1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. 2. He ran forward and kissed him. 3. The earth and the moon are planets. 4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. 5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. 6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 7. The man stood speechless. 8. Labor disgraces no man. 9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. 10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. 12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. 14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. 15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.



LESSON 45.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Model.—

wise /========== / ' in / X' council / ' - Henry IV. was / ' simple =========== ============== '========== of very and' in House ' manners ' - he of ' chivalric Burbon ============ - in field - he

The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the entire attribute complement.

1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in manners, and chivalric in the field. 2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. 6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. 7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San Salvador. 8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. 9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. 10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. 13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. 14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. 15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian corn.



LESSON 46.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Cotton is raised ========== ============== Egypt /' - in / ' / X' / ' India / ' ' and' ' ' United States - he

Explanation of the Diagram.—In this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound. Egypt, India, and United States are all introduced by the same preposition in, and have the same relation to is raised.

1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. 2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. 3. The career of Cromwell was short. 4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 6. An able but dishonest judge presided. 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, in 1607. 10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar. 13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing.



LESSON 47.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Supply attribute complements to the following expressions. (See Caution, Lesson 40.)

The marble feels ——. Mary looks ——. The weather continues ——. The apple tastes ——. That lady appears ——. The sky grows ——. The leaves of roses are ——. The undertaking was pronounced ——.

Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as attribute complements.

Model.—Soldier.—That old man has been a soldier.

Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet, artist, traveler, emperor.

Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple predicate and two or more object complements.

Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers, lawyers, merchant.

Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall contain object complements, and the third, an attribute complement.

Model.—Sun.— The sun gives light. The sun warms the earth. The sun is a luminous body.

Moon, oak, fire, whiskey.



LESSON 48.

SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that a quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing; as, white chalk, or that it may be asserted of it; as, Chalk is white. An action, also, may be assumed as belonging to something; as, Peter turning, or it may be asserted; as, Peter turned. In the expression, Peter, turning, said, what word expresses an action as assumed, and which asserts an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn grows, corn growing; geese gabble; geese gabbling.

This form of the verb, which merely assumes the act, being, or state, is called the Participle.

When the words growing and gabbling are placed before the nouns, thus: growing corn, gabbling geese, they tell simply the kind of corn and the kind of geese, and are therefore adjectives.

When the or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a preposition after them, thus: The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the geese, they are simply the names of actions, and are therefore nouns.

Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it to express:—

1st, An assumed action; 2d, A permanent quality; 3d, The name of an action.

Participles may be completed by objects and attributes.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again.

Truth will rise ========== ============= cru again shed o earth -

Explanation of the Diagram.—In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle crushed is used like an adjective to modify Truth, and yet retains the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth.

Oral Analysis.—This is a sentence, because ——; Truth is the subject, because ——; will rise is the predicate, because ——; the phrase, crushed to earth, is a modifier of the Subj., because ——; crushed introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase to earth is a modifier of crushed; to introduces it, and earth is the principal word in it; again is a modifier of the Pred., because ——. Truth crushed to earth is the modified subject, will rise again is the modified predicate.

Parsing—Crushed is the form of the verb called participle. The action expressed by it is merely assumed.

1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought. 2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. 3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands. 9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen. Gates. 11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. 12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force. 13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not awaken sincere admiration.

(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or more words.)

(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a noun complement.)



LESSON 49.

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—There is another form of the verb which, like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot assert; as, She went out to see a friend; To lie is a disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an Infinitive, which means without limit. The infinitive generally follows to; as, to walk, to sleep.

Let each pupil give an infinitive.

The infinitive and the preposition to constitute a phrase, which may be employed in several ways.

T.—I have a duty to perform. The infinitive phrase modifies what?

P.—The noun duty. T.—It then performs the office of what? P.—Of an adjective modifier.

T.—I come to hear. The infinitive phrase modifies what? P.—The verb come. T.—What office then does it perform? P.—Of an adverb modifier.

T.—To lie is base. What is base? P.—To lie. T.—He attempted to speak. What did he attempt? P.—To speak. T.—To lie is a subject, and to speak is an object. What part of speech is used as subject and object? P.—The noun.

T.—The Infinitive phrase is used as an adjective, an adverb, and a noun.

Infinitives may be completed by objects and attributes.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—David hasted to meet Goliath.

David hasted ======== ========= o meet Goliath

Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase.—To introduces the phrase; meet, completed by the object Goliath, is the principal part.

Parsing of the Phrase.—To is a preposition, because ——; meet is a verb, because ——; Goliath is a noun, because ——.

1. I come not here to talk. 2. I rejoice to hear it. 3. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies. 5. To retreat was impossible.

(To is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.)

o retreat - / was impossible ======== ====================

Explanation of the Diagram.—As this phrase subject cannot, in its proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line. The phrase complement may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest on the complement line.

6. The hands refuse to labor. 7. To live is not all of life. 8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom. 9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer themselves. 10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida. 11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose. 12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in 1829.



LESSON 50.

POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.)

Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.)

A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables. The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane. We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule. Here is news from a neighbor boiled down. I found a cent walking over the bridge. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain.

Punctuate the following exercises.

Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army. Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution. Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified. My friend seeing me in need offered his services. James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall. The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them.

To the Teacher.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from George Eliot.



LESSON 51.

REVIEW.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and 41.)

There never was such another man. He was an old venerable patriarch.

John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look. He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow.

Pass me them potatoes.

Put your trust not in money. We have often occasion for thanksgiving,

Now this is to be done how? Nothing can justify ever profanity.

To continually study is impossible.

(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition to and the infinitive.)

Mary likes to tastefully dress. Learn to carefully choose your words.

She looks queerly. Give me a soon and direct answer.

The post stood firmly. The eagle flies highly. The orange tastes sweetly.

I feel tolerable well. The branch breaks easy. Thistles grow rapid. The eagle flies swift. This is a miserable poor pen.

A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family. A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments.

Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen. He went out attended with a servant. I have a dislike to such tricksters. We have no prejudice to foreigners. She don't know nothing about it. Father wouldn't give me none. He hasn't been sick neither. I won't have no more nohow.

To the Teacher.—Let the reason be given for every correction.



LESSON 52.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as modifiers.

Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running; having been running.

Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the participial form of the verb as a participle, in the first; the same form as an adjective, in the second; and as a noun, in the third.

Model.—The stream flows. The stream, flowing gently, crept through the meadow. The flowing stream slipped away to the sea. The flowing of the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide ebbs.

Form infinitive phrases from the following verbs, and use these phrases as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns, in sentences of your own building.

Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try.

To the Teacher.—For exercises to distinguish the participle from the predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182.



LESSON 53.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—In the sentence, The robin's eggs are blue, the noun robin's does what? P.—It tells what or whose eggs are blue. T.—What word names the things owned or possessed? P.—Eggs. T.—What word names the owner or possessor? P.—Robin's.

T.—The noun robin's is here used as a modifier. You see that this word, which I have written on the board, is the word robin with a little mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter s added. These are added to denote possession.

In the sentence, Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire, the noun statesman modifies the subject Webster by explaining what or which Webster is meant. Both words name the same person.

Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of Noun Modifiers—the Possessive and the Explanatory.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring.

sister (Mary) has lost ring ============== =========='============ Julia's her diamond

Explanation of the Diagram.—Mary is written on the subject line, because Mary and sister both name the same person, but the word Mary is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that sister is the proper grammatical subject.

In oral analysis, call Julia's and Mary modifiers of the subject, sister, because Julia's tells whose sister, and Mary explains sister by adding another name of the same person. Her is a modifier of the object, because it tells whose ring is meant.

Julia's sister Mary is the modified subject, the predicate is unmodified, and her diamond ring is the modified object complement.

1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. 2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever.

mother ======== wife's Peter's

4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. 5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne. 6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. 7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. 8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the world. 9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the Ishmaelites. 10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: Alexander the Great may be taken as one name, or Great may be called an explanatory modifier of Alexander.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle. 11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread. 12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. 13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword.



LESSON 54.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to equivalent phrases; as, Arnold's treason = the treason of Arnold. Here the preposition of indicates possession, the same relation expressed by the apostrophe (') and s. Change the following possessive nouns to equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

Model.—The earth's surface. The surface of the earth is made up of land and water.

The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the moon.

Find for the things mentioned below, other names which shall describe or explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

Model.—Ink.—Ink, a dark fluid, is used in writing.

Observe the following rule.

COMMA-RULE.—An Explanatory Modifier, when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma.

To the Teacher.—See Notes, pp. 176, 177.

New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln, Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare.

Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain.

To the Teacher.—For additional exercises in the use of possessive modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183.



LESSON 55.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW.

1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state. 2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. 3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames. 4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean. 5. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all vegetables. 7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. 8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again. 9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave. 10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air. 12. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size the half of the state of New York.



LESSON 56.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED.

1. We are never too old to learn. 2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense. 3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally admitted. 4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking display of Almighty power. 5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans. 7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children. 8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first president of the Jamestown colony. 9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. 10. True worth is modest and retiring. 11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh.



LESSON 57.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded into a phrase or into an expression that asserts.

T.—A wise man will be honored. Expand wise into a phrase, and give me the sentence. P.—A man of wisdom will be honored. T.—Expand wise into an expression that asserts, join this to man, as a modifier, and then give me the entire sentence. P.—A man who is wise will be honored.

T.—You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways—A wise man, A man of wisdom, A man who is wise.

Let the pupils give similar examples.

T.—In the sentence, A man who is wise will be honored, the word who stands for what? P.—For the noun man. T.—Then what part of speech is it? P.—A pronoun.

T.—Put the noun man in the place of the pronoun who, and then give me the sentence. P.—A man, man is wise, will be honored.

T.—I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words—A man will be honored. Man is wise. Is the last sentence now joined to the first as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? P.—They are two separate sentences.

T.—Then you see that the pronoun who not only stands for the noun man, but it connects the modifying expression, who is wise, to man, the subject of the sentence, A man will be honored, and thus there is formed what we call a Complex Sentence. These two parts we call Clauses. A man will be honored is the Independent Clause; who is wise is the Dependent Clause.

Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called Adjective Clauses.

DEFINITION.—A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate.

DEFINITION.—A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.

DEFINITION.—An Independent Clause is one not dependent on another clause.

DEFINITION.—A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.

DEFINITION.—A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—

man will be honored ========= ================== A ' ' ' who ' is wise -

Explanation of the Diagram.—You will notice that the lines standing for the subject and predicate of the independent clause are heavier than those of the dependent clause. This pictures to you the relative importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun who is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines, to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that who is wise is a modifier of man.

Oral Analysis.—This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. A man will be honored is the independent clause; who is wise is the dependent clause. Man is the subject of the independent clause; will be honored is the predicate. The word A and the clause, who is wise, are modifiers of the subject. A points out man, and who is wise tells the kind of man. A man who is wise is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. Who is the subject of the dependent clause, is is the predicate, and wise is the attribute complement. Who connects the two clauses.

1. He that runs may read. 2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. 4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. 5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. 6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. 7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. 8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate. 12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to mend them.

The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun complement.

COMMA—RULE.—The adjective or the adverb clause, when it does not closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the comma.



LESSON 58.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following adjectives into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own construction.

who has energy, Model. Energetic; of energy; + or who is energetic.

An energetic man will succeed. A man of energy will succeed. A man who has energy (or who is energetic) will succeed.

Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy.

Expand each of the following possessive nouns into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences.

Model.—Saturn's rings; the rings of Saturn; the rings which surround Saturn.

Saturn's rings can be seen with a telescope. The rings of Saturn can be seen with a telescope. The rings which surround Saturn can be seen, with a telescope.

Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses.

The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the world.

To the Teacher.—For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.



LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADVERB CLAUSE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was carefully read = The book was read with care.

We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an Adverb clause. In the sentence, We started at sunrise, what phrase is used like an adverb? P.—At sunrise. T.—Expand this phrase into an equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. P.—We started when the sun rose.

T.—You see that the phrase, at sunrise, and the clause, when the sun rose, both modify started, telling the time of starting, and are therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses Adverb Clauses.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—

We started ======== ============ ' when sun rose ====== ======== he

Explanation of the Diagram.—The line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part shows that when modifies started; the lower part, that it modifies rose; and the dotted part shows that it connects.

Oral Analysis.—This is a complex sentence, because ——; We started is the independent clause, and when the sun rose is the dependent clause. We is the subject of the independent clause, and started is the predicate. The clause, when the sun rose, is a modifier of the predicate, because it tells when we started. Started when the sun rose is the modified predicate.

Sun is the subject of the dependent clause, and rose is the predicate, and the is a modifier of sun; the sun is the modified subject. When modifies rose and started, and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate started.

Parsing of when.—When is an adverb modifying the two verbs started and rose, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time.

1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. 2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. 5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. 6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies within me. 10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 11. He died as the fool dieth. 12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.



LESSON 60.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building.

Model.—At sunset; when the sun set. We returned when the sun set.

At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with my friend.

To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, and so make complex sentences.

—— Peter began to sink. The man dies ——. Grass grows ——. Iron —— can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ——. —— a nation mourns. Pittsburg stands ——. He dared to lead ——.

To the Teacher.—For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from the Brothers Grimm.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.



LESSON 61.

THE NOUN CLAUSE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—That stars are suns is taught by astronomers. What is taught by astronomers? P.—That stars are suns. T.—What then is the subject of is taught? P.—The clause, That stars are suns. T.—This clause then performs the office of what part of speech? P.—Of a noun.

T.—Astronomers teach that stars are suns. What do astronomers teach? P.—That stars are suns. T.—What is the object complement of teach? P.—The clause, that stars are suns. T.—What office then does this clause perform? P.—That of a noun.

T.—The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns. What does is assert of teaching? P.—That stars are suns. T.—What then is the attribute complement? P.—That stars are suns. T.—Does this complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same thing that the subject names? P.—It names the same thing that the subject names. T.—It is equivalent then to what part of speech? P.—To a noun.

T.—You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence.

Analysis and Parsing.

Model.—

That ' stars are 'suns ======= ============ / is taught ================ ============ y astronomers

You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in Lesson 49.

Oral Analysis.—This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause. That stars are suns is the dependent clause. That stars are suns is the subject of the whole sentence, etc. ——. That simply introduces the dependent clause.

In parsing, call that a conjunction.

1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. 2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls. 3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. 5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. 9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without representation is unjust. 10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. 11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. 12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the dead.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

DEFINITION.—A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more independent clauses.

Model.—War has ceased, and peace has come.

War has ceased ====== ============ ' ' and '..... ' peace has ' come ======== ==============

Explanation of the Diagram.—These two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience.

Oral Analysis.—This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ——.

1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. 2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. 5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. 6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets move in orbits around the sun. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. 11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their calumniators. 12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.



LESSON 63.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—You have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?

P.—The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.

T.—These classes have been made with regard to the form of the sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their meaning.

Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings! Here are four simple sentences. Do they all mean the same thing?

P.—They do not.

T.—Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the first a Declarative sentence, the second an Interrogative sentence, the third an Imperative sentence, and the fourth an Exclamatory sentence.

DEFINITION.—A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or to deny.

DEFINITION.—An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses a question.

DEFINITION.—An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.

DEFINITION.—An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.

INTERROGATION POINT—RULE.—Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point. [Footnote: To The Teacher.—See Notes, pp. 178, 179.]

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences, and tell how the change was made.

Model.—Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What girls can skate? You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.

Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that independent words are set off by the comma.

Model.—Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo. George plays the flute. Birdie stands on one leg.

Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.

Model.—You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are! You are so happy!

Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.

Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics.

Weather, lightning, a stage coach.



LESSON 64.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their form, and then with reference to their meaning.

1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. 2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. 7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. 8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: Cassius is independent, and may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of be deceived is thou, or you, understood.] 11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! 12. Which is the largest city in the world?



LESSON 65.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED,

1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. 2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world. 4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 5. Make hay while the sun shines. 6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? 8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, pointing towards the throat. 9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I raise!" 10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. 11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. 12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill.



LESSON 66.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.

I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. In correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson 41. He was an independent small farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer lived on the hudson.



LESSON 67.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.

Model.—An able man was chosen. A prudent man was chosen. An honorable man was chosen. An able, prudent, and honorable man was chosen.

Pure water is destitute of color. Pure water is destitute of taste. Pure water is destitute of smell.

Cicero was the greatest orator of his age. Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.

Daisies peeped up here. Daisies peeped up there. Daisies peeped up everywhere.

Expand each of the following sentences into three.

The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States. The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.

Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers.

Model.—Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII. Elizabeth was sister of Queen Mary. Elizabeth was the patron of literature. Elizabeth defeated the Armada. Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the patron of literature, defeated the Armada.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. Boston is the Athens of America. Boston is the "Hub of the Universe." Boston has crooked streets.

Expand the following sentence into four sentences.

Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still live," on his lips.



LESSON 68.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

To the Teacher.—For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. 176-180.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses.

Model.—People living in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food. A house built upon the rock will stand. The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson. Wellington was a man of iron will.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases.

Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported. The house which was built upon the sand fell. A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever. Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses.

Model.—Birds return in the spring. When spring comes, the birds return.

The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases.

The ship started when the tide was at flood. When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.

By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following expressions.

—— is a well-known fact. The fact was ——. Ben. Franklin said ——.



LESSON 69.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words: letters, name, sound. Into what classes are letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What is the difference between the two expressions, ripe apples and apples are ripe? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes called articles? When is a used? When is an used? Illustrate. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, 15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).



LESSON 70.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What different offices may a noun perform? Ans.—A noun may be used as a subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently. Illustrate each use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? Ans.—Pronouns, phrases, and clauses. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? Ans.—Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).

To the Teacher.—For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185.

If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish matter.

See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from Beecher.



PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.

LESSON 71.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.

The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom. So, after grouping words into the eight great classes, called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. For instance, take the two nouns city and Brooklyn. The word city is the common name of all places of a certain class, but the word Brooklyn is the proper or particular name of an individual of this class. We have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call Common and Proper.

Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.

To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as music, mathematics, knowledge, etc., are common nouns. Music, e. g., is not a proper noun, for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class. There are no other things of the same class—it forms a class by itself. So we call the noun music a common noun.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun I instead. In speaking to a person, we often use the pronoun you instead of his name. In speaking of a person or thing that has been mentioned before, we say he or she or it. These words that by their form indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are called Personal Pronouns. See Lesson 19, "Hints."

Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns.

When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in another clause, and at the same time to connect the clauses, we use a class of pronouns called Relative Pronouns. Let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns who, which, and that. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral Instruction."

When we wish to ask about anything whose name is unknown, we use a class of pronouns called Interrogative Pronouns. The interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, Who comes here? What is this?

Both men were wrong. Let us omit men and say, Both were wrong. You see the meaning is not changed—both is here equivalent to both men, that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is therefore an Adjective Pronoun. Let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words each, all, many, some, such, etc.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class.

A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses.

An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked.

An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun.



LESSON 72.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule, Lesson 15.

webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.

george washington commander army revolution president united states westmoreland state virginia month february.

san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships sandwich islands japan china australia.

Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal pronouns: I, thou or you, he, she, and it.

Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative pronouns: who, which, that, and what.

What is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express the antecedent, we use which or that. I shall do what is required; I shall do the thing which is required, or that is required.

Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns: who, which, and what.

Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective pronouns: few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those.



LESSON 73.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—When I say large, round, sweet, yellow oranges, the words large, round, sweet, and yellow modify the word oranges by telling the kind, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind.

When I say this orange, yonder orange, one orange, the words this, yonder, and one do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered.

Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called Descriptive adjectives.

Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called Definitive adjectives.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.

DEFINITIONS.

A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by expressing quality.

A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed descriptive, and the other definitive, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as modifiers. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it.

Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.

Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed as attribute complements. Let some of these attributes be compound.

Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish, clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.

Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed.

Some of these adjectives have the form of participles, and some are derived from proper nouns.

CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter.

Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss, Irish, Chinese.



LESSON 74.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—The man caught makes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement fish, I complete the assertion and form a sentence—The man caught fish. The action expressed by caught passes over from the man to the fish. Transitive means passing over, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called Transitive verbs.

Fish swim. The verb swim does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simply being or state of being, are called Intransitive verbs.

Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them.

When I say, I crush the worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. I crushed the worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. As tense means time, we call the form crush the present tense of the verb, and crushed the past tense. In the sentence, The worm crushed under my foot died, crushed, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it a past participle. Now notice that ed was added to crush, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding ed, and so we call such Regular verbs.

I see the man; I saw the man; The man seen by me ran away. I catch fish in the brook; I caught fish in the brook; The fish caught in the brook tasted good. Here the verbs see and catch do not form their past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present, and so we call them Irregular verbs.

Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object. [Footnote: The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the object complement, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed Caesar, Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.]

An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. [Footnote: If the present ends in e, the e is dropped when ed is added; as, love, loved; believe, believed.]

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed transitive and the other, intransitive. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headed regular and the other, irregular. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.

Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, scramble, rattle, draw.

Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.

Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.

A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways.

Model.—The wren sings sweetly.

The wren sings a pretty little song.

Bend, ring, break, dash, move.



LESSON 75.

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—When I say, He will come soon, or presently, or often, or early, I am using, to modify will come, words which express the time of coming. These and all such adverbs we call Adverbs of Time.

He will come up, or hither, or here, or back. Here I use, to modify will come, words which express place. These and all such adverbs we call Adverbs of Place.

When I say, The weather is so cold, or very cold, or intensely cold, the words so, very, and intensely modify the adjective cold by expressing the degree of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call Adverbs of Degree.

When I say, He spoke freely, wisely, and well, the words freely, wisely, and well tell how or in what manner he spoke. All such adverbs we call Adverbs of Manner.

Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them.

DEFINITIONS.

Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the question, When?

_Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question, Where?

Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question, To what extent?

Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question, In what way?_

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made—if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column—then build each adverb into a simple sentence.

Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.

Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called Conjunctive Adverbs.

The following dependent clauses are introduced by conjunctive adverbs. Build them into complex sentences by supplying independent clauses.

——— when the ice is smooth; ——— while we sleep; ——— before winter comes; ——— where the reindeer lives; ——— wherever you go.



LESSON 76.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]

Hints for Oral Instruction.—Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects of can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word and connects the subjects of can jump, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank are called Co-ordinate Conjunctions.

If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me. Here if joins the clause, you have tears, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause, prepare to shed them now; and because connects you need me, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause, I will go. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a higher rank are called Subordinate Conjunctions.

Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words subordinate and co-ordinate.

DEFINITIONS.

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank.

Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build four short sentences for each of the three co-ordinate conjunctions that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses.

And, or, but.

Write four short complex sentences containing the four subordinate conjunctions that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses.

That, for, if, because.



LESSON 77.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronoun I be used to stand for the one spoken to?—the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its form the speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses?

For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? Ans.—The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question.

Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class.

Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples.

Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)

To the Teacher.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement— Selection from Dr. John Brown.

We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued.



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

LESSON 78.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of the parts of speech, we call their Modifications.

The boy shouts. The boys shout. I have changed the form of the subject boy by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy denotes one lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called Number. The word boy, denoting one thing, is in the Singular Number; and boys, denoting more than one thing, is in the Plural Number.

Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them.

DEFINITIONS.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their form, meaning, and use.

NUMBER.

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one.

The Singular Number denotes one thing.

The Plural Number denotes more than one thing.

RULE.—The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, shovel.

When a singular noun ends in the sound of s, x, z, sh, or ch, it is not easy to add the sound of s, so es is added to make another syllable.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas, tax, adz, brush, arch.

Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding es without increasing the number of syllables.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.

Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing y into i and adding es without increasing the number of syllables.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.

Some nouns ending in f and fe form the plural by changing f or fe into ves without increasing the number of syllables.

Write the plural of the following nouns.

Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, knife, wife.



LESSON 79.

NUMBER.

From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: 1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those that are alike in both numbers.

Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, swine, heathen.

The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the plurals.

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Man, men. Foot, feet. Woman, women. Ox, oxen. Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Mouse, mice. Goose, geese.

Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding Lesson.

Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, roofs, scarfs, inches.



LESSON 80.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—GENDER.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. In the first sentence, something was said about a male lion; and in the second, something was said about a female lion. Modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object, we call Gender. Knowing the sex of the object, you know the gender of its name. The word lion, denoting a male animal, is in the Masculine Gender; and lioness, denoting a female lion, is in the Feminine Gender.

The names of things without sex are in the Neuter Gender.

Such words as cousin, child, friend, neighbor, may be either masculine or feminine.

+DEFINITIONS.

Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex.

The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex.

The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex+.

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:—

1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.

2d. By different words in the compound names.

3d. By words wholly or radically different.

Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways.

Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.



LESSON 81.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—PERSON AND CASE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—Number and gender, as you have already learned, are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns. Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns, but to their different uses and relations. In the English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of form.

I Paul have written. Paul, thou art beside thyself. He brought Paul before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has three different uses. In the first, it is used as the name of the speaker; in the second, as the name of one spoken to; in the third, as the name of one spoken of. You will notice that the form of the noun was not changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called Person. The word I in the first sentence, the word thou in the second, and the word he in the third have each a different use. I, thou, and he are personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish person by their form. I, denoting the speaker, is in the First Person; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the Second Person; and he, denoting the one spoken of, is in the Third Person.

Personal pronouns and verbs are the only words that distinguish person by their form.

The bear killed the man. The man killed the bear. The bear's grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as performing an action; in the second, as receiving an action; in the third, as possessing something. So the word bear in these sentences has three different uses. These uses of nouns are called Cases. The use of a noun as subject is called the Nominative Case; its use as object is called the Objective Case; and its use to denote possession is called the Possessive Case.

The possessive is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in form.

A noun or pronoun used as an attribute complement is in the nominative case. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in the objective case. I and he are nominative forms. Me and him are objective forms.

The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is me; It is him; Me gave the pen to he.

+DEFINITIONS.

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.

The First Person denotes the one speaking.

The Second Person denotes the one spoken to.

The Third Person denotes the one spoken of.

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence.

The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement.

The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier.

The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.



LESSON 82.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—PERSON AND CASE.

Tell the person and case of each of the following nouns and pronouns.

Remember that a noun or pronoun used as an explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative case.

We Americans do things in a hurry. You Englishmen take more time to think. The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation. We boys desire a holiday. Come on, my men; I will lead you. I, your teacher, desire your success. You, my pupils, are attentive. I called on Tom, the tinker. Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.

Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in the three persons and in the three cases.

Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.

Write a sentence containing a noun in the nominative case, used as an attribute; one in the nominative, used as an explanatory modifier; one in the nominative, used independently.

Write a sentence containing a noun in the objective case, used to complete two predicate verbs; one used to complete a participle; one used to complete an infinitive; one used with a preposition to make a phrase; one used as an explanatory modifier.

To the Teacher.—See pp. 183, 184.



LESSON 83.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—DECLENSION.

DEFINITION.—Declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers.

Declension of Nouns.

LADY.

Singular. Plural. Nom. lady, ladies, Pos. lady's, ladies', Obj. lady; ladies.

CHILD.

Singular. Plural. Nom. child, children, Pos. child's, children's, Obj. child; children.

Declension of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON.

Singular. Plural. Nom. I, we, Pos. my or mine, our or ours, Obj. me; us.

SECOND PERSON—common form.

Singular. Plural. Nom. you, you, Pos. your or yours, your or yours, Obj. you; you.

SECOND PERSON—old form.

Singular. Plural. Nom. thou, ye or you, Pos. thy or thine, your or yours, Obj. thee; you.

THIRD PERSON—masculine.

Singular. Plural. Nom. he, they, Pos. his, their or theirs, Obj. him; them.

THIRD PERSON—feminine.

Singular. Plural. Nom. she, they, Pos. her or hers, their or theirs, Obj. her; them.

THIRD PERSON——neuter.

Singular. Plural. Nom. it, they, Pos. its, their or theirs, Obj. it; them.

Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is yours = This rose is your rose.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

By joining the word self to the possessive forms my, thy, your, and to the objective forms him, her, it, the Compound Personal Pronouns are formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and the objective.

Their plurals are ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Form the compound personal pronouns, and write their declension.

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

Sing. and Plu. Nom. who, Pos. whose, Obj. whom.

Sing. and Plu. Nom. which, Pos. whose, Obj. which.

Of which is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun.

Sing. and Plu. Nom. that, Pos. ——, Obj. that.

Sing. and Plu. Nom. what, Pos. ——, Obj. what.

Ever and soever are added to who, which, and what to form the Compound Relative Pronouns. They are used when the antecedent is omitted. For declension, see above.



LESSON 84.

POSSESSIVE FORMS.

RULE.—The possessive case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter s ('s); in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in s, the apostrophe and the s are both added.

Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of the following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.

Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief, fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.

Possession may be expressed also by the preposition of and the objective; as, the mosquito's bill = the bill of the mosquito.

The possessive sign ('s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons and animals.

We do not say the chair's legs, but the legs of the chair. Regard must be had also to the sound.

IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.

The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.

When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, the sign is added to each.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.

Model.—Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's and Field's book-store.

The possessive sign should be added to Webster, for the word dictionary is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to Ticknor, for the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.

Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's teacher was ——.

When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I called at Tom's the tinker's. They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence. This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.



LESSON 85.

FORMS OF THE PRONOUN.

Remember that I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are nominative forms, and must not be used in the objective case.

Remember that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are objective forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.

To the Teacher.—The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Him and me are good friends. The two persons were her and me. Us girls had a jolly time. It is them, surely. Who will catch this? Me. Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. Who is there? Me. It was not us, it was him. Who did you see? Who did you ask for?

Remember that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Every boy must read their own sentences. I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it. Every one must read it for themselves. I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.

Remember that the relative who represents persons; which, animals and things; that, persons, animals, and things; and what, things.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I have a dog who runs to meet me. The boy which I met was quite lame. Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

To the Teacher.—For "Schemes," see p. 186.

How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is declension? How are the forms mine, yours, etc., now used? What is the rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote: Her is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the number, gender, and person of pronouns?



LESSON 86.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS—PARSING.

To the Teacher.—For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189.

Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53.

Model for Written Parsing.—Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.

Elizabeth's CLASSIFICATION. Nouns. Kind. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d Number. Sing. Gender. Fem. Case. Pos. SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. of favorite.

favorite CLASSIFICATION. Nouns. Kind. Com. MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d Number. Sing. Gender. Mas. Case. Nom. SYNTAX. Sub. of was beheaded.

Raleigh CLASSIFICATION. Nouns. Kind. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d Number. Sing. Gender. Mas. Case. Nom. SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. of favorite.

James I. CLASSIFICATION. Nouns. Kind. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d Number. Sing. Gender. Mas. Case. Obj. SYNTAX. Prin. word after by.

To the Teacher.—Select other exercises, and continue this work as long as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65.



LESSON 87.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives have one modification; viz., Comparison.

DEFINITIONS.

Comparison is a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.

The Positive degree expresses the simple quality.

The Comparative degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality.

The Superlative degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality.

RULE.—Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative.

Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared regularly; adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing more and most.

When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily pronounced.

Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your dictionaries.

Model.—Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Lovely, lovelier, loveliest; or lovely, more lovely, most lovely.

Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, hot.

Some adjectives are compared irregularly. Learn the following forms.

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good, better, best. Bad, Evil, + worse, worst. Ill, Little, less, least. Much, Many, more, most.



LESSON 88.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

Remember that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the comparative degree is commonly used; when more than two, the superlative is employed.

Caution.—Adjectives should not be doubly compared.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Of all the boys, George is the more industrious. Peter was older than the twelve apostles. Which is the longer of the rivers of America? This was the most unkindest cut of all. He chose a more humbler part. My hat is more handsomer than yours. The younger of those three boys is the smarter. Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?

Caution.—Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

The weather is horrid. That dress is perfectly awful. Your coat sits frightfully. We had an awfully good time. This is a tremendously hard lesson. Harry is a mighty nice boy.

Remember that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared; as, every, universal.

Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison.

All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, three-legged, bright.

Adverbs are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following are compared regularly. Compare them.

Fast, often, soon, late, early.

In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as adjectives.

The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.

Pos. Comp. Sup. —————- ————— ———— Badly, Ill, worse, worst. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest.

Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more and most. Compare the following.

Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.

To the Teacher.—Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. 188.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How are adverbs compared?



LESSON 89.

MODIFICATION OF VERBS.

VOICE.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—I picked the rose. I will tell the same thing in another way. The rose was picked by me. The first verb picked shows that the subject I represents the actor, and the second form of the verb, was picked, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called Voice. The first form is called the Active Voice; and the second, the Passive Voice.

The passive form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor. Money is coined is better than somebody coins money.

DEFINITIONS.

Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon.

The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor.

The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon.

In each of the following sentences, change the voice of the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in the sentence.

The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. The storm drove the vessel against the rock. Our words should be carefully chosen. Death separates the dearest friends. His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health. True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor. The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the Peninsula, never lost a battle. Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. The English were conquered by the Normans.

Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their voice.



LESSON 90.

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.

Hints for Oral Instruction.—When I say, James walks, I assert the walking as a fact. When I say, James may walk, I do not assert the action as a fact, but as a possible action. When I say, If James walk out, he will improve, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a condition of James's, improving. When I say to James, Walk out, I do not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a command.