It is a remarkable fact that notwithstanding the numerous devotees to that art which included many of the gentler sex, reproductions of whose skill in "Indian" ink are to be found engraved in magnificent publications, both in book and other forms, there is no mention in them or in any others included within this period about the necessity of using any other DURABLE ink for record or commercial purposes.

As indicative in some degree of the progress of the art of handwriting and handwriting materials, commencing A. D. 1525 and ending A. D. 1814, I present herewith a compilation of the names of over one hundred of the best known calligraphers and authors of the world, and not to be found as a whole in any public or private library. It is arranged in chronological order.

1525.

The first English essay on the subject of "Curious Calligraphy" was by a woman who from all accounts possessed most remarkable facility in the use of the pen as well as a knowledge of languages. Her name was Elizabeth Lucar; as she was born in London in 1510 and died 1537, her work must have been accomplished when only fifteen years of age.

1540.

Roger Ascham, best known as the tutor of Queen Elizabeth.

1570.

Peter Bales, author of many works, "The Writing Schoolmaster," which he published in three parts, being the best known. He was also a microscopic writer. His rooms were at the sign of "The Hand and Golden Pen," London.

1571.

John de Beauchesne, teacher of the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King James I. Author of many copy books.

1588.

John Mellis, "Merchants Accounts," etc.

1600.

Elizabeth Jane Weston, of London and Prague, wrote many poems in old Latin.

1600.

Hester Inglis, "The Psalms of David."

1601.

John Davies, "The Writing Schoolmaster, or Anatomy of Fair Writing."

1616.

Richard Gething, "The Hand and Pen; 1645, "Chirographia" and many others.

1618.

Martin Billingsley, "The Writing Schoolmaster, or the Anatomie of Fair Writing." This author was writing master to King Charles I.

1622.

David Brown, who was scribe to King James I. "Calligraphia."

1622.

William Comley, "Copy-Book of all the most usual English Hands," etc.

1646.

Josiah Ricrafte, "The Peculiar Character of the Oriental Languages."

1650.

Louis Hughes, "Plain and Easy Directions to Fair Writing."

1650.

John Johnson, "The Usual Practices of Fair and Speedy Writing."

1651.

John Clithers, "The Pens Paradise," dedicated to Prince Charles.

1652.

James Seamer, "A Compendium of All the Usual Hands Written in England."

1657.

Edward Cocker, penman and engraver, famous in his time for the number and variety of his productions. Author of "The Pen's Triumph," "The Artist's Glory," "England's Penman," and many more.

1659.

James Hodder, "The Penman's Recreation," etc.

1660.

John Fisher, "The Pen's Treasury."

1663.

Richard Daniel, "A Compendium of many hands of Various Countries."

1669.

Peter Story or Stent, "Fair Writing of Several Hands in Use."

1678.

William Raven, "An Exact Copy of the Court Hand."

1680.

Peter Ivers, famous for his engrossing and drawings.

1680.

Thomas Watson, "Copy-Book of Alphabets."

1681.

John Pardie, "An Essay on the German Text and Old Print Alphabets."

1681.

Thomas Weston, "Ancilla Calligraphiae."

1681.

Peter Gery, "Copy book of all the Hands in use, Performed according to the Natural Freeness of the Pen."

1681.

William Elder, "Copy-book of the most useful and necessary Hands now used in England."

1683.

John Ayers, "Tutor to Penmanship," and many others.

1684.

Caleb Williams, "Nuncius Oris," written and engraved by himself.

1693.

Charles Snell, "The Penman's Treasury Opened;" 1712, "Art of Writing in Theory and Practice;" 1714, "Standard Rules," etc.

1695.

Richard Alleine, writing master.

1695.

Eleazer Wigin, "The Hand and Pen."

1695.

John Sedden, "The Penman's Paradise."

1696.

John Eade, writing master.

1699.

Joseph Alleine, published several books about writing and accounts.

1699.

Robert More, "The Writing Masters Assistant." 1725. "The General Penman."

1700.

John Beckham, father of the celebrated George Beckham, wrote and engraved several pieces for "The Universal Penman."

1700.

Edward Smith, "The Mysteries of the Pen in fifteen Hands, Unfolded," etc.

1700.

Henry Legg, "Writing and Arithmetic."

1702.

William Banson, "The Merchants Penman."

1703.

John Dundas, microscopic writer.

1705.

George Shelley, "The Penmans Magazine." In 1730 he wrote several pages for "Bickman's Universal Penman."

1708.

John Clark, "The Penmans Diversion."

1709.

James Heacock, writing master.

1709.

George Shelley, "Natural writing in all hands."

1711.

George Bickham, one of the most famous of writers of his time, born 1684, died 1758, author of "The Universal Penman." He published many works. 1711, "The British Penman;" 1731, "Penmanship in its utmost Beauty and Extent" and "The Universal Penman" are the best known.

1709.

John Rayner, "Paul's Scholars Copy-Book."

1711.

Humphrey Johnson, "Youth's Recreation: a Copy-Book of Writing done by Command of Hand."

1712.

William Webster, writing and mathematics. 1730, wrote several pages for "The Universal Penman."

1713.

Thomas Ollyffe, "The Hand and Pen." 1714, "The Practical Penman."

1717.

William Brooks, "Delightful Recreation for the Industrious." Contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1717.

Abraham Nicholas, "Various Examples of Penmanship." 1722, "The Compleat Writing Master." Wrote also for "The Universal Penman."

1719.

Ralph Snow, "Youths Introduction to Handwriting."

1720.

William Richards, "The Complete Penman."

1723.

John Jarman, "A System of Court Hands."

1724.

Henry Lune, "Round Hand Complete."

1725.

John Shortland, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1725.

Edward Dawson, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1726.

Moses Gratwick, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1727.

John Langton, "The Italien Hand."

1728.

John Day, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1729.

Gabriel Brooks, writing master and contributor to, "The Universal Penman."

1730.

William Keppax, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1730.

John Bland, "Essay in Writing." Also contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1730.

Solomon Cook, "The Modish Round Hand."

1730.

William Leckey, "A Discourse on the Use of the Pen." Contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1730.

Peter Norman, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1730.

Wellington Clark, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1730.

Zachary Chambers, "Vive la Plume." Contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1733.

Bright Whilton, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1734.

Timothy Treadway, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1738.

George J. Bickham, writing master; also wrote for "Bickham's Universal Penman."

1739.

Emanuel Austin, writing master; he wrote 22 pages in "The Universal Penman."

1739.

Samuel Vaux, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1740.

Jeremiah Andrews, writing master and tutor to King George III.

1740.

Nathaniel Dove, "The Progress of Time," and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1741.

John Blande, "Essay in Writing; 1730, contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1741.

Richard Morris, writing master and contributor to "The Universal Penman."

1747.

Mary Johns, microscopic writer and author.

1749.

Charles Woodham, "A Specimen of Writing, in the most Useful Hands now Practised in England."

1750.

John Oldfield, "Honesty." He wrote one piece in "The Universal Penman."

1750.

Joseph Champion, "The Parallel or Comparative Penmanship." 1762, "The Living Hands."

1751.

Edward Lloyd, "Young Merchants Assistant."

1758.

Richard Clark, "Practical and Ornamental Penmanship."

1760.

Benjamin Webb, writer of copy books, etc.

1762.

William Chinnery, "The Compendious Emblematist."

1763.

William Massey, "The Origin and Progress of Letters," containing valuable information about the art.

1769.

John Gardner, "Introduction to the Counting House."

1780.

Edward Powell, writing master and designer.

1784.

E. Butterworth, "The Universal Penman" in two parts, published in Edinburgh.

1795.

William Milns, "The Penman's Repository."

1799.

William G. Wheatcroft, "The Modern Penman."

1814.

John Carstairs, "Tachygraphy, or the Flying Pen." 2. "Writing made easy, etc."

Illustrated works on the subject of penmanship of contemporaneous times and not of English origin are but few. The best known are:

1543.

Luduvico Vicentino, "A Copy book" published in Rome, seems to have been the first.

1570.

Il perfetto Scrittore (The Perfect Writer) by Francesco Cresci, published in Rome.

1605.

Spieghel der Schrijkfkonste (or Mirror of Penmanship) written by Van den Velde, published in Amsterdam.

1612.

"Writing and Ink Recipes," by Peter Caniparius, Venice and London.

1700.

Der Getreue Schreibemeister (or True Writing Master), by Johann Friedr Vicum, published in Dresden.

From 1602 to 1709 many "Indian" ink specimens were extant and are still of the different schools of penmanship. The productions of Phrysius, Materot and Barbedor illustrating the French style, Vignon, Sellery and others, for the Italian hand, and Overbique and Smythers for the German text, and Ambrosius Perlengh and Hugo, with a few more, complete the list.



CHAPTER XII.

STUDY OF INK.

LACK OF INTEREST AS TO THE COMPOSITION OF INK DURING PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY—THE CONDITIONS WHICH THEN PREVAILED NEARLY THE SAME AS THE PRESENT TIME—CHEMISTRY OF INK NOT UNDERSTOOD— THIS LACK OF INFORMATION NOT CONFINED TO ANY PARTICULAR COUNTRY—LEWIS, IN 1765, BEGINS A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION ON THE SUBJECT OF INKS —THE RESULTS AND HIS CONCLUSIONS PUBLISHED IN 1797—THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND IN 1787 RECEIVES COMPLAINTS ABOUT THE INFERIORITY OF INKS —ITS SECRETARY READS A PAPER THE SAME YEAR—THE PAPER CITED IN FULL—DR. BOSTOCK IN 1830 COMMUNICATES TO THE SOCIETY OF ARTS WHAT HE ESTIMATES TO BE THE CAUSES OF IMPERFECTIONS IN INK— ACTION OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES— COMPLICATIONS SURROUNDING THE MANUFACTURE OF INK ONLY THIRTY-FIVE YEARS AGO.

THE increasing demands for ink, and the lack of interest as to its composition during the eighteenth century, if viewed in the same lights which prevail in our own times, permitted the general manufacture of cheap grades of ink which possessed no very lasting qualities. The chemistry of Inks was not fully understood, indeed we find Professer Turner of the College of Edinburgh declaring in 1827:

"Gallic acid was discovered by Scheele in 1786, and exists ready formed in the bark of many trees, and in gall-nuts. It is always associated with tannin, a substance to which it is allied in a manner hitherto unexplained. It is distinguished from tannin by causing no precipitate in a solution of gelatine. With a salt of iron it forms a dark blue coloured compound, which is the basis of ink. The finest colour is procured when the peroxide and protoxide of iron are mixed together. This character distinguishes gallic acid from every other substance excepting tannin."

The general lack of information or knowledge respecting ink chemistry or its time-phenomena was not confined to any particular country, and it does not appear that any general or specific attention was scientifically directed to it until 1765, when William Lewis, F. R. S., an English chemist, publicly announced that he proposed to investigate the subject. His experimentations covered a period of many years and their results and his theories as to the phenomena of inks were published in 1797. The most valuable of his conclusions were that an excess of iron salt in the ink is detrimental to color permanence (such ink becoming brown on exposure) and also that acetic acid in the menstruum provides an ink of greater body and blackness than sulphuric acid does (a circumstance due to the smaller resistance of acetic acid to the formation of iron gallo-tannate). Many of his other observations were later shown to have been erroneous. Dr. Lewis was the first to advocate log- wood as a tinctorial agent in connection with iron and gall compositions.

Ribaucourt, a French ink maker, in 1798 determined that an excess of galls is quite as injurious to the permanence of ink as an excess of iron.

Pending the completion of the researches of Lewis, the Royal Society of England, affected by complaints from all quarters relative to the inferiority of inks as compared with those of earlier times, brought the subject to the attention of many of its members for discussion and advice. Its secretary, Charles Blagden, M. D., read a paper before the society, June 28, 1787, which was published in the "Philosophical Transactions" and widely circulated. It is so interesting that copious extracts are given:

"In a conversation some time ago with my friend Thomas Astle, Esq., F. R. S. and A. S., relative to the legibility of ancient MSS. a question arose, whether the inks in use eight or ten centuries ago, which are often found to have preserved their colour remarkably well, were made of different materials from those employed in later times, of which many are already become so pale as scarcely to be read. With a view to the decision of this question, Mr. Astle obligingly furnished me with several MSS., on parchment and vellum, from the ninth to the fifteenth centuries inclusively, some of which were still black, and others of different shades of colour, from a deep yellowish brown to a very pale yellow, in some parts so faint as to be scarcely visible. On all of these I made experiments with the chemical re-agents which appeared to me best adapted to the purpose, namely, alkalis both simple and phlogisticated, the mineral acids, and infusions of galls.

"It would be tedious and superfluous to enter into a detail of the particular experiments, as all of them, one instance only excepted, agreed in the general result, to shew that the ink employed anciently, as far as the above-mentioned MSS. extended, was of the same nature as the present; for the letters turned of a reddish or yellow brown with alkalis, became pale, and were at length obliterated, with the dilute mineral acids, and the drop of acid liquor which had extracted a letter, changed to a deep blue or green on the addition of a drop of phlogisticated alkali; moreover, the letters acquired a deeper tinge with the infusion of galls, in some cases more, in others less. Hence it is evident, that one of the ingredients was iron, which there is no reason to doubt was joined with the vitriolic acid; and the colour of the more perfect MSS. which in some was deep black, and in others purplish black, together with the restitution of that colour, in those which had lost it, by the infusion of galls, sufficiently proved that another of the ingredients was a stringent matter, which from history appears to be that of galls. No trace of a black pigment of any sort was discovered, the drop of acid which had completely extracted a letter, appearing of an uniform pale ferrugineous color, without an atom of black powder, or other extraneous matter, floating in it.

"As to the durability of the more ancient inks, it seemed, from what occurred to me in these experiments, to depend very much on a better preparation of the material upon which the writing was made, namely, the parchment or vellum; the blackest letters being those which had sunk into it deepest. Some degree of effervescence was commonly to be perceived when the acids came into contact with the surface of these old vellums. I was led, however, to suspect, that the more modern; for in general the tinge of colour, produced by the phlogisticated alkali in the acid laid upon them, seemed less deep; which, however, might depend in part upon the length of time they have been kept: and perhaps more gum was used in them, or possible they were washed over with some kind of varnish, though not such as gave gloss.

"One of the specimens sent me by Mr. Astle, of the fifteenth century, and the letters were those of an engrossing hand, angular, without any FINE strokes, broad and very black. On this none of the above-mentioned re-agents produced any considerable effect; most of them seemed to make the letters blacker, probably by cleaning the surface; and the acids, after having been rubbed strongly on the letters, did not strike any deeper tinge with the phlogisticated alkali. Nothing had a sensible effect toward obliterating these letters but what took off part of the surface of the vellum, when small rolls, as of a dirty matter, were to be perceived. It is therefore unquestionable, that no iron was used in this ink; and from its resistance to the chemical solvents, as well as a certain clotted appearance in the letters when examined closely, and in some places a slight degree of gloss, I have little doubt but they were formed with a composition of a black, sooty or carbonaceous powder and oil, probably something like our present printer's ink, and am not without suspicion that they were actually printed (a subsequent examination of a larger portion of this supposed MSS. has shown that it is really a part of a very ancient printed book).

"Whilst I was considering of the experiments to be made, in order to ascertain the composition of ancient inks, it occurred to me that perhaps one of the best methods of restoring legibility to decayed writing might be to join phlogisticated alkali with the remaining calx of iron, because, as the quantity of precipitate formed by these two substances very much exceeds that of the iron alone, the bulk of the colouring matter would thereby be greatly augmented. M. Bergman was of opinion that the blue precipitate contains only between a fifth and a sixth part of its weight of iron, and though subsequent experiments tend to show that, in some cases at least, the proportion of iron is much greater, yet upon the whole it is certainly true, that if the iron left by the stroke of a pen were joined to the colouring matter of phlogisticated alkali, the quantity of Prussian blue thence resulting would be much greater than the quantity of black matter originally contained in the ink deposited by the pen, though perhaps the body of colour might not be equally augmented. To bring the idea to the test, I made a few experiments as follows:

"The phlogisticated alkali was rubbed upon the bare writing in different quantities, but in general with little effect. In a few instances, however, it gave a bluish tinge to the letters, and increased their intensity, probably where something of an acid nature had contributed to the diminution of their colour.

"Reflecting that when phlogisticated alkali forms its blue precipitate with iron the metal is first usually dissolved in an acid, I was next induced to try the effect of adding a dilute mineral acid to writing besides the alkali. This answered fully to my expectations, the letters changing very speedily to a deep blue colour, of great beauty and intensity.

"It seems of little consequence as to the strength of colour obtained, whether the writing be first wetted with the acid, and then the phlogisticated alkali be touched upon it, or whether the process be inverted, beginning with the alkali; but on another account I think the latter way preferable. For the principal inconvenience which occurs in the proposed method of restoring MSS. is, that the colour frequently spreads, and so much blots the parchment as to detract greatly from the legibility; now this appears to happen in a less degree when the alkali is put on first, and the dilute acid is added upon it.

"The method I have hitherto found to answer best has been to spread the alkali thin with a feather or a bit of stick cut to a blunt point, though the alkali has occasioned no sensible change of colour, yet the moment that the acid comes upon it, every trace of a letter turns at once to a fine blue, which soon acquires its full intensity, and is beyond comparison stronger than the colour of the original trace had been. If now the corner of a bit of blotting paper be carefully and dexterously applied near the letters, in order to suck up the superfluous liquor, the staining of the parchment may be in a great measure avoided: for it is this superfluous liquor which absorbing part of the colouring matter from the letters becomes a dye to whatever it touches. Care must be taken not to bring the blotting paper in contact with the letters, because the colouring matter is soft whilst wet, and may easily be rubbed off. The acid I have chiefly employed has been the marine; but both the vitriolic and nitrous succeed very well. They should undoubtedly be so far diluted as not to be in danger of corroding the parchment, after which the degree of strength does not seem to be a matter of much nicety.

"The method now commonly practiced to restore old writings, is by wetting them with an infusion of galls in white wine."

(See a complicated process for the preparation of such a liquor in Caneparius De Atramentis, A. D. 1660, p. 277)

"This certainly has a great effect; but is subject, in some degree, to the same inconvenience as the phlogisticated alkali, of staining the substance on which the writing was made. Perhaps if, instead of galls themselves, the peculiar acid of or other matter which strikes the black with iron were separated from the simple astringent matter, for which purpose two different processes are given by Piesenbring and by Scheele, this inconvenience might be avoided. It is not improbable, likewise, that a phlogisticated alkali might be prepared better suited to this object than the common; as by rendering it as free as possible from iron, diluting it to a certain degree, or substituting the volatile alkali for the fixed. Experiment would most likely point out many other means of improving the process described above; but in its present state I hope it may be of some use, as it not only brings out a prodigious body of colour upon letters which were before so pale as to be almost invisible, but has the further advantages over the infusions of galls, that it produces its effect immediately, and can be confined to these letters only for which such assistance is wanted."

The Society of Arts in 1830, received a communication from Dr. Bostock, in the course of which he stated that the "tannin, mucilage and extractive matter are without doubt the principal causes of the difficulty which is encountered in the formation of a perfect and durable ink and for a good ink the essential ingredients are gallic acid and a sesqui salt of iron." Owing to his working with galls he was unable to make decisive experiments, but he concludes, and that rightly, that in proportion as ink consists merely of gallate of iron, it is less liable to decomposition and any kind of metamorphosis.

In 1831 the Academy of Sciences in France took up the matter and designated a committee composed of chemists with instructions to study the subject of a permanent ink. After long research it reported that it was unable to recommend any better ink than the tanno-gallate of iron one then in use, but "it should be properly compounded."

Peddington investigated, 1841-48, the ancient MSS. collected by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, and published the results in "Examination of Some Decayed Oriental Works in the Library of the Asiatic Society," which are of much interest as relating to "mineral" inks, the "gall" inks being unknown in Asia after the twelfth century.

Up to thirty-five years ago, the manufacture of "gall" inks necessitated a complicated series of processes and long periods of time to enable the ink to settle properly, etc. It was Professor Penny of the Anderson University who suggested the way to avoid one of the processes pertaining to ink-making by utilizing the known fact, that tannin is more soluble in cold than in warm or hot water. It was adopted all over the world and revolutionized the manufacture of ink, by doing away with boiling processes and hot macerations of ingredients. With hardly in exception the best tanno-gallate of iron ("gall") inks are now "cold" made.



CHAPTER XIII.

STUDY OF INK.

INVESTIGATIONS BY STARK OF INK QUALITIES COVERING A PERIOD OF TWENTY-THREE YEARS—ABSTRACT FROM HIS REPORT OF 1855—DR. CHILTON EXPERIMENTS IN NEW YORK CITY 1856—ACTION OF THE PRUSSIAN GOVERNMENT IN 1859 AND EMPLOYMENT OF AN OFFICIAL INK—WATTENBACH'S GERMAN TREATISE ON THE ARCHIVES OF THE MIDDLE AGES—WILLIAM INGLIS CLARK ATTEMPTS TO PLACE THE MANUFACTURE OF INK ON A SCIENTIFIC BASIS—SUBMITS HIS VALUABLE RESEARCHES AND DEDUCTIONS TO THE ENINBURGH UNIVERSITY IN 1879—SCHLUTTIG AND NEUMANN IN 1890 ESTABLISH A STANDARD FORMULA FOR IRON AND GALL INK—NAMES OF SOME INK INVESTIGATORS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

DR. JAMES STARK, a famous chemist, submitted the results of twenty-three years of investigations of writing inks in a paper read by him in 1855 before the Society of Arts, in Edinburg, Scotland. The following is the abstract as printed by the London Artisan at the time:

"The author stated that in 1842 he commenced a series of experiments on writing inks, and up to this date (1855), had manufactured 229 different inks, and had tested the durability of writings made with these on all kinds of paper. As the result of his experiments be showed that the browning and fading of inks resulted from many causes, but in ordinary inks chiefly from the iron becoming peroxygenated and separating as a heavy precipitate. Many inks, therefore, when fresh made, yielded durable writings; but when the ink became old, the tanno-gallate of iron separated, and the durability of the ink was destroyed. From a numerous set of experiments the author showed that no salt of iron and no precipitate of iron equalled the common sulphate of iron—that is, the commercial copperas—for the purpose of ink- making; and that even the addition of any persalt, such as the nitrate or chloride of iron, though it improved the present color of the ink, deteriorated its durability. The author failed to procure a persistent black ink from manganese, or other metal or metallic salt. The author exhibited a series of eighteen inks which had either been made with metallic iron or with which metallic iron had been immersed, and directed attention to the fact that though the depth and body of color seemed to be deepened, yet in every case the durability of writings made with such inks was so impaired that they became brown and faded in a few months. The most permanent ordinary inks were shown to be composed of the best blue gall nuts with copperas and gum, and the proportions found on experiment to yield the most persistent black were six parts of best blue galls to four parts of copperas. Writings made with such an ink stood exposure to sun and air for twelve months without exhibiting any change of color, while those made with inks of every other proportion or composition had more or less of their color discharged when similarly tested. This ink, therefore, if kept from moulding and from depositing its tanno-gallate of iron, would afford writings perfectly durable. It was shown that no gall and logwood ink was equal to the pure gall ink in so far as durability in the writings was concerned. All such inks were exhibited which, though durable before the addition of logwood, faded rapidly after logwood was added to them. Sugar was shown to have an especially hurtful action on the durability of inks containing logwood—indeed, on all inks. Many other plain inks were exhibited, and their properties described —as gallo-sumach ink, myrabolams ink, Runge's ink, —inks in which the tanno-gallate of iron was kept in solution by nitric, muriatic, sulphuric, and other acids, or by oxalate of potash, chloride of lime, etc. The myrabolams was recommended as an ink of some promise for durability, and as the cheapest ink it was possible to manufacture. All ordinary inks, however, were shown to have certain drawbacks, and the author endeavored to ascertain by experiment whether other dark substances could be added to inks to impart greater durability to writings made with them, and at the same time prevent those chemical changes which were the cause of ordinary inks fading. After experimenting with various substances, and among others with Prussian blue and indigo dissolved in various ways, he found the sulphate of indigo to fulfil all the required conditions and, when added in the proper proportion to a tanno-gallate of iron ink, it yielded an ink which is agreeable to write with, which flows freely from the pen and does not clog it; which never moulds, which, when it dries on the paper, becomes of an intense pure black, and which does not fade or change its color however long kept. The author pointed out the proper proportions for securing those properties, and showed that the smallest quantity of the sulphate of indigo which could be used for this purpose was eight ounces for every gallon of ink. The author stated that the ink he preferred for his own use was composed of twelve ounces of gall, eight ounces of sulphate of indigo, eight ounces of copperas, a few cloves, and four or six ounces of gum arabic, for a gallon of ink. It was shown that immersing iron wire or filings in these inks destroyed ordinary inks. He therefore recommended that all legal deeds or documents should be written with quill pens, as the contact of steel invariably destroys more or less the durability of every ink. The author concluded his paper with a few remarks on copying inks and indelible inks, showing that a good copying ink has yet to be sought for, and that indelible inks, which will resist the pencilings and washings of the chemist and the forger, need never be looked for."

Professor Leonhardi, of Dresden, who had given much attention to the subject of inks, introduced in 1855 what he termed a NEW ink, and named it "alizarine ink," alizarin being a product obtained from the madder root, which he employed for "added" color in a tanno-gallate of iron solution. It possessed some merit due to its fluidity, and for a time was quite popular, but gradually gave place to the so-called chemical writing fluids; it is now obsolete.

Champour and Malepeyre, Paris, 1856, issued a joint manual, "Fabrication des Encres," devoted almost exclusively to the manufacture of inks and compiles many old "gall" and other ink formulas.

In 1856 Dr. Chilton of New York City published the results of ink experiments which he had made. The accompanying extracts are taken from the local press of the month of April of that year:

"Some ingenious experiments to test the durability of writing inks have recently been made by Dr. Chilton, of New York City. He exposed a manuscript written with four different inks of the principal makers, of this and other countries, to the constant action of the weather upon the roof of his laboratory. After an exposure of over five months, the paper shows the different kind of writing in various shades of color. The English sample, Blackwood's, well known and popular from the neat and convenient way that it is prepared for this market, was quite indistinct.

"The American samples, David's, Harrison's and Maynard's are better. The first appears to retain its original shade very neatly; the two last are paler. This test shows conclusively the durability of ink; and while, for many purposes, school and the like, an ink that will stand undefaced a year or so, is all that is necessary, yet there is hardly a bottle of ink sold, some of which may not be used in the signature or execution of papers that may be important to be legible fifty or one hundred years hence.

"For state and county offices, probate records, etc., it is of vital importance that the records should be legible centuries hence. We believe that some of the early manuscripts of New England are brighter than some town and church records of this century.

"In Europe at the present time, great care is taken by the different governments in the preparation of permanent ink—some of them even compounding their own, according to the most approved and expensive formulas.

"Manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries now in the state paper office of Great Britain, are apparently as bright as when first written; while those of the last two hundred years are more or less illegible, and some of them entirely obliterated."

While the information sought to be conveyed in the last statement may be in some respects correct, it must be remembered that most of the MSS. extant dating before the thirteenth century were written in "Indian" ink, while the great majority of those of the last two hundred years were not; and this fact alone would account to some extent for the differences mentioned.

The German (Prussian) government in 1859, as the result of an investigation, employed what they termed "Official Ink of the First Class," i. e., a straight tanno- gallate of iron ink without added color; and if permanence were required as against removal by chemicals, it was accomplished by writing on paper saturated with chromates and ultramarine.

In 1871 Professor Wattenbach of Germany published a treatise entitled "Archives during the Middle Ages," which has some valuable references to the color phenomena of inks.

William Inglis Clark in 1879 submitted to the Edinburgh University a thesis entitled "An Attempt to Place the Manufacture of Ink on a Scientific Basis," and which very justly received the commendation of the University authorities. His researches and rational deductions are of the greatest possible value judged from a scientific standpoint. The introduction of blue-black ink is a phase of the development towards modern methods which he discusses at much length.

The object of adding a dye in moderation, he asserts, is to give temporary color to the ink and where indigo-paste is used, it has been assumed that it kept the iron gallo-tannate in solution, whereas any virtue of this kind which indigo-paste possesses is more likely due to the sulphuric acid which it contains than to the indigo itself. The essential part of the paste required is the sulpho-indigodate of sodium, now commonly called indigo-carmine. He further remarks that the stability of an ink precipitate depends upon the amount of iron which it contains and which on no account should be less than eight per cent; he adds rightly, if gallic acid be preferably used in substitution for tannin, "no precipitate is obtained under precisely similar conditions." This point followed up explains in a measure why a gall infusion prepared with hot water is not suitable for a blue-black, while a cold water infusion is. In the latter case a comparatively small percentage of tannin is extracted from the galls, while much is extracted with hot water and the consequence is, on adding the indigo blue the color is not brought out as it should be. Substantially the same thing occurs with ink made with the respective acids, although the blue color remains for a time unimpaired in the tannin ink, apparently due to the fact that ferrous-tannate reduces indigo blue to indigo white, a change which the low reducing power of ferrous- gallate does little to effect. The vegetable matter in common inks facilitates the destruction, or rather alteration and precipitation of the indigo, for the dye appears in the iron precipitate and may be extracted from it with boiling water.

Dr. Clark's investigations seek to demonstrate the superiority of tannin and gallic acid over infusions of the natural galls, and he undertakes to determine the correct ratio of tannin and sulphate of iron to be used as ink. His experiments in this line show that:

1. The amount of precipitate increases as the proportion of iron to tannin is increased.

2. The composition of the precipitate is so valuable as to preclude the possibility of its being a definite body. Increase of iron in the solution has not at first any effect on the composition of the precipitate, but afterwards iron is found in it in greater but not proportional amount.

3. At one point the proportions of iron in the precipitate and in solution are the same, and this is at between 6 and 10 parts of iron to 100 parts of tannin.

4. The proportion of iron in the precipitate varies greatly with the length of time the ink has been exposed. At first the precipitate contains 10 per cent of iron, but by and by a new one having only 7.5 per cent is formed, and in from forty to seventy days we find one of 5.7 per cent. Simultaneously iron increases in the ink (proportionate to the tannin).

5. The results show, and practice confirms, that 16 parts of iron (80 ferrous sulphate) and 100 parts of tannin are best for ink manufacture.

The research now travelled in a direction which accumulating experience showed to be obligatory. Blue-black tannin ink lost color, and the reducing nature of the tannin tended to the formation of a highly objectionable precipitate in the ink, which made writing anything but a pleasure. These two faults were doubtless linked together in some way and seemed not to exist when gallic acid was used, for ink so made was found to precipitate only after a long exposure, it required no free acid to keep the precipitate in solution, and retained the indigo blue color for a long time; alkalis did not decompose the ink, and provided blacker and more permanent writing. Determination of the correct proportions of gallic acid and ferrous-sulphate was the subject of prolonged experiments conducted on similar lines to those already detailed. The conclusions as to precipitation were also similar. Thirty parts of iron (150 of ferrous- sulphate) and 100 parts of gallic acid were found to be the most suitable proportions for ink-making. It is advisable, however, not to discard tannin altogether, owing to the slow blackening of the gallic acid ink, and a little tannin gives initial blackening and body, while it is absolutely necessary for copying ink. Initial blackness can also be ensured by oxidizing 21 per cent of the ferrous-sulphate without adding the extra acid necessary to the formation of a ferric salt.

The concluding portion of his research is devoted to the influence of sugar upon the permanence of ink, and the results of the experiments are summed up in the following sentences: "It would be injurious to add 3 per cent of sugar to a tan in ink, while from 4 to 10 per cent would be quite allowable. Most copying inks contain about 3.5 per cent of sugar— not far from the critical amount. With gallic acid more than 3 per cent of sugar hardly varies the precipitate, but the importance of this point is somewhat diminished by the fact that the presence of sugar is by no means necessary in a writing ink. Dextrin is a much superior substance to use. Curiously this body rapidly precipitates a tannin ink; hence it is useless for copying ink, but for the gallic ink it is an excellent thickener."

Chen-Ki-Souen, "Lencre de China," by Maurice Jametel, appeared in Paris in 1882, but as the title indicates, it is the old "Indian" or Chinese ink that is discussed.

Schluttig and Neumann in 1890 issued their Edition Dresden on the subject of "Iron and Gall inks." In this valuable work is to be found the formula which has been generally adopted as the standard where one is used for tanno-gallate of iron ink.

The investigations of other scientific men like Lepowitz, Booth, Desormeaux, Chevreuse, Irvine, Traille, Bottger, Riffault, Precht, Nicholes, Runge, Gobert, Penny, Arnold, Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Davids, Kindt, Ure, Wislar and many more who have dealt with the chemistry of inks, present to us some testimony during a considerable portion of the nineteenth century of the efforts made to secure a good ink.



CHAPTER XIV.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF INK.

INK USED BY US HAS NOTHING IN COMMON WITH THAT OF THE ANCIENTS—MANUFACTURERS OF THE PRESENT TIME HAVE LARGELY UTILIZED FORMULAS EMPLOYED IN PAST CENTURIES—THE COMMON ACCEPTATION OF THE TERM INK—SEVEN DIFFERENT CLASSES OF INKS AND THEIR COMPOSITION BRIEFLY TOLD—FAILURE OF EFFORTS TO SECURE A REAL SAFETY INK.

THE inks used by us have nothing in common with those of the ancients except the color and gum, and mighty little of that.

Those of the "gall" class employed in the fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, some formulas of which are utilized by the manufacturers of ink in our own time, consisted generally in combination; infusions of nut-galls, sulphate of copper or iron, or both, and fish-glue or gum, slightly acidulated. The frequent introduction of the so-called "added" color into these inks, time has shown to have been a grave mistake.

The common acceptation of the term "ink" may be said to characterize an immense number of fluid compounds, the function of which in connection with a marking instrument is to delineate conventional signs, characters and letters as put together and commonly called writing, on paper or like substances.

To classify them would be impossible; but black writing ink, chemical writing fluid, colored writing ink, copying ink, India ink, secret or sympathetic ink, and indelible ink make seven classes; the others may be denominated under the head of miscellaneous inks, and of them all, there is no single ink answering every requirement and few answer at all times the same requirements. Ink may be either a clear solution of any coloring matter or of coloring matter held in suspension. It is a remarkable fact that although most inks are chemical compositions and many times made after the same formula, identical results cannot always be calculated or obtained. This is more particularly to be noted in the case of black writing inks otherwise known as the tanno-gallate of iron inks [gallic and gallotanic acid obtained from nut-galls, sulphate of iron, (green copperas) and some gummy vehicle].

The variations would appear to be largely due to the difference in quality of the gall-nuts, treatment, and temperature of the atmosphere; perhaps, however, not so much to-day as it was ten or twenty years ago, when to make ink of this character boiling processes were employed. Most of them as already stated are now "cold" made.

Inks of this class consist of a finely divided insoluble precipitate suspended in water by the use of gum and possessing a slight acidity.

The requisites of a good black writing ink or black writing fluid require it to flow readily from the pen, to indicate in a short time a black color and to penetrate the paper to an appreciable degree, and more important than all the rest, to be of great durability. When kept in a closed vessel no sediment of any account should be precipitated, although such will be the case in open ink-wells, and this the quicker the more the air is permitted to get to it. If it is to be used for record or documentary purposes it must not be altogether obliterated if brought into contact with water or alcohol, and should depend for permanency on its chemical and not on its pigmentary qualities.

The second class, called for distinction "chemical writing fluids," possesses the same essential ingredients to be found in class one, but much less in quantity and with some "added" colored substance which I shall term "loading," for its real purpose is to cheapen the cost of production and not altogether as some manufacturers state "simply to give them an agreeable color."

Previous to the discovery of the soluble anilines, logwood, indigo, madder, orchil and other dyeing materials were used for a period of some eighty years and vanadium for some twenty years (very costly at that time), for this purpose, but since 1874, and with frequent changes as the newer aniline compounds were invented, these by-products of coal-tar, as well as logwood, etc., have been and are to-day employed for "loading," or as the manufacturer expresses, it "added color." The chemical writing fluids as now prepared, yield when first written a blue or green color with a tendency to change to black afterwards. They are not as permanent as those of the first class.

Another black ink not durable, however, is "logwood;" its extract is combined with a little chromate of potassium and boiled together in water. It possesses its own "gum" and contains some tannin. In combination with alum and water, it forms a dark purple ink.

The colored writing inks, of which "red" is the more important, are in great number and with hardly an exception at the present time, manufactured by adding water and water-glass to a soluble aniline red color. Cochineal which was used for red ink formerly is now almost obsolete. Nigrosine, one of the best known of them, is much used as a cheap "black" ink, but as it is blue black and never becomes black, it really belongs to the family of "colored" writing inks. They possess an undeserved popularity for they flow freely from the pen which they do not corrode, nor do they thicken or spoil in the inkwell; they are however very "fugitive" in character and should not be employed for record, legal, monetary or other documentary purposes. The indigo and prussian blue inks are well known, the former under certain conditions a very permanent ink, the latter soon disintegrating.

Copying inks are of two kinds, one dependent on the addition of glycerine, sugar, glucose or like compounds to the black writing inks or chemical writing fluids heretofore mentioned, which are thereby kept in a moist offsetting condition; the other due to the solubility of the pigmentary color with water, such as the aniline inks which are given more body than those for ordinary purposes—and the logwoods in which the pigment is developed and given copying qualities by chemicals, and hence becomes responsive to the application of a sheet of paper dampened with water. Copying ink should never be used for "record" purposes as it is affected by changes of the temperature.

India ink, sometimes called China ink, or as formerly known by the ancients and in classical and later times "Indian ink," is now used more for drawing and engrossing than it is for commercial purposes. It belongs to the "carbon" class and in some form was the first one used in the very earliest times. In China it is applied with a brush or pith of some reed to the "rice" paper also there manufactured. It is easily washed away unless bichromate of ammonium or potassium in minute quantities be added to it, and then if the paper on which it appears be exposed for a short time to the action of the actinic rays of sunlight, this gummy compound will be rendered insoluble and cannot be removed with any fluid, chemical or otherwise. It possesses also great advantages in drawing, since it acts as a paint, and will give any degree of blackness according to the quantity of water mixed with it.

Secret or sympathetic inks are invisible until the writing is subjected to a subsequent operation, such as warming or exposing to sunlight. To further aid the object in view, the paper may be first steeped in a liquid and the writing only made visible by using another liquid which has some chemical affinity with the previous one. The number of this kind were but few but have multiplied as chemistry progressed. The ancients were acquainted with several modes. Ovid indiscreetly advises the Roman wives and maidens if they intend to make their correspondence unreadable to the wrong persons to write with new milk, which when dried may be rendered visible by rubbing ashes upon it or a hot iron. Pliny suggests milky juices of certain plants of which there are a considerable variety.

Indelible ink is not used for writing purposes on paper, but is found best adapted for marking linen and cancellation or endorsing purposes. It is chiefly composed of nitrate of silver preparations, to which heat must be applied after it has been dried; or a pigment is commingled with the same vehicles used in making common printing ink and in its use treated as such.

Diamonds, gold, silver, platinum and a host of other materials are manufactured into ink and are to be placed under the head of miscellaneous inks. They are in great number and of no interest in respect to ink writing except for engrossing or illuminating.

Still another ink once held in much esteem and now almost obsolete is the so-called "safety" ink.

Manufacturers, chemists and laymen in great number for many years wasted money, time and energy in diligent worship at a secret shrine which could not give the information they sought. A summary of the meager and barren results they secured is of little value and unimportant. Hence, there is no REAL "safety" ink.

It is true that lampblack (carbon) as made into ink, resists any chemical or chemicals, but simple water applied on a soft sponge will soon remove such ink marks. The reason for this is obvious, the ink does not penetrate the paper.

"Safety" ink which will not respond to acids may be affected by alkalis, or if resisting them separately, will yield to them in combination.



CHAPTER XV.

OFFICIAL AND LEGAL INK.

FIRST COMPLETE OFFICIAL INVESTIGATION OF INK IN THIS COUNTRY—THE HONOR DUE TO ROBERT T. SWAN OF BOSTON—RESUME OF HIS REPORTS TO THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS—THE SWAN LAW ADOPTED IN 1894 BY THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS—UNITED STATES TREASURY DEPARTMENT ADOPTS AN OFFICIAL INK IN 1901—UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT TO SECURE INK LEGISLATION IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK—COMMENTS OF THE PUBLIC PRESS OF THAT PERIOD—DIFFERENT WORKS WHICH MORE OR LESS DWELL ON THE SUBJECT OF INK FROM 1890 TO 1900—CITATIONS FROM ALLEN'S COMMERCIAL ORGANIC ANALYSIS—REFERENCE TO PAPER ABOUT INK READ BEFORE THE NEW YORK STATE BAR ASSOCIATION.

IT was not, however, until 1891 that the subject of the constitution of an enduring record ink received the consideration its importance deserved and in this the youngest of countries. To Robert T. Swan of Boston is all honor due for the very unique and comprehensive methods adopted in his investigations. Appointed "commissioner of public records" of the state of Massachusetts, he has set an example which may well be followed by other states, as has been done in a lesser degree by Connecticut and ten years later by the United States Treasury Department, which in this respect is so ably represented in part by Dr. Charles A. Crampton of Washington, D. C.

Mr. Swan in his reports to the legislature of his state for the last twelve years, deals with the subject of the constitution of "permanent inks" so thoroughly, and with it affords information of so practical and useful a character, that the fullest references to them prove both instructive and interesting. In his report of 1891 he remarks:

"Upon commencing an examination of the records in various places, I was impressed with the great importance of the use of inks which should be permanent, and the necessity of an investigation which might prevent the further use of inks that for one reason or another were unfit for use upon records. I found that, as a rule, the inks upon the most ancient records had preserved their color, many undoubtedly being blacker than when used, but that the later records lost the jet-black appearance of the older. This, it is true, is not wholly due to the change of inks, for the use of quills, the soft surface of the old paper, the absence of blotting paper and the greater time spent in writing, were all conducive to a heavier deposit of ink; but evidence is ample that in comparatively recent years inks of poor quality came in use. Proof of this is given by an examination of the records in the state house. Up to about 1850 it was the custom in the office of the Secretary of the Commonwealth to use for engrossing the acts, inks made of a powder which was mixed in the office; and until that time the acts which are engrossed upon parchment show, with but few exceptions, no signs of fading. From 1850 for several years the writing in many cases is becoming indistinct, that upon an act in 1851, and upon two in 1855, having nearly disappeared. Since 1860, acts showing different intensity of color are found, but whether this is their original color or not cannot be determined.

That the fading can be attributed to the parchment, as some claim, is disproved by the fact that of the signatures upon the same act a few have faded while others have not. Upon an act approved January 4, 1845, the signature of the President of the Senate has nearly disappeared, that of the Speaker of the House is more legible, while that of the Governor, and the figure 4, which he evidently inserted, are jet black.

"The indexes in the volumes of archives in the office of the secretary, which were written about 1840, were evidently made with a different ink from that used for engrossing, and faded so badly that the important words had to be rewritten.

"In the office of the State Treasurer the records to about 1867 are very black and distinct, but the ink used during a few years following has faded.

"The records of births, marriages and deaths, in the registration volumes in the secretary's office, furnish an excellent illustration of the different qualities of the inks now used. These records are original returns made by the city and town clerks, and from 1842 to 1889 show instances of the use of inks which are now almost illegible. Here again the fault cannot be attributed to the paper, for endorsements made in the secretary's office upon the most faded returns at the time of their receipt are as black as when made.

"The volumes of copies of the old records of Lexington, made in 1853, have faded until they are quite indistinct.

"Some of the old inks, though retaining their black color have, from the presence of acid in the ink or paper, eaten through the paper as thoroughly as if the writing had been done with a sharp instrument. In part of one old volume of court records, the ink, while not injuring the paper or becoming illegible upon the face of the leaves, has gradually become legible upon the reverse, while the heavy paper has been impervious to the other inks used. * * * * * *

To ascertain what kind of inks were in use by the town clerks, I examined the registration volumes before referred to, and, as before stated, found many poor inks in use. In a few cases blue inks were used, and in two violet, which is, as a rule, if not always, a fugitive color. A number of the returns in these volumes of as recent date as 1875 were almost illegible, and three made in 1888 were nearly as indistinct.

"The more I looked into the subject, the more I became convinced that the whole subject of ink was one upon which the persons using it were comparatively ignorant. Consultation with experts satisfied me that good inks were being injured by improper treatment; that the custom of mixing inks and of adding water to them was unsafe; and that among the inks reported as in use upon the records there were many manufactured for commercial uses which should not be used upon records, and which the manufacturers would say were not intended for record inks. I therefore sent to the manufacturers of the inks reported as in use by the recording officers, and to some others, the following letter and inquiries:

" 'The fading of much of the ink used in records of comparatively recent date, while as a rule the records of two hundred years ago are as legible as when written, establishes the fact that for permanent qualities much of the modern ink is inferior to the ancient, and that inks are used that are unfit for making a record which should stand for all time.

" 'I am led to believe that most ink in manufacturers make inks which are good for commercial and other uses where there is no desire for a permanent record, but which they would not recommend for use where the important object was the permanency of the record. One of the dangers to which our records are exposed can be obviated by the use of proper inks; and I desire to obtain the opinion of the leading manufacturers on the subject, that I may advise the recording officers of the State what are, and what are not, safe inks to use for records.

" 'I shall esteem it a favor, therefore, if you will answer the enclosed questions, and return them at your convenience. Your reply will be treated as confidential as far as names are concerned, except in the answer to question No. 5, and that will not be printed if you so request. Any general opinion which will aid the recording officers in their selection of ink or paper will be welcomed.

" '1. Do you consider it safe to use for a permanent record aniline inks?

" '2. Do you consider it safe to use for a record logwood inks?

" '3. Do your consider nut-gall and iron inks absolutely safe for a permanent record?

" '4. Do you consider carbon ink the only permanent ink?

" '5. What inks of your manufacture would you advise against using for a permanent record?

" '6. Do you advise generally against the inks known as writing fluids, when permanency is the first requisition?

" '7. Do you manufacture a writing fluid?

" '8. Do you consider it safe to add water to ink intended for permanent record, which has grown thick by exposure to the air?

" '9. Do you believe that the obliteration of ink is ever due to the chemicals left in the paper? (This question has been asked of the paper manufacturers also.)

" '10. Do you consider it safe to mix inks without knowing to what chemical group the inks so mixed belong?'

"Replies were received from twenty-two manufacturers. Several of the inks in the market, though bearing the name of certain persons, were found to be manufactured for them by manufacturers who had already answered the questions. Their replies were, therefore, not considered.

"To the first question, 'Do you consider it safe to use for a permanent record aniline inks!' the unanimous answer was decidedly no. Aniline black is absolutely permanent, but as it is not yet known how to render it soluble in water, it has not been much used in ink.

"To the inquiry in regard to logwood inks, nearly all answered no, and most of those who did not qualified their answers to such an extent as to imply distrust.

"Upon the question of the permanency of nut-gall and iron inks, the answers were more varied; one answering no, and four answering directly yes, the remaining answers being in brief that such inks were permanent if properly made.

"To the question, 'Do you consider carbon ink the only permanent ink?' the answers were varied and contradictory. Most of the manufacturers said a carbon ink could not be permanent, because carbon was insoluble; and some said that no chemical union could exist between carbon and the other ingredients in ink. Others claimed that carbon was the one permanent color, and cited the old Indian and Chinese inks which have stood for centuries as illustrations of its permanency. These statements were so widely different that I pursued the inquiry further, and found it was conceded that, if a process could be discovered by which carbon could be dissolved and made to retain its color, no known substance would make so permanent an ink; but that there was no such process, and in the inks now made the carbon was simply held in suspension in the ink without any chemical union; but I found also that improvement has been made, and that it is possible to combine the carbon with chemicals which will cause the carbon to embody itself. More than ordinary care should, however, be exercised in the purchase of carbon inks, for the lack of chemical union would cause a tendency to precipitate the carbon if the ink were improperly made.

"The replies to the inquiry, 'Do you advise generally against the inks known as writing fluids, when permanency is the first requisition?' were in a way the most unsatisfactory, and savored somewhat of advertising. One manufacturer made no fluid, and had no opinion to express. Most of the others made fluids. Nine advised generally against their use; four recommended them in preference to ink; and the others either advised generally against them, but recommended their own, or qualified the answer in such a way as to throw doubt on them.

"The argument in their favor seems to be that their fluidity makes them permeate the paper, and, in the change of color which usually takes place after using, a dyeing of the paper results. The objections are, that to obtain the fluidity body must be sacrificed, and there is not enough substance deposited upon the paper. The objections made by two manufacturers of fluids I give in their own words.

" 'We advise generally against the inks known simply as writing fluids—those not intended to yield a letter-press copy—because they are universally made, first, with as little solid matter as possible,—i. e. weak; second, with an excess of iron beyond that required to combine with the tannin, so as to develop all the color possible and flow with the greatest freedom. The combined writing and copying fluids, and the copying fluids on the other hand if properly made, may be justly recommended where permanency is the first requisition, particularly the older ones, which should be the most durable of all nut-gall and iron inks, because in them particularly concentration is aimed at, and the iron need not necessarily, and should not, be in excess of that required to combine with the tannin present. A steel pen during use injures, and often greatly, the durability of a writing ink by giving up iron to it.

" 'For your purpose, where extreme permanency is the first requisition, I should not advise the use of an ordinary writing fluid. Many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient fluidity in their writing fluids without making their inks very dilute, and observing a particular method of manufacture which, although providing more attained color for a time, sacrifices the permanent quality of their color in a great measure. I should advise the use of an ink decidedly stronger.'

"The addition of water was almost universally condemned, for reasons stated later. As proof that this was not for the mercenary purpose of indirectly advising the use of more ink, some of the manufacturers said the ink should be kept in small- mouthed ink-stands, and when not in use should be as tightly sealed as possible, to prevent evaporation.

"In reply to the inquiry as to whether chemicals left in the paper ever obliterated the ink, several of the manufacturers said they knew of such cases, and all were agreed that, if the chlorides used for bleaching the paper were not washed out, they would dangerously affect any ink. The practice of mixing inks was universally condemned.

"Permanency against the action of time is the quality sought for in this investigation, and it is claimed that better evidence as to that quality is furnished by the test of time than by any other; and manufacturers have shown or referred to specimens of writing made with their ink many years ago, as proof of its merit in this particular. If there was any surety that the standard of quality was always kept up in all of the oldest inks on the market, it would be safe to accept that test, but this may not be a fact; and, as has been stated, some of the recording officers believe that it is not.

Moreover, if only the old inks were to be accepted, it would be against the spirit of the age, which is to adopt the improvements which science makes possible; and manufacturers who at great cost of time and money have made improvements, would be deprived of the compensation which they deserve. The old inks were as a rule heavy, and had a tendency to settle; and the endeavor on the part of some manufacturers has been to preserve the permanency, and at the same time produce thinner inks which would be more agreeable to use.

"Improvements have been made in the direction of free-flowing inks, and these are fast becoming popular; and, while for correspondence and commercial uses they are undoubtedly sufficiently permanent, for records many of them are not, and it was with a view of preventing the use of these upon records that this investigation was made. No attention has been given to the permanency of the inks, as against their removal by acids.

"The use of proper ink is considered so important by the British government that the inks used in the public departments are obtained by public tender, in accordance with the conditions drawn up by the controller of H. M. stationery office, with the assistance of the chief chemist of the inland revenue department, to whom the inks supplied by the contractor are from time to time submitted for analysis. Suitable inks for the various uses are thus obtained, and their standard maintained. The last form of 'invitation to tender,' or 'proposal,' as we term it, is appended, as being instructive.

I cannot learn that the United States government uses any such care as the British government in the matter of ink, although the question has been a troublesome one in the departments.

"The State department issues no special rules for determining suitable inks, or requiring that particular inks shall be used. Proposals are asked for the lowest bids for the articles of stationery required, the last form of proposal asking for bids upon seven black inks, one crimson, and one writing fluid, which are named.

"With the market full of inks worthless for records, the only safety for our records seems to be in the establishment of a system similar to the English, which shall fix upon proper inks for various uses, which all recording officers shall be required to use.

"I believe that the recording officers will be glad to have the question of permanent inks decided for them, and to know whether inks which were in use many years ago, and have stood the test thus far, are maintained at their old standard. In the face of sharp competition among manufacturers, they fear they are not."

Mr. Swan, proceeding still further, secured the services of two of the most distinguished professors of chemistry in this country, Messrs. Markoe and Baird, and submitted to them in camera sixty-seven samples of different inks, known only by numbers, for chemical analysis; in a long and exhaustive report on the work they had set out to accomplish, and also with a dissertation on the chemistry of inks in general, they complete their report as follows:

"As a conclusion, since the great mass of inks on the market are not suitable for records, because of their lack of body and because of the quantity of unstable color which they contain, and because the few whose coloring matters are not objectionable are deficient in galls and iron, or both, we would strongly recommend that the State set its own standard for the composition of inks to be used in its offices and for its records, have the inks manufactured according to specifications sent out, and receive the manufactured products subject to chemical assay. In this way only can there be a uniformity in the inks used for the records throughout the State, and in no other way can a proper standard be maintained."

Mr. Swan comments on the report of his chemists, and calls attention to other tests made by himself:

"The conclusions at which I arrived were drawn, as stated, from manufacturers or recording officers, wholly independently of the chemists, but they will be found to coincide in many particulars with theirs. I did consult them in regard to the practicability of maintaining a State standard for record ink, which they have approved.

"The commendation by the chemists of some of the so-called writing fluids explains in a degree the variety of opinions advanced by the manufacturers in regard to the durability of fluids. Some of them will be seen to possess the qualities of ink, and the name fluid is evidently given to meet the commercial demand for fluids.

"Several persons, manufacturers among them, expressed greater confidence in tests of exposure of inks to the light and weather than to chemical analysis. I, therefore, as a dry test, placed on the inside of a window pane receiving a strong light, writing made under exactly the same conditions with each of sixty-seven inks, which remained there from March 13 to December 8. Similar writing was exposed to light and the weather from September 25 to December 8, and the result of the resistance of the inks in both tests is an almost exact confirmation of the report of the chemists, inks of the same class varying in their resistance according to their specific gravity or amount of added color.

"It may be safely said, therefore, that of sixty- seven inks of which I procured samples, all but seventeen are unsuitable for records, and among these the chemists say but one is fully up to the established scientific standard of quantity of iron sulphate. The reason is plain,—the demand for commercial inks is large, for record, small, and the supply has been to meet the demand."

The British government advertises for tenders each year, the requirements for black writing ink in 1889 reads:

"To be made of Best Galls, Sulphate of Iron, and Gum. The Sulphate of Iron not to exceed in quantity one-third of the weight of the Galls used, and the specific gravity of the matured Ink not to exceed 1045 degrees (distilled water being 1000 degrees)." That of Black Copying Ink "To be made of the above materials, but of a strength one fourth greater than the Writing Ink, and with the addition of Sugar or Glycerine. The specific gravity of the matured Ink not. to exceed 1085 degrees." And that of Blue-Black Writing Ink "To be made of finest Galls, Sulphate of Iron, Gum, Indigo, and Sulphuric Acid. The specific gravity of the Ink when matured not to exceed 1035 degrees."

Mr. Swan again remarks in his report of 1892:

"Many of the inks which should not be used upon records are free flowing and more agreeable to use than permanent inks, containing more body. As long as recording and copying is paid for by the page, and the object is to accomplish the most in the least time, these inks will be in popular use, and used, and blotted off the paper before they have much more than colored it, only to disappear eventually. The State should set a standard for a record ink; and, while our present system of keeping records and furnishing supplies will not allow that its use be required on all public records, as in England, it would seem practicable for the secretary of the Commonwealth to advertise for proposals for inks of a certain standard, which the manufacturers should be bound to maintain, and that these should be used in all the State offices. With a State standard ink adopted, its use by recording officers would soon follow."

In 1894 Mr. Swan's indefatigable efforts were crowned with success, the state of Massachusetts adopting his recommendations included in the following act:

"SECTION 1. No person having the care or custody of any book of record or registry in any of the departments or offices of the Commonwealth shall use or allow to be used upon such books any ink excepting such as is furnished by the secretary of the Commonwealth.

"SECTION 2. The secretary of the Commonwealth shall from time to time advertise for proposals to furnish the several departments and offices of the Commonwealth in which books of record or registry are kept with ink of a standard and upon conditions to be established by the secretary at such periods and in such quantities as may be required, and may contract for the same.

"SECTION 3. The ink so furnished shall be examined from time to time by a chemist to be designated by the secretary of the Commonwealth, and if at any time said ink shall be found to be inferior to the established standard the secretary shall have authority to cancel any contract made for furnishing said ink, and the quantity so found inferior shall not be paid for."

Professor Markoe, referred to before, was appointed "chemist" by the Secretary of the Commonwealth and prepared what he considered the best formula, for a standard ink, which was competed for by a number of ink manufacturers after proper advertisement, and a contract awarded. Mr. Swan says that this departure was received with favor by recording officers. No change was made in the formula until after the death of Professor Markoe in 1900, when Dr. Bennett F. Davenport of Boston was selected as his successor. He submitted a modified formula to be employed in the manufacture of an official or standard ink. It was adopted and such an ink is without exception now used by all recording officers of both Massachusetts and Connecticut.

In 1901 the United States treasury department adopted a similar ink except that it permitted the introduction into it of an unnamed blue coloring material.

Early in 1894 and during the legislative session of the state of New York, after consultation with General Palmer, the then secretary of state, I prepared a bill somewhat on the lines as laid down in the Massachusetts statute. The press all over the state at once took up the matter and urged that some such measure should be enacted into law. A New York City newspaper discussed it as follows:

"A bill is to be introduced in the legislature this week, probably to-morrow night, providing for an official ink to be used by every public officer throughout the State of New York in the writing of public documents and in making entries in the records.

"The official ink is for the purpose of making public records permanent and to guard against fraud by the alteration of the records. As the law stands at the present time in the state every official, whether municipal, county or state, is allowed to purchase and use for the records of his office whatever ink he may choose. The consequence is that there is no uniformity in public records throughout the state, and entries, transcripts and certificates are written with hundreds of various kinds of inks.

"The serious part of the business, however, is the evanescent character of some of the kinds now used, especially of the cheaper grades. These are the inks made from aniline and other dyes which are held in solution in water. Such inks are made from a fine, cheap powder, of which nigrosine is used in making black inks, eosine for red, and methylene for blue ink, and they cost only a few dimes a gallon to manufacture. The writing made with such inks quickly dries by the evaporation of the water, when it merely requires the application of a little soap and water to wash them out, leaving the paper absolutely clean, besides being fugitive.

"It is said that as a result of the present lack of system in this matter there are now public records of the city of New York in which the ink has entirely faded. These records have been made within the past forty years, and are now worthless because of the character of the inks originally used.

"In the Police department of this city a blue ink is often used which is made from prussian blue. A large portion of the entries in the books of the Police department are made with ink of this kind, and the warrants and other public documents with which the police have to do are similarly written.

"A little soap and water will wipe out this writing, so that the record can be easily altered at any time. The use of this ink in the Police department is said to date from the time of Tweed, which is significant of the original purpose for which it. was adopted.

"A permanent writing fluid such as it is now proposed to adopt throughout the state would not only secure uniformity in the character of the inks used, but it would also throw many obstacles in the way of altering the records.

"The present Secretary of State is heartily in accord with the proposed legislation. He was seen last week by Mr. David N. Carvalho, who has made a life study of the subject and who drew the bill and is pushing the reform.

"Mr. Carvalho said yesterday: 'This ink, whose use it is intended to secure in the making of public records in this state, is more costly than those made from aniline and other dyes, which fade and wash. In it the black particles are suspended in water by the addition of gum. This kind of ink has an affinity for oxygen, and hence it oxidizes and turns black. When unadulterated it only becomes blacker with the passage of time, and cannot be washed from the paper by the use of water.'

" 'I could show you,' continued Mr. Carvalho, 'public records of this city made within forty years which are entirely illegible and consequently worthless, because cheap inks were used in the writing. These include not only records of wills in the Surrogate's office, but entries and transfers of real estate which are likely to come up in the course of litigation at any time, thereby affecting the rights of many citizens.

" 'I can tell you at once upon seeing an old document the character of the ink that was used in the writing, and I have seen many old papers over a hundred years of age in which the writing was as clear as the day it was made, simply because a good writing ink was used. On the other hand writing made with cheap aniline ink may under certain circumstances fade out within a year, and in a book which is much handled is almost certain to be rubbed out in time.

" 'It has frequently happened that in the course of litigation, especially over real estate, that old records made with poor inks have been produced which the court refused to accept as evidence, thereby depriving some citizen of his rights. At the present time many officials in this state, in fact, the majority of them, are using these cheap and worthless inks and the records they are making will be of little or no value in a few years.

" 'It is to put a stop to this abuse that the present bill has been drawn up, and there is no argument which can be raised against it.' "

It appears that there was one, however, as the bill failed to pass for the stated reason that it came under the head of "class" legislation. The great state and city of New York with costly and magnificent depositories continue to place in them, for safe-keeping, valuable records and other ink-written instruments which will become illegible before the present century comes to an end.

Professor Lehner, a German chemist, in 1890 published a treatise "Die Tinten-Fabrikation," which has been translated and added to by Dr. Brannt, of Philadelphia, editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt-Book," who remarks:

"The lack of a recent treatise in the English language containing detailed descriptions of the raw materials and receipts for the preparation of Inks, and the apparent necessity, as shown by frequent inquiries, for such a volume, were the considerations which led to the preparation of The Manufacture of Ink."

This work compiles a great number of formulas, and rather favors the views of the chemist Dr. Bostock respecting the iron and gall inks. The book possesses value for reference purposes to the manufacturer.

Auguste Peret, author of "The Manufacture of Ink," 1891, has put together a lot of excellent material relative to ink-making and valuable for reference purposes.

The late Dr. William E. Hagan of Troy, New York, in 1894 issued his book, "Disputed Hand-writing." He devotes two chapters to the discussion of ancient and modern inks and their chemistry. He has been kind enough to quote the writer as the first to remove ink in open court with chemicals in order to determine the existence of pencil writing beneath the ink. The pencil being carbon was not affected thereby and with the subsequent restoration of the bleached ink by the use of the correct re-agent.

In the same year Dr. Persifor Frazer of Philadelphia published his "Manual of the Study of Documents." A few pages are given to the study of inks, and a part thereof is devoted to the researches of Carre, Hager, Baudrimont, Tarry, Chevallier and Lassaigne, to determine suspected forgeries. The chapter on "the sequence in crossed lines," where he indicates his method of determining which of two crossed ink lines was written first, is both original and a real contribution to science.

Alfred H. Allen, F. C. S., of England, perhaps the highest authority on the subject of tannins, dyes and coloring matters in his "Commercial Organic Analysis," revised and edited by Professor J. Merritt Mathews of Pennsylvania, edition of 1900, devotes eight pages to the subject of the "Examination of Ink Marks." He says:

"Ordinary writing ink was formerly always made from a decoction of galls, to which green vitriol was added. Of late, the composition of writing inks has become far less constant, aniline and other dyes being frequently employed, and other metallic salts substituted for the ferrous- sulphate formerly invariably used. The best black ink is a tanno-gallate of iron, obtained by adding an infusion of nut-galls to a solution of ferrous- sulphate (copperas)."

In 1897 the author in a paper read before the New York State Bar Association at Albany, entitled "A Plea for the Preservation of the Public Records," discussed the question of the stability of inks and their phenomena and took occasion to make recommendations as to their constitution and future methods of employment. A vote of thanks was adopted and the association referred the paper to the Committee on Law Reform, where no doubt it still slumbers.



CHAPTER XVI.

ENDURING INK.

ASCERTAINMENT OF A CORRECT INK FORMULA THE WORK OF OVER A CENTURY—CHARACTER OF THE EVIDENCE WHICH ESTABLISHES IT—THE INVESTIGATIONS OF THE AUTHOR IN THIS DIRECTION AND COMPARISON WITH THOSE OF COMMISSIONER SWAN—ELIMINATION OF THE "ADDED" COLORS AND THEIR ORIGIN— DISCUSSION OF THE RELATIVE MERITS OF LAMPBLACK, MADDER AND INDIGO—THE DURABLE VIRTUES OF INDIGO WHEN EMPLOYED ALONE—CAUSE OF THE BROWNING OF INKS—LONGEVITY OF INK DUE TO VEHICLE WHICH CARRIES IT—WHEN PERFECT INK WILL BE INVENTED.

TO ascertain the correct formula of a substantially permanent ink, as we have learned, has been the aim during a century or more, of able chemists, manufacturers and laymen. Their experiments and study of ancient and modern documents all point unerringly in the direction of an ink containing iron and galls.

Accumulated evidence may be said to establish itself in the light of investigation and experience and becomes more and more a certainty when considered, reviewed and discussed in connection with a chronological history of the "gall" inks since they came into semi-official and other uses centuries ago. Descriptions of MSS. containing ink writings hundreds of years old, many of them as legible as when first written, are silent witnesses whose testimony cannot be assailed. Such information when assembled together minimizes many of the conditions which have existed and interposed in preventing during the last four decades a general adoption or re-adoption of such a tanno-gallate of iron ink, the lasting qualities of which some of our forefathers estimated would, and as we know have stood the test of time.

Assuming this character of ink to have been employed in past centuries, the cause or causes for the differentiations in respect to color and durability become of paramount importance.

The investigations of the writer in this direction, while in some respects traveling the same road followed by others, diverged from them and has been more in the nature of a comparative analytical and microscopic examination of ancient with ancient and modern with modern documents in connection with numerous chemical experiments, the manufacture of hundreds of inks and the study of their time and other phenomena.

To accomplish this, ancient documents not written with "Indian" ink, but with those obviously containing combinations of iron and galls or other tannins, were selected and grouped into color families. They began with the fourteenth century, continuing well into the nineteenth, to the number of nearly four hundred, each of them of a different date and different year. Some of them were so pale and indistinct as to be illegible, others less so and by gradual steps they approached to a definite black; many of them as rich and deep in color as if they had been written not centuries ago but within a few years. Signatures on the same document represented different degrees of color, so that the question of the material on which the writing appeared affecting the appearance of the ink, was not a factor; but the difference in the inks used to make the signatures was the determining factor.