. P. S., Postscript. Ps., Psalms. pt., Pints. pwt., Pennyweights. qt., Quarts. q. v. (quod vide), Which see. Qy., Query. rd., Rods. Recd., Received. Rev., Reverend; Revelation. R. I., Rhode Island. Robt., Robert. Rom., Romans (Book of); Roman letters. R. R., Railroad. R. S. V. P. (Repondez s'il vous plait), Answer, if you please. Rt. Hon., Right Honorable. Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. S., South. s., Shillings. S. A., South America. Saml. or Sam., Samuel. Sat., Saturday. S. C., South Carolina. S. Dak., South Dakota. S. E., Southeast. Sec., Secretary. sec., Seconds. Sep. or Sept., September. Sol., Solomon. sq. ft., Square feet. sq. in., Square inches. sq. m., Square miles. S. S. E., South-southeast. S. S. W., South-southwest. St., Street; Saint. S. T. D. (Sacrae Theologiae Doctor), Doctor of Divinity. Sun., Sunday. Supt., Superintendent. S. W., Southwest. T., Tons; Tuns. Tenn., Tennessee. Tex., Texas. Theo., Theodore. Theoph., Theophilus. Thess., Thessalonians, Thos., Thomas. Thurs., Thursday. Tim., Timothy. tr., Transpose. Treas., Treasurer. Tues., Tuesday. ult. (ultimo), Last—last month. U. S. or U. S. A., United States of America; United States Army. U. S. M., United States Mail. U. S. N., United States Navy. Utah or U. Ter., Utah Territory. Va., Virginia. Vice-Pres., Vice-President. viz. (videlicet), To wit, namely. vol., Volume. vs. (versus), Against. Vt., Vermont. W., West. Wash., Washington. Wed., Wednesday. Wis., Wisconsin. wk., Weeks. Wm., William. W. N. W., West-northwest. W. S. W., West-southwest. W. Va., West Virginia. Wyo., Wyoming. Xmas., Christmas. yd., Yards. y. or yr., Years. Zech., Zechariah. & Co., And Company.

SUPPLEMENT.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

SELECTION FROM DARWIN.

Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.

This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.

It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.—We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.

1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.

Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does often do? What does the group of words for hours do? The group almost motionless describes what things? The group close beneath the mouths of their burrows, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. This helps out the meaning of says, but it is not an adverb. This is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does this take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What does occasionally do? What does same go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second their go with? What does by looking down into their burrows tell? What does just do? In 5, put what before may be removed, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of the, ejected, and the group over the burrows? What does suddenly do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. Retreating helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that the end rapidly retreating is not a sentence, nor is worms kept in pots, in 3. Retreating and kept here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert. Of the worm's body modifies what? Then and very often do what?

If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after says to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make says Morren come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that if has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement.

To the Teacher.—It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.

If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.

We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.

The Paragraph.—If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences—the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a paragraph. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page?

Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.

You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it.

The Style.—We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author—his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what their, they, and they in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let an astonishing number of worms and out of their holes change places, and substitute birds and worms for they and they, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood.

First-hand Knowledge.—As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting.

And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, insect, or other creature, and what you think about it.

To the Teacher.—We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition.

It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

SELECTION FROM HABBERTON—"HELEN'S BABIES."

The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the "Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in—low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses.

1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns. 3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony. 4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook. 5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious splash, I went in myself.

This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into clear water is not pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing.

I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog do. The shake was not a success—it caused my trouser's legs to flap dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out.

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.—We will put the first paragraph above into single sentences.

1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The "Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 4. Boys delight in such a place.

Find the subject noun (or pronoun) and the predicate verb in each of the four sentences above. Does the whistles completed make complete sense? You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not assert—cannot be predicates. Does brook hidden, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you say of hidden? Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies place? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long phrase describes place?

Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the object complement of this verb? That bore the "Jacks" does what? The pronoun that stands for plant. The plant bore the "Jacks," standing by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using that for plant the whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence? What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? By a piercing shriek of delight does what? Of what use are the phrases at first and toward the brook in sentence 2? What group of words is joined to looked to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to looked? What two sentences does but here bring together? Does the semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to be the leading subject and the leading verb after but. By some exquisite ferns is joined to what? What group of words goes with was diverted to tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its verb. What does suddenly go with? What does of shrieks modify? However is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting what after announced. In this group of words used as object complement can you find a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does and here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the complement in the second of these. Across a large fern is joined like an adverb to what? In a great deal of agony modifies what? Find a compound predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to was imbedded to tell where? The group of words as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded) is joined to what? Find in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an object complement.

To the Teacher.—See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements.

We have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow Lesson 40.

The Narrative.—This selection from "Helen's Babies" is a story and therefore a narrative. But there are some descriptive touches in it. All stories must have such touches. Perhaps it is not always essential to distinguish between narration and description, but it is worth your while to do it occasionally. Try to point out the descriptive parts in these paragraphs. You certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first paragraph, and descriptive words, phrases, and clauses throughout the selection. What help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give?

The Paragraphs.—What have you learned about the sentences that make up one paragraph? Are the paragraphs more, or less, closely related than the sentences of each paragraph? Why? Examine these paragraphs and see whether any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another. If you think they can, give your reason. Is the order of these paragraphs the right one? Can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint? Why?

The General Topic and the Sub-topics.—We shall find that every composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the composition bus its own particular subject. Let us call the subject of the whole composition the general topic. Sub means under, and so let us call the point which each paragraph develops a sub-topic. In the story above we may find some such outline as the following:—

AN EXCURSION IN SEARCH OF "JACKS." 1. The Place where Jacks Grow. 2. The Mishap to the Excursionists. 3. The Uncle Takes his Seriously. 4. His Attempt at Repairs.

Do you think that such a framework helps a writer to tell his story? Do you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the general topic alone would not suggest? If you keep clearly before you the sub-topic of your paragraph, what effect do you think it will have on the thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph? With a good framework clearly before you, must not your story move along in an orderly way from a beginning to an end? Have you ever heard stories badly told? If so, what were the faults?

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story? If you have, tell the story upon paper, making use of the instruction we have given you in our talk above.

To the Teacher.—Perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be profitable.

EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.

SELECTION FROM GEORGE ELIOT.

And this is Dovecote Mill. I must stand a minute or two here on the bridge and look at it, though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the afternoon. Even in this leafless time of departing February, it is pleasant to look at it. Perhaps the chill, damp season adds a charm to the trimly-kept building, as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from the northern blast.

The stream is brimful now, and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of the house. As I look at the stream, the vivid grass, the delicate, bright green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam from under the bare purple boughs, I am in love with moistness, and envy the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water, unmindful of the awkward appearance in the drier world above.

1. And now there is the huge covered wagon, coming home with sacks of grain. 2. That honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner, which is getting sadly dry in the oven at this late hour; but he will not touch it till he has fed his horses—the strong, submissive beasts, who, I fancy, are looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers, that he should crack his whip at them in that awful manner, as if they needed such a hint! 3. See how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge, with all the more energy because they are so near home. 4. Look at their grand, shaggy feet, that seem to grasp the firm earth, at the patient strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar, at the mighty muscles of their struggling haunches. 5. I should like to see them, with their moist necks freed from the harness, dipping their eager nostrils into the pond.

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.—Notice that in sentence 1, third paragraph, the subject is placed after the predicate. Tell what now and there do. Coming home with sacks of grain does what? Does coming express action? Does it assert action? What is it? What does home do? Put its before home and then read the whole phrase. What other change do you find necessary? A noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an adverb phrase, the preposition being omitted. What is the office of minute in the second sentence of the first paragraph? What preposition could be put in? In 2, third paragraph, the pronoun which stands for dinner. Read the sentence, using the noun instead of the pronoun. Have you now two sentences, or one? You see that which not only stands for dinner, but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner. What does till he has fed his horses do? Omitting till, would this group of words be a sentence? What, then, joins this group, and makes it do the work of an adverb? Notice the dash after horses. The writer here breaks off rather suddenly and begins again, using beasts instead of horses. To beasts are added many descriptive words. You will learn that this noun beasts added to the noun horses is called an explanatory modifier. Notice that I fancy is thrown in loosely or independently and is set off by commas. All the other words beginning with who and ending with hint are joined by who to beasts. Notice that the writer makes these beasts think like persons, and so uses who instead of which or that. Do we ordinarily speak of looking anything? In who are looking reproach, what is the object complement of are looking? What long group of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking reproach? Read separately the main divisions of 2. What conjunction connects these? Is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by commas? Should, then, some mark of wider separation be put between the main divisions of 2? To build so long a sentence as 2 is venturesome. We advise young writers not to make such attempts. It is hard to write very long sentences and keep the meaning clear. In 3 the subject of see is you, which is generally omitted in a command. You are here told to see what? Break this long object complement up into two sentences. What do the horses stretch? Where do they stretch their shoulders? How do they stretch? Why do they stretch with more energy? What is the subject of look in 4? The phrase beginning with at and ending with earth does what? Find two other long phrases introduced by at and tell what they do. That seem to grasp the firm earth goes with what? Put the noun feet in place of the pronoun that and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to feet? Does to grasp assert action? What do you call it? It is here used as attribute complement. Bowed under the heavy collar describes what? Does bowed assert action? What do you call it?

To the Teacher.—If time permits, we believe that such exercises as the above may profitably be continued. This sentence work may perhaps best follow Lesson 50. See suggestions with preceding exercises.

Descriptive Writing.—This extract from the novelist who called herself "George Eliot" we have slightly changed for our purpose. It is purely descriptive. It is a painting in words—a vivid picture of a very pretty scene. How grateful we are to those who can, as it were, turn a page of a book into canvas, and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us every time we read it or recall it! How many such pictures there are in our libraries! And how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy and hang upon our walls!

Some Features of a Good Description.—Does this author mention many features of the mill, of the stream, and of the horses pulling their load over the bridge? Do those that she does mention suggest to you everything else? Name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this description. Does not some of the charm of a description lie in the reader's having something left him to supply? If the author had given you every little detail of the mill, the stream, and the laboring horses, would not the description have been dull and tiresome? What things that the author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third paragraph? Do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture? Do they show that the author was in love with her work? and do they therefore stimulate your fancy or imagination?

The Framework.—In making a framework for this description would you take for the general topic "The Scene from the Bridge" or "Things Seen from a Bridge"? or would you prefer some other wording of it? Now write out a framework, placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been taught.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Describe some scene that you greatly enjoy, or draw your picture from imagination. Make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said.

EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.

SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM.

Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes were dim, whose ears were dull, and whose knees trembled. When he sat at table, he could scarcely hold his spoon; and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth and sometimes down his clothes.

His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this, and at last they made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner, and gave him his food in an earthen dish, and not enough of it either; so that the poor man grew sad, and his eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke all in pieces, so that the young wife scolded him; but he made no reply and only sighed. Then they brought him a wooden dish, and out of that he had to feed.

One day, as he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his little grandson, four years old, fitting together some pieces of wood. "What are you making?" asked the old man.

"I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for father and mother to feed out of when I grow big."

At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment, and presently they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table with them, and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food upon the cloth.

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.—What is the order of subject and predicate in the first sentence of this selection? The word there does not tell where; it is put before was to let the subject follow. There is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb. Find in the first sentence three adjective clauses. What connects each to man? What other office has this connective? How are these adjective clauses connected with one another? What is the office of the dependent clause in the next sentence? If this clause were placed after its principal clause, would the comma be needed? Are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely connected as those divided by the comma?

After made and some other words the to before the infinitive is omitted. Find such an instance in the first sentence of the second paragraph. In this same sentence change gave him his food, making him come last. You have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase. What does one day do in the third paragraph? Is a preposition needed before day? In the same sentence years is used adverbially to modify the adjective old. It would be hard to find a preposition to put before years. We might say "old to the extent of four years," but four years answers for the whole phrase. In this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man uttered them? Describe the quotation marks. Notice that the next quotation is broken by the words replied the child, and so each part of the quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks.

To the Teacher.—We have here touched a few features of the sentences above. The exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a fuller examination of the phrases and clauses.

Suggestions from this Narrative.—We see that this beautiful story has a purpose. Its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents. It is well planned. Every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view. No useless item or circumstance is admitted. The story stops when the end is reached. Anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story. We certainly can learn much from such a model.

Paragraphs.—Does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing the helplessness of the old grandfather? Is the picture complete? Does the second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and daughter-in-law, who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's condition? Does it contain an unnecessary sentence? In telling how the grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson, a dialogue is introduced, and so what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs. It is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a dialogue. Read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child.

Make a framework for this story.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Make up a short story from your own experience, or from your imagination, and try to profit by the suggestions above. Prepare a framework at the beginning.



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

SELECTION FROM BEECHER.

Overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs. There are those who overtax their minds through months and years, forgetful that there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia. Everyone should remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain without harm to his stomach; and that, when he loses his stomach, he loses the very citadel of health. The whole body is renewed from the blood, and the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach. The power of the blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion.

Too little sleep is fatal to health. Perhaps you have to work hard all day; but that is no reason why you should resolve, "If I cannot have pleasure by day, I will have it at night." You are taking the very substance of your body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the morning. God has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue. A man's roots are planted in night, as a tree's are planted in soil, and out of it he should come, at waking, with fresh growth and bloom. As a rule, you should take eight hours of the twenty-four, for sleep.

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.—In the exercises under the selection from the Brothers Grimm what did you learn about there as used twice in the second sentence above? What does those mean? What long adjective clause is joined to those by who? Does this clause read so closely as not to need a comma before who? Does forgetful describe the persons represented by who? Why is a comma used before forgetful? You learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb phrase without the help of a preposition. A noun clause may do the same. The adjective forgetful is modified by the noun clause that ... dyspepsia. If we say forgetful of the fact, we see that the noun clause means the same as fact and has the same office. What two long noun clauses aroused to complete should remember? What conjunction introduces each of these clauses? What conjunction joins them together? What mark of punctuation between? If one of these noun clauses were not itself divided into clauses by the comma, would the semicolon be needed? The clause beyond ... stomach goes with what word? When ... stomach modifies what verb? Classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple, complex, or compound.

To the Teacher.—We have here treated informally some difficult points. Perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed.

The Various Objects Writers Have.—From your study of the preceding selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in writing. He may wish simply to instruct the reader, as does Darwin in what he says of earthworms. He may wish merely to amuse the reader, as does Mr. Habberton in our extract from "Helen's Babies." He may wish only to put before them a picture which, like that of George Eliot's, shall afford delight. Or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us to do something, perform some duty. This is what the story from the Brothers Grimm aims at. And you saw how it does this—by working on our feelings. There are at least these four objects that a writer may propose to himself. Which of these four objects has Mr. Beecher in the paragraphs we quote? Does he instruct? Does he try to get us to do something? Would it help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are seeking to accomplish?

Figurative Expressions.—In these paragraphs Mr. Beecher calls a man's stomach the citadel of health, and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with, and says a man's roots are planted in night. He does not use these words citadel, sponge, and roots in their first or common meaning. He uses them in what we call a figurative sense. He means to say that a man's stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers, a source of strength; that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard when a wet sponge is drawn across them; and that a man gets out of night what a tree's roots draw out of the soil, nourishment and vigor. Such figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

In the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of overwork and of insufficient sleep. Perhaps you can write of exercise, of proper food, of clothes, or of some other things on which health may depend.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

ADAPTED FROM DR. JOHN BROWN—"RAB AND HIS FRIENDS."

Rab belonged to a lost tribe—there are no such dogs now. He was old and gray and brindled; and his hair short, hard, and close, like a lion's. He was as big as a Highland bull, and his body was thickset. He must have weighed ninety pounds at least.

His large, blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds, a series of battlefields all over it. His muzzle was as black as night, his mouth blacker than any night, and a tooth or two, all he had, gleamed out of his jaws of darkness. One eye was out, one ear cropped close. The remaining eye had the power of two; and above it, and in constant communication with it, was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself, like an old flag.

And then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, if it could in any sense be said to be long, being as broad as it was long! The mobility of it, its expressive twinklings and winkings, and the intercommunications between the eye, the ear, and it, were of the oddest and swiftest.

Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size. Having fought his way all along the road to absolute supremacy, he was as mighty in his own line as Julius Caesar or the Duke of Wellington in his, and he had the gravity of all great fighters.

To the Teacher.—We suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to those preceding. Before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the analysis. For instance, in the first paragraph hair may be followed by was and Highland bull by is big. In the next paragraph wounds may be followed by marking, as night by is black, etc. In the third paragraph and then may be followed by there was, etc. The pupils will determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or weaker.

Pupils may note especially the offices of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. This selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly well chosen. Let the pupils point out such.

The Description.—How does the description above impress you? Are only characteristic parts and features selected? Are these few features enough to give you a distinct and vivid picture of Rab? What comparisons do you find? How do they help? Pick out some words or phrases that seem to you very expressive. Find some words that are used, not in their first or common sense, but in a figurative sense. How do they help?

Paragraphs.—Which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole? Where must this paragraph naturally stand? Why? Which paragraph describes Rab's character? What does each of the other paragraphs describe? If you think the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best, tell why.

Make a framework for this description.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in which you are interested. Be careful to pick out leading or characteristic features that will bring others into the reader's imagination. First prepare a framework.

THE END