The action expressed by the verb walk has been asserted in four different ways, or modes. The first way is called the Indicative Mode; the second, the Potential Mode; the third, the Subjunctive Mode; the fourth, the Imperative Mode.

Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction.

For the two forms of the verb called the Infinitive and the Participle, see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.

I walk. I walked. I shall walk. In each of these three sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same. I walk expresses the action as present. I walked expresses the action as past, and I shall walk expresses the action as future. As Tense means time, the first form is called the Present Tense; the second, the Past Tense; and the third, the Future Tense.

We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as completed in the present, the past, or the future.

I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow. The form, have walked, expressing the action as completed in the present, is called the Present Perfect Tense. The form, had walked, expressing the action as completed in the past, is called the Past Perfect Tense. The form, shall have walked, expressing an action to be completed in the future, is called the Future Perfect Tense.

Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses.

I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk.

In the second sentence, the verb walk was changed by adding est; and in the third, it was changed by adding s. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in est agrees with the subject thou in the second person, and the verb ending in s agrees with he in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the s to agree with they in the plural.

Verbs are said to agree in Person and Number with their subjects. The person and number forms will be found in Lessons 93, 94.

DEFINITIONS.

Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being.

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact.

The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being.

The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish.

The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty.

The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything.

The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed.

The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate.

The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate.

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate.

Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being.

The Present Tense expresses action or being as present.

The Past Tense expresses action or being as past.

The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come.

The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time.

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time.

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time.

Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject.



LESSON 91.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.

DEFINITIONS.

Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb.

Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses.

Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs.

The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must.

The Principal Parts of a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle.

These are called principal parts, because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them.

We give, below, the principal parts of some of the most important irregular verbs. Learn them.

Present. Past. Past. Par. Be or am, was, been. Begin, began, begun. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. Choose, chose, chosen. Come, came, come. Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Eat, ate, eaten. Fall, fell, fallen. Fly, flew, flown. Freeze, froze, frozen. Go, went, gone. Get, got, got or gotten. Give, gave, given. Grow, grew, grown. Have, had, had. Know, knew, known. Lay, laid, laid. Lie, (to rest) lay, lain. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang or rung, rung. Rise, rose, risen. Run, ran, run. See, saw, seen. Set, set, set. Sit, sat, sat. Shake, shook, shaken. Sing, sang or sung, sung. Slay, slew, slain. Speak, spoke, spoken. Steal, stole, stolen. Swim, swam or swum, swum. Take, took, taken. Tear, tore, torn. Throw, threw, thrown. Wear, wore, worn. Write, wrote, written.

The following irregular verbs are called Defective, because some of their parts are wanting.

Present. Past. Present. Past. - Can, could. Will, would. May, might. Must, Shall, should. Ought,



LESSON 92.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE IN THE SIMPLE FORM.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Pres. Past. Past Par. See, saw, seen.

INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. You see, or 2. You see, Thou seest, 3. He sees; 3. They see.

PAST TENSE.

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. You saw, or 2. You saw, Thou sawest, 3. He saw; 3. They saw.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, or 2. You will see, Thou wilt see, 3. He will see; 3. They will see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, or 2. You have seen, Thou hast seen 3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, or 2. You had seen, Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, or 2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 2. You may see, or 2. You may see, Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; 3. They may see.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 2. You might see, or Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 3. He might see; 3. They might see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, or 2. You may have seen Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, or 2. You might have seen, Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I see, 1. If we see, 2. If you see, or 2. If you see, If thou see, 3. If he see; 3. If they see.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. See (you or thou); 2. See (you).

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE.

To see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

To have seen.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.

Seeing, Seen, Having seen.

To the Teacher.—Let the pupils prefix do and did to the simple present see, and thus make the emphatic form of the present and the past tense.

Let can and must be used in place of may; and could, would, and should, in place of might.

Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for agreement in number and person.

A majority of modern writers use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the present. The subjunctive forms of the verb to be are retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning. The ship sails next week. I may go to-morrow. The verbs sails and may go are present in form but future in meaning. If it rains by noon, he may not come. The verb rains is indicative in form but subjunctive in meaning.

The plural forms, You saw, You were, etc., are used in the singular also.



LESSON 93.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB—SIMPLE FORM.

Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb walk. Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked.

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I / Pres /, 1. We / Pres /, 2. You / Pres /, 2. You / Pres /, Thou / Pres /est, 3. He / Pres /s; 3. They / Pres /.

PAST TENSE

1. I / Past /, 1. We / Past /, 2. You / Past /, 2. You / Past /, Thou / Past /st, 3. He / Past /; 3. They / Past /.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall / Pres /, 1. We will / Pres /, 2. You will / Pres /, 2. You will / Pres /, Thou wil-t / Pres /, 3. He will / Pres /; 3. They will / Pres /.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have /Past Par./, 1. We have /Past Par./, 2. You have /Past Par./, 2. You have /Past Par./, Thou ha-st /Past Par./, 3. He ha-s /Past Par./; 3. They have /Past Par./.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had /Past Par./, 1. We had /Past Par./, 2. You had /Past Par./, 2. You had /Past Par./, Thou had-st /Past Par./, 3. He had /Past Par./; 3. They had /Past Par./.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have /Past Par./, 1. We will have Past Par., 2. You will have /Past Par./, 2. You will have Past Par., Thou wil-t have /Past Par./, 3. He will have /Past Par./; 3. They will have Past Par..

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may / Pres. /, 1. We may / Pres. /, 2. You may / Pres. /, 2. You may / Pres. /, Thou may-st / Pres. /, 3. He may / Pres. /; 3. They may / Pres. /.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might / Pres. /, 1. We might / Pres. /, 2. You might / Pres. /, 2. You might / Pres. /, Thou might-st / Pres. /, 3. He might / Pres. /; 3. They might / Pres. /.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have /Past Par./, 1. We may have /Past Par./, 2. You may have /Past Par./, 2. You may have /Past Par./, Thou may-st have /Past Par./, 3. He may have /Past Par./; 3. They may have /Past Par./.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have /Past Par./, 1. We might have /Past Par./, 2. You might have /Past Par./, 2. You might have /Past Par./, Thou might-st have /Past Par./, 3. He might have /Past Par./; 3. They might have /Past Par./.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I / Pres. /, 1. If we / Pres. /, 2. If you / Pres. /, 2. If you / Pres. /, If thou / Pres. /, 3. If he / Pres. /; 3. If they / Pres. /.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. / Pres. / (you or thou); 2. / Pres. / (you).

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE.

To / Pres. /.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

To have /Past Par./.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. /Pres./ing. /Past Par./ Having /Past Par./

To the Teacher.—Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In the indicative, present, third, singular, es is sometimes added instead of s; and in the second person, old style, st is sometimes added instead of est.



LESSON 94.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.

In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb.

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I am ——, 1. We are ——, 2. You are —— or 2. You are ——, Thou art ——, 3. He is ——; 3. They are ——.

PAST TENSE.

1. I was ——, 1. We were ——, 2. You were ——, or 2. You were ——, Thou wast ——, 3. He was ——; 3. They were ——.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall be ——, 1. We shall be ——, 2. You will be ——, or 2. You will be ——, Thou wilt be ——, 3. He will be ——; 3. They will be ——.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have been ——, 1. We have been ——, 2. You have been —— or 2. You have been ——, Thou hast been ——, 3. He has been ——; 3. They have been ——.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had been ——, 1. We had been ——, 2. You had been —— or 2. You had been ——, Thou hadst been ——, 3. He had been ——; 3. They had been ——.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have been ——, 1. We shall have been ——, 2. You will have been —— or 2. You will have been ——, Thou wilt have been ——, 3. He will has been ——; 3. They will have been ——.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may be ——, 1. We may be ——, 2. You may be —— or 2. You may be ——, Thou mayst be ——, 3. He may be ——; 3. They may be ——.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might be ——, 1. We might be ——, 2. You might be —— or 2. You might be ——, Thou mightst be ——, 3. He might be ——; 3. They might be ——.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have been ——, 1. We may have been ——, 2. You may have been —— or 2. You may have been ——, Thou mayst have been ——, 3. He may have been ——; 3. They may have been ——.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have been ——, 1. We might have been ——, 2. You might have been —— or 2. You might have been ——, Thou mightst have been ——, 3. He might have been ——; 3. They might have been ——.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I be ——, 1. If we be ——, 2. If you be —— or 2. If you be ——, If thou be ——, 3. If he be ——; 3. If they be ——.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I were ——, 1. If we were ——, 2. If you were —— or 2. If you were ——, If thou wert ——, 3. If he were ——; 3. If they were ——.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. Be (you or them) ——; 2. Be (you)———.

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE. To be ——.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

To have been ——.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ——. Been. Having been ——.

To the Teacher.—After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verb be as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the Progressive Form and the Passive Form.

The progressive form may be made by filling all the blanks with the present participle of some verb.

The passive form may be made by filling all the blanks with the past participle of a transitive verb.

Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left.

In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive form, it is the same as in the simple.



LESSON 95.

AGREEMENT OF THE VERB.

To the Teacher.—For additional matter, see pp. 163-167.

Remember that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write sentences in which each form shall be used correctly.

Common forms.—Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were.

Old forms.—Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art, wast.

When a verb has two or more subjects connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural. A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Model.—Poverty and obscurity oppresses him who thinks that it is oppressive.

Wrong: the verb oppresses should be changed to oppress to agree with its two subjects, connected by and. The pronoun it should be changed to they to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb is should be changed to are to agree with they.

Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success. Time and tide waits for no man. The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. The mule and the horse was harnessed together. Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful.

Model.—The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by _each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately.

Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. Every book and every paper were found in their place.

When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular. A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

One or the other have made a mistake in their statement. Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance. Either the president or his secretary were responsible. Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home.

To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and third; but when a speaker determines or promises, he uses will in the first person and shall in the second and third.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I will freeze, if I do not move about. You shall feel better soon, I think. She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow. I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me. You will have it, if I can get it for you. He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it. He will not do it, if I can prevent him. I will drown, nobody shall help me. I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it. We will have gone by to-morrow morning. You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return. I do not think I will like the change. Next Tuesday shall be your birthday. You shall be late, if you do not hurry.



LESSON 96.

ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Model.—Those things have not came to-day.

Wrong, because the past came is here used for the past participle come. The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing have to the past participle.

I done all my work before breakfast. I come in a little late yesterday. He has went to my desk without permission. That stupid fellow set down on my new hat.

Set is generally transitive, and sit is intransitive. Lay is transitive, and lie is intransitive.

He sat the chair in the corner. Sit that plate on the table, and let it set. I have set in this position a long time. That child will not lay still or set still a minute. I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery. Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay. Those boys were drove out of the fort three times. I have rode through the park. I done what I could. He has not spoke to-day. The leaves have fell from the trees. This sentence is wrote badly. He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke. He teached me grammar. I seen him when he done it. My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window. The bird has flew into that tall tree. I was chose leader. I have began to do better. I begun this morning. My breakfast was ate in a hurry. Your dress sets well. That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg. He has tore it up and throwed it away. William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it. This should be well shook. I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing. We drunk from a pure spring. I thought you had forsook us. His pencil is nearly wore up. He come, and tell me all he knowed about it.



LESSON 97.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

To the Teacher.—See "Scheme," p. 187.

How many modifications have verbs? Ans.—Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, number, and person. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of shall and will.

To the Teacher.—Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, and 56.

Model for Written Parsing—Verbs.—The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands.

CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX.

Verbs. Kind. Voice. Mode. Tense. Num. Per.

*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. —- —- —- —- Mod. of Yankee. wanders Reg., Int. —- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of " *seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. —- " —- —- Prin. word in phrase Mod. of wanders.

[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no person or number.]



LESSON 98.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain the nature of the verb.

Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature of the participle.

Model.— ——in building a snow fort. They were engaged in building a snow fort. The participle building, like a noun, follows the preposition in, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the object complement fort.

—— by foretelling storms. —— by helping others. —— on approaching the house. ——- in catching fish.

Use the following phrases as subjects.

Walking in the garden ——. His writing that letter ——. Breaking a promise ——.

Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs.

—— in sledges. —— up the Hudson. —— down the Rhine. —— through the Alps. —— with snow and ice. —— into New York Bay. —— on the prairie. —— at Saratoga.

Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech.

Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences.

Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon, and stars.

Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence,

Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals.

Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences.

When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor. When spring comes, the birds will return.

Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other changes.

A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention. I saw a man who was plowing a field. When the shower had passed, we went on our way. I heard that he wrote that article. That he was a foreigner was well known. I am not sure that he did it. Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it.

Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences.

Model.—Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the clouds disperse.

Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit. Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells. Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870. Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone.

Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can.

Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves.



LESSON 99.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I have got that book at home.

Model.—Wrong, because have, alone, asserts possession. Got, used in the sense of obtained, is correct; as, I have just got the book.

Have you got time to help me? There is many mistakes in my composition.

Model.—Wrong, because is should agree with its plural subject mistakes. The adverb there is often used to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound smooth, and gives variety.

There goes my mother and sister. Here comes the soldiers. There was many friends to greet him. It ain't there.

Model.—Ain't is a vulgar contraction. Correction—It is not there.

I have made up my mind that it ain't no use. 'Tain't so bad as you think. Two years' interest were due. Every one of his acts were criticised. I, Henry, and you have been chosen.

Model.—Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last.

He invited you and I and Mary. Me and Jane are going to the fair. I only want a little piece. He is a handsome, tall man. Did you sleep good? How much trouble one has, don't they? He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper. You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer. Him that is diligent will succeed. He found the place sooner than me. Who was that? It was me and him. If I was her, I would say less. Bring me them tongs. Us boys have a base-ball club. Whom did you say that it was? Who did you speak to just now? Who did you mean, when you said that? Where was you when I called? There's twenty of us going. Circumstances alters cases. Tell them to set still. He laid down by the fire. She has lain her book aside. It takes him everlastingly. That was an elegant old rock.



LESSON 100.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires! 3. You wrong me, Brutus. 4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 5. Why stand we here idle? 6. Give me liberty, or give me death! 7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds. 8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven. 9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory. 10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects. 11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran to God. 12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the beginning. 13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field. 14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately die. 15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and sideways. 16. Matter exists in three states—the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous state. 17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light. 18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings. 19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from which he can never arise. 20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours Now point the rifle's barrel; And hands then stained with fruits and flowers Bear redder stains of quarrel.

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.

Capital Letters.—The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words I and O, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are made.]

Examples.—1. The judicious are always a minority.

2. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?" 4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They instruct. 5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. 6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington. 8. The use of O and oh I am now to explain. 9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne.

Period.—Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation.

For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above.

Interrogation Point.—Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.

Example.—King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?

Exclamation Point.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point.

Example.—Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! Comma.—Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases, when long or differently modified.

Examples.—l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. 3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal. 4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions.

Semicolon.—Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before as, viz., to wit., namely, i. e., and that is, when they introduce examples or illustrations.

Examples.—1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness."

Colon.—Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced.

Examples.—l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: "Their graves are measured."

Dash.—Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as as, namely, or that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force.

Examples.—1. In M———w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. There are two things certain in this world—taxes and death. 3. I said—I know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms—never— NEVER—NEVER. 5. Fulton started a steamboat——he called it the Clermont—on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,—I write this letter for information.

Marks of Parenthesis.—Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.

Example.—The noun (Lat. nomen, a name) is the first part of speech.

Apostrophe.—Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases.

Examples.—1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half of which is p's? 3. He washed the disciples' feet.

Hyphen.—Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided.

Examples.—1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide basket thus: bas-ket.

Quotation Marks—Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks.

Example—-The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there be light.'"

Brackets.—Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.

Example.—The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of the morning."

SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.

To the Teacher.—It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.

Direction.—Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:—

Example.—This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.

1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. 2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. 4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. 6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 7. This friendless man deserves our pity.

1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its body. 2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile. 3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain. They spread over the whole body. 4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz. 5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful.

You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too many ands and other connectives, and make their sentences too long.

Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear.

As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to make paragraphs.

A paragraph is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject.

The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.

Direction.—Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:—

Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work of thousands of men and horses.

To the Teacher.—Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.

LETTER-WRITING.

In writing a letter there are six things to consider—the Heading, the Introduction, the Body of the Letter, the Conclusion, the Folding, and the Superscription.

THE HEADING.

Parts.—The Heading consists of the name of the Place at which the letter is written, and the Date. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.

The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.

How Written.—Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page—on the first ruled line of commercial note—and a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second.

The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more lines.

The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.

Direction.—Study what has been said, and write the following headings according to these models:—-

1. Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860. 2. 1466 Colorado Ave., Rochester, N. Y., Apr. 3, 1870. 3. Newburyport, Mass., June 30, 1826. 4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y., Dec. 19, 1871.

1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january. 3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave 16.

THE INTRODUCTION.

Parts.—The Introduction consists of the Address—the Name, the Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed—and the Salutation. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix Mr. (plural, Messrs.) to a man's name; Master to a boy's name; Miss to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; Mrs. to the name of a married lady. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, or write M.D. after his name. Prefix Rev. (or The Rev.) to the name of a clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix Rev. Dr., or write Rev. before his name and D.D. after it; if you do not know his Christian name, prefix Rev. Mr. or Rev. Dr. to his surname, but never Rev. alone. Esq. is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: Mr. John Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D., etc.

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, Miss Brown, etc.; acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc.; friends as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc.

How Written.—The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading.

Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below.

Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma.

Direction.—Study what has been said, and write the following introductions according to these models:—

1. Dear Father, I write, etc.

2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D., President of U. V. M., Burlington, Vt. My dear Sir,

3. Messrs. Clark & Brown, Quogue, N. Y. Gentlemen,

4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 2 Milk St., Boston. Dear Sirs,

1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6. messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of state Washington d c sir.

THE BODY OF THE LETTER.

The Beginning.—Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on the same line, if the Introduction consists of four lines—in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash;—otherwise, on the line below.

Style.—Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care.

Letters of friendship should be colloquial, natural, and familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends.

Business letters should be brief, and the sentences should be short, concise, and to the point.

In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page.

THE CONCLUSION.

Parts.—The Conclusion consists of the Complimentary Close and the Signature. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship you may use Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters, you may use Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours, etc. In official letters use I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant.

The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix her title—Miss or Mrs.—to her own name, enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers.

How Written.—The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain.

THE FOLDING.

The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you, with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the sides are even, and press the parts together.

Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of folding.

THE SUPERSCRIPTION.

Parts.—The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed.

How Written.—The Superscription should begin near the middle of the envelope and near the left edge— the envelope lying with its closed side toward you—and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third—(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner.

LETTER, ORDERING MERCHANDISE.

[Cursive: Newburgh, N. Y. Jan. 7. 1888

Messrs. Hyde & Co., 250 Broadway. N. Y.

Gentlemen,

Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed list.

Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special class of customers.

When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the invoice.

Yours truly,

Thomas Dodds.]

ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE.

[Cursive: 250 Broadway, N. Y. Jan 9, 1888.

Mr. Thomas Dodds, Newburgh, N. Y.

Dear Sir,

We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice.

We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove satisfactory in quality and in price.

Very truly yours,

Peter Hyde & Co.]

INVOICE.

Thomas Dodds,

Bought of Peter Hyde & Co.

3 boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs., @33c. $46.20 7 do. Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c. 47.32 120 lbs. Crushed Sugar, "12-1/2c. 15.00 60 do. Coffee do., "11-1/4c. 6.75 ——- $115.27

LETTER OF APPLICATION.

[Cursive: 176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y. Dec. 12, 1887

Messrs. Fisk & Hatch, 5 Nassau St., N. Y.

Gentlemen,

Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old, and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of that Institution.

If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at such time and place as you may name.

Very respectfully yours,

Charles Hastings.]

NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE (in the third person).

Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at 8 o'clock. 32 W. 31st Street, Oct. 5.

Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening. 160 Fifth Ave., Oct. 5.

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.

[Cursive: Concord, N. H. Jan. 10, 1888.

George Chapman, Esq., Portland, Conn.

My dear Friend,

It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a personal favor.

Sincerely yours,

Peter Cooper.]

A LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP.

[Cursive: 21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio. Dec. 16, 1887.

My dear Mother,

I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all doing—so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that you do indeed miss me at home.

Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and faithful.

Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything.

Much love to each of the dear ones at home.

Your affectionate son,

Henry James.

[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.]



To the Teacher.—Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed. Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the word Introducing (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed. The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed.

Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter.

A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.

II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.

III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case.

IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case.

V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained.

VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.

With two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is plural.

With two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the pronoun is singular.

VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.

With two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural.

With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, the verb is singular.

VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun.

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.

XIV. Interjections are used independently.

PROOF-MARKS.

Remark.—The following are some of the marks used in correcting proof-sheets for the printer:—

[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out.

[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted.

[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as corrections.

[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period.

[tr.] Transpose.

[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [.

[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph.

[Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe.

To the Teacher.—We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as illustrations:—



NOTES FOR TEACHERS.

AGREEMENT.

Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add s to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the s is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping s, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, s may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.

At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as number, person, tense, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:—

When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject is I or you).

Let the pupils see that the s-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing does, not what it did; as, "The boy runs," "The boy ran"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "He runs," "I run."

Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of is, was, and has, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of is to are, was to were, and has to have. The forms does and do may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:—

Is, was, has, and does are used with subjects denoting but one. Are, were, have, and do are used with subjects denoting more than one.

We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:—

Was /Napoleon/ banished?

The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.

In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with I and you. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:—

I can be used with am, was, have, and do. You may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if you meant more than one.

Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You were," "They were," "We were," "He doesn't," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.

When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that was is often used incorrectly for were, and don't for doesn't. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:—

1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write

1. With what kind of letter (4) each of these names begin? 2. Under this rule (1) found important exceptions. 3. The farm, with all the cattle and horses, (2) sold. 4. With what mark (4) imperative sentences end? 5. Every effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying times in every man's life. 7. One of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not one in ten (7) about this. 9. Neither of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic exercises. 11. A cargo of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a train of cars.

After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.

Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, were identified is asserted of two things, and that in (3) was anticipated is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of singular and plural may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:—

With two or more subjects connected by and the verb agrees in the plural.

With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor the verb agrees in the singular.

The pupils may examine such sentences as—

1. Each word and gesture was suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud comes to the relief of the parched earth;—

and note that each, every, and no show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.

Such sentences as—

"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman was lost to the world"—

may be given to show that subjects connected by and may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.

Such examples as the following may be given and justified:—

1. Beauty and utility are combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility appears in every natural object. 3. Here is neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 6. Does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly is provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer were finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man was provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging.

Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating that, the, and a.

Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:—

1. Neither he nor I am going. (Better—He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor his sisters were there. 3. Action, and not words, is needed. 4. Bread and milk is good food. 5. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 6. The committee has made its report.

Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:—

1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.

WRITING NAMES—CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]

Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:—

Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha." John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."

We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an

Observation Lesson.—Are city and Albany both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are class names? Which are individual names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but the first, or initial, letter. Mention an abbreviation containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.

For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:—

1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans—afterward Mrs. Lewes—was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.

The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:—

Observation Lesson.—Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named Jersey, or Jersey City? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as Michigan, or Lake Michigan? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?—in (4)? Is Irish, or Irish Sea the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?

Notice that Spanish, in (3), and English, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names Spain and England.

What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as uncle, captain, professor, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.

What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?

In (8) do you find a period after Miss?—after Mrs.?

Miss is not written as an abbreviation.

What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is Old Testament the particular name of?

What do you discover in the names found in (11)?

For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.

We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of headings, introductions, conclusions, and superscriptions will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The body of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.

ADJECTIVES—CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.

Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:—

Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses.

Seeing, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent

Hearing, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious

Smelling, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic

Tasting, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious

Feeling. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry

Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.

Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:—

chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music

Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:—

timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous

Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as—

nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.

We hear of nice mountains, awful pens, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef, lovely cheese, etc.

Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:—

distinction + workmanship calculation

stillness + chasm rumbling

child + features character

palace + victory illumination

manners + taste furniture

deeds + dreams butchery

This work may very profitable be extended.

A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,

"A great, large, roomy, spacious hall"; "Superb, delicious, magnificent pumpkin-pie"; "A stingy, miserly, close-fisted fellow."

The italicized words may be omitted.

Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.

Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:—

We piled with care our nightly stack Of wood against the chimney-back,— The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, And on its top the stout back-stick; The knotty fore-stick laid apart, And filled between with curious art The ragged brush; then, hovering near, We watched the first red blaze appear, Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, Until the old, rude-furnished room Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.

Whittier.—Snow-Bound.

Observation Lesson.—Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?

What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?

Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.

Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.

What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?

Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.

ARRANGEMENT.

The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the natural order of words and phrases:—

(a) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (b) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (c) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (d) We saw it distinctly. (e) We had often been there. (f) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

Observation Lesson.—The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their Natural Order.

From (a) and (b) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (b) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (c), (d), and (e) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (c) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (a) and (f) the natural order of a phrase.

Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:—

(g) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (h) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (i) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (j) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.

Observation Lesson.—Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it.

In the first sentence above, to me tells to whom the place is endeared; by many associations tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.

Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that to me, in (h) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.

In (i), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.

Place the phrase of (i) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?

Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?

What does the last phrase of (j) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.

In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.

Such questions as those on (i) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons—for emphasis, as in (h) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (i) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons.

Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.

Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:—

1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.

Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:—

19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.

ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?

Observation Lesson.—When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.

When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).

When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).

When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).

The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in analysis.

REVIEW—COMPOSITION.

We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.

RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS—PUNCTUATION.

The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:—

(a) The words golden and oriole are pleasant to the ear. (b) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (c) Use words that are current. (d) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (e) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (f) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (g) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (h) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.

The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:—

In (a) the application of words is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (c) words is restricted to a certain kind. In (b) and (d) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (e) the participial phrase restricts the application of country to one particular country; but in (f) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (g) shows that Glass bends easily is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. When it is hot is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (h) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (h) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.

Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as I myself, we boys, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.

Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.

Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives as and than are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old as he (is old);" "You are older than I (am old)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES.

Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "That we should obey is necessary" = "Obedience is necessary," or, "To obey is necessary;" "I can hardly realize that my friend is gone" = "I can hardly realize my friend's being gone." By substituting it for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "It is necessary that we should obey." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "That my friend is gone, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"His story, we believe, is exaggerated."

Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.

NOUN CLAUSES—QUOTATIONS.

We suggest the following observation lesson:—

1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.

Observation Lesson.—Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks.

Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call direct? Which, indirect?

Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within single marks. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).

Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call direct? Which, indirect? Name every difference in the form of these.

In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?

Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?

In (7) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally introduced.

In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.

Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)

Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or not;" "He is a philosopher, not a poet." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.

REVIEW—COMPOSITION.

We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of paragraph, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.

We give below material for one composition:—

Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.

In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large—out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.

Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.

As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.

This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.

It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.

The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.

This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book.

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.

It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:—

"Mary arrived safe." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving, we use safe, not safely. "My head feels bad" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines bright" (is bright—quality,—as perceived by its shining).

You must determine whether you wish to tell the quality of the thing named or the manner of the action.

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.

Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:—

1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully.

PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.

When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,

I done it; I seen it.

Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the Past forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the Past Participle forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.