Inter—between; as, inter-pose, to put between.

Intro—within, into; intro-vert, to turn within; intro-duce, to lead into.

Ob, op—denote opposition; as, ob-ject, to bring against; op-pugn, to oppose.

Per—through, by; as, per-ambulate, to walk through; per-haps, by haps.

Post—after; as, post-script, written after; post-fix, placed after.

Prae, pre—before; as, pre-fix, to fix before.

Pro—for, forth, forward; as, pro-noun, for a noun; pro-tend, to stretch forth; pro-ject, to shoot forward.

Praeter—past, beyond; as, preter-perfect, pastperfect; preter-natural, beyond the course of nature.

Re—again or back; as, re-peruse, to peruse again; re-trade, to trade back.

Retro—backwards; as, retro-spective, looking backwards.

Se—aside, apart; as, se-duce, to draw aside.

Sub—under; as, sub-scribe, to write under, or sub-sign.

Subter—under; as, subter-fluous, flowing under.

Super—above or over; as, super-scribe, to write above; super-vise, to overlook.

Trans—over, beyond, from one place to another; as, trans-port, to carry over; trans-gress, to pass beyond.

II. GREEK PREFIXES.

A—signifies privation; as, anonymous, without name.

Amphi—both or two; as, amphi-bious, partaking of both or two natures,

Anti—against; as, anti-masonry, against masonry.

Dia—through; as, dia-meter, line passing through a circle.

Hyper—over; as, hyper-critical, over or too critical.

Hypo—under, implying concealment or disguise; as, hypo-crite, one dissembling his real character.

Meta—denotes change or transmutation; as, meta-morphose, to change the shape.

Para—contrary or against; as, para-dox, a thing contrary to received opinion.

Peri—round about; as, peri-phrasis, circumlocution.

Syn, syl, sym—together; as, syn-tax, a placing together; syn-od, a meeting or coming together; syl-lable, that portion of a word which is taken together; sym-pathy, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.



RULES OF SYNTAX,

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

SYNTAX consists of two parts, Concord and Government.

CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, person, number, or case.

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the nominative or subject, the verb or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the object, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A wise man governs his passions." In this sentence, man is the subject; governs, the attribute; and passions the object.

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.

ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with strength and elegance.

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you must look over the whole.

You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.

RULE I.

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively; as, "A star, an eagle, a score, a thousand."

RULE II.

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number; as, "The star, the stars; the hat, the hats."

NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the use or omission of the article a. If I say, "He behaved with a little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them.

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of every or each; as, "They cost five shillings a dozen;" that is, 'every dozen.'

"A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds a year!"

that is, 'every year.'

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "A black and a white calf," signifies, A black calf, and a white calf; but "A black and white calf," describes the two colors of one calf.

RULE III.

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "I learn, thou learnest, he learns, they learn."

RULE IV.

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The bird sings, the birds sing, thou singest."

NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is, Awake ye; arise ye.

2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin is death; His meat was locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds."

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. The sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them? Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give consolation. The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of nature; are without limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve him. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.

O thou, my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. Note 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, And never, never be to Heaven resigned?

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business.

Note 2. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.

RULE V.

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case independent; as, "Plato, thou reasonest well;" "Do, Trim, said my uncle Toby."

NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.

2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, "Ah! me; Oh! thou; O! virtue."

RULE VI.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute; as, "Shame being lost; all virtue is lost;" "The sun being risen, we travelled on."

NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as, "To whom thus Adam;" that is, spoke.



FALSE SYNTAX.

Him Destroyed, Or won to what may work his utter loss, All this will follow soon.

Note.—Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.

RULE VII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "Paul, the apostle;" "Joram, the king;" "Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel, wrote many proverbs."

NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library—(which was) a misfortune that greatly depressed him."

FALSE SYNTAX.

We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.

The pronoun he in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective case, him, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.)

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.

It was John, him who preached repentance.

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of Independence.

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is variously described by historians.

RULE VIII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural; as, "Socrates and Plato were wise; they were eminent philosophers."

NOTE 1. When each or every relates to two or more nominatives in the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in the singular; as, "Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, teems with life."

2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity with humility, renders its possessor truly amiable;" "The General, also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for redress."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large quantities.

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grow is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, "coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunction, and; therefore the verb should be plural, grow; and then it would agree with coffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun it, as it represents both the nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies: they are exported in large quantities."

Time and tide waits for no man.

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.

Life and health is both uncertain.

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you have no need of assistance?

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind it continually upon thy heart.

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes of the judicious.

There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.

Not proper; for, although and couples things together so as to present the whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect: it distributes them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. Were numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "was numbered," in the singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.

RULE IX.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular number, connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the singular; as, "Neither John nor James has learned his lesson."

NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou or I am in fault; I or thou art to blame; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am to blame or thou art," &c.

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him;" "I or they were offended by it."

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.

The verb, have caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, because it expresses the action, not of both, but of either the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance or negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)

A circle or a square are the same in idea.

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.

Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved.

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of friendship is proved.

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands.

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thy own lot.

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.

RULE X.

A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying unity of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "The meeting was large, and it held three hours."

NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The nation are powerful.

The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care.

That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.

RULE XI.

A noun of multitude, conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural; as, "The council were divided in their sentiments."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My people doth not consider.

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.

The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the business to the general meeting.

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.

RULE XII.

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses; as, "Man's happiness;" "Its value is great."

NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only; as, "The duke of Bridgewater's canal; The bishop of Landaff's excellent book; The captain of the guard's house." This usage, however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is the governor of Ohio's house!"

2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last only; as, "For David my servant's sake; John the Baptist's head; The canal was built in consequence of De Witt Clinton the governor's advice."

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."

3. Its, the possessive case of it, is often improperly used for 'tis, or, it is; as, "Its my book: Its his," &c.; instead of, "It is my book; or, 'Tis my book; It is his; or, 'Tis his."

4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, as, "In case of his majesty's dying without issue, &c.; Upon God's having ended all his works, &c.; I remember its being reckoned a great exploit; At my coming in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.

5. Phrases like these, "A work of Washington Irving's; A brother of Joseph's; A friend of mine; A neighbor of yours," do not, as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (out of, or, among the number of) Washington Irving's works; that is, One of the works of Washington Irving; One of the brothers of Joseph; One friend of my friends; One neighbor of your neighbors."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Homers works are much admired.

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.

Note 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities.

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.

Note 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.

Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.

Much depends on this rule being observed.

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council.

RULE XIII.

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number; as, "John writes, and he will soon write well."

NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is always plural in form; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; as, "My friend, you were mistaken." See pages and

FALSE SYNTAX

Every man will be rewarded according to their works.

Incorrect, because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, is violated. Their should be his; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with man, according to Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.

Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.

No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.

Note. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of censure.

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was you from the defendant?

RULE XIV.

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, and number; as, "Thou who lovest wisdom;" "I who speak from experience."

NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man who command you;" or, "I am the man who commands you." The meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the man."

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence; as, "I am the Lord, that maketh all things; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone; that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means.

Thou great First Cause, least understood!

Who all my sense confined.

Note, 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.

RULE XV.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb; as, "The master who taught us, was eminent."

FALSE SYNTAX.

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him.

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.

RULE XVI.

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence; as, "He whom I serve, is eternal."

NOTE 1. Who, which, what, the relative that, and their compounds, whomever, whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He whom ye seek, has gone hence."

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied; as, "Who steals my purse, steals trash;" that is, he who.

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "On which side soever the king cast his eyes," &c.

4. The pronoun what is sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunction that; as, "He would not believe but what I was in fault." It should be "but that," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not proper, because who, which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be whom, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)—and, also, according to Rule 20. "That is the friend whom I sincerely esteem."

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.

From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be estimated.

He is a man who I greatly respect.

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to.

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune.

Who did you walk with?

Who did you see there?

Who did you give the book to?

RULE XVII.

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative; as, "Whose book is that? Joseph's;" "Who gave you this? John."

NOTE. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the interrogative.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.

Who walked with you? My brother and him.

Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.

RULE XVIII.

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, "He is a good, as well as a wise man."

NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am miserable; He is industrious."

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind; as, "Ten feet; Eighty fathoms." But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of forty sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle."

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, "To see is pleasant; To be blind is unfortunate; To die for our country is glorious."

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced; as, "Red hot iron; Pale blue lining; Deep sea-green sash; The apples boil soft; Open your hand wide; The clay burns white; The fire burns blue; The eggs boil hard."

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, "A tract of good land."

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison; such as, more impossible, most impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect, &c. See REMARKS on adjectives, page 76.

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the taller of the two; Her specimen is the best of the three."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Note 2. The boat carries thirty tun.

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.

Note 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture.

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.

Note 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible.

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.

Note 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.

RULE XIX.

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "Any man, all men."

NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns; as, "This book, these books; that sort, those sorts."

2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, and one, agree with nouns in the singular number only; as, "Each man, every person, another lesson;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "Every six months."

3. Either is often improperly employed instead of each; as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne." Each signifies both taken separately; either implies only the one or the other taken disjunctively:—"sat each on his throne."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Note 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.

They have been playing this two hours.

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one or more persons enter the garden.

Note 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.

There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.

Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion.

Note 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.

RULE XX.

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered Pompey;" "Columbus discovered America;" "Truth ennobles her."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.

Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and therefore it should be you, in the objective case. You would then be governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case.

Who did they entertain so freely?

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.

He and they we know, but who are ye?

She that is negligent, reprove sharply.

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.

Who did they send on that mission?

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.

RULE XXI.

The verb to be may have the same case after it as before it; as, "I am the man;" "I believe it to have been them;" "He is the thief."

NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb to be, signify the same thing, they are in apposition, and, therefore, in the same case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7.

2. The verb to be is often understood; as, "The Lord made me man; He made him what he was;" that is, "The Lord made me to be man; He made him to be that which he was." "They desired me to call them brethren;" i.e. by the name of brethren. "They named him John;" i.e. by the name of John; or, by the name John; putting these two nouns in apposition.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I know it to be they.

Improper, because it is in the objective case before the verb "to be," and they is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. They is in apposition with it, therefore they should be them, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the Rule.)

Be composed, it is me.

I would not act thus, if I were him.

Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.

Who do you fancy him to to be?

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.

RULE XXII.

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb to become, and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "Tom struts a soldier;" "Will sneaks a scrivener;" "He was called Cesar;" "The general was saluted emperor;" "They have become fools."

NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case; as, "To dream a dream; To run a race; To walk the horse; To dance the child; To fly the kite."

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an objective case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: thus, "Pitticus was offered a large sum by the king;" "She was promised them (the jewels) by her mother;" "I was asked a question." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, "A large sum was offered to Pitticus;" "They were promised (to) her;" "A question was put to me."

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. To smile, to wonder, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; but, to smile on, to wonder at, to dream of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; as, "He was smiled on by fortune; The accident is not to be wondered at;"

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, "Than are dreamed of in your philosophy."

RULE XXIII.

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "Cease to do evil;" "We all have our talent to be improved;" "She is eager to learn;" "They are preparing to go;" "Let him do it."

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of government referred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in which cease is introduced, requires or compels us to put the verb do in the infinitive mood; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with cease, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that cease governs the mood of the verb do. Similar remarks may be applied to the words talent, eager, preparing, and him, in the respective examples under the rule.

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes.

RULE.

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor.

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to thou understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to talent; "to learn," to she; "to go," to they; and "to do," refers to him.

NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence; as, "To confess the truth, I was in fault."

2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, "An object so high as to be invisible;" "He is wise enough to deceive;" "The army is about to march."

RULE XXIV.

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; as, "To play is pleasant;" "Boys love to play;" "That warm climates shorten life, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider how near he approaches to his end."

NOTE. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted; as, "I heard him say it;" instead of, "to say it."

RULE XXV.

The verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed; as, "He bids me come;" "I dare engage;" "Let me go;" "Help me do it;" i.e. to come, to go, to do it, &c. "He is hearing me recite."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Bid him to come.

He durst not to do it without permission.

Hear him to read his lesson.

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other.

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.

RULE XXVI.

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the tutor instructing his pupils."

NOTE. The present participle with the definite article the before it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition of after it. The and of must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By the observing of truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing truth," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Note. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone.

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid mistakes.

RULE XXVII.

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor; as, "I see a boy running."

RULE XXVIII.

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy abused."

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them; as, "Pontius Pilate being Governor of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch," &c.

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "Taking from another without his knowledge or assent, is called stealing; He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely; I cannot fail of having money, &c.; By promising much and performing but little, we become despicable."

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' 'He would have spoke;'—spoken. 'He overrun his guide;'—overran. 'The sun had rose;'—risen.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I seen him. I have saw many a one.

Seen is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I saw him," according to Note 3, Have saw is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliary have with its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be written thus, "I have seen many a one:" Note 3.

Note 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he come home.

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long ago.

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject.

RULE XXIX.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "A very good pen writes extremely well;" "By living temperately," &c.

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a very sensible discourse, and was attentively heard."

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses quality, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should be used; as, "She looks cold; She looks coldly on him; He feels warm; He feels warmly the insult offered to him." If the verb to be can be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks [is] cold; The hay smells [is] sweet; The fields look [are] green; The apples taste [are] sour; The wind blows [is] fresh."

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither; thus, "He came here [hither] hastily;" "They rode there [thither] in two hours;" "Where [whither] will he go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.

4. The use of where, instead of in which, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter, where [in which] their rights are boldly asserted."

5. As the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "From whence it follows;" "He came from thence since morning." Better, "whence it follows;" "He came thence." The following phrases are also exceptionable: "The then ministry;" "The above argument;" "Ask me never so much dowry;" "Charm he never so wisely." Better, "The ministry of that time or period;" "The preceding argument;" "Ever so much dowry;" "Ever so wisely."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Note 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate.

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.

These things should be never separated.

We may happily live, though our possessions are small.

RULE XXX.

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things are not uncommon;" i.e. they are common.

NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, "His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical;" that is, it is grammatical.

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "I cannot by no means allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, "I cannot by any means," &c., or, "I can by no means."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Note, 2d part. I don't know nothing about it.

I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.

RULE XXXI.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went from Utica to Rome, and then passed through Redfield."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Each is accountable for hisself.

They settled it among theirselves.

It is not I who he is displeased with.

Who did you go with?

Who did you receive instruction from?

RULE XXXII.

Home, and nouns signifying distance, time when, how long, &c. are generally governed by a preposition understood; as, "The horse ran a mile;" "He came home last June;" "My friend lived four years at college;" that is, ran through the space of a mile; or, ran over a space called a mile; to his home in last June; during four years, &c.

NOTE 1. The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] me a book; Get [for] him some paper."

2. To or unto, is, by some, supposed to be understood after like and unlike; as, "He is like [unto] his brother; She is unlike [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain that like governs the objective following it.

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one thousand miles long; She is ten years old; My hat is worth ten dollars." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.

RULE XXXIII.

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The master taught her and me to write;" "He and she are associates."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My brother and him are grammarians.

You and me enjoy great privileges.

Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned without me.

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.

RULE XXXIV.

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward."

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He may return, but he will not tarry."

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive mood after them; as, "If he study, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, and 155.

3. The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "As virtue advances, so vice recedes."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.

Note 1. He has gone home, but may return.

The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.

Note 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.

RULE XXXV.

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction than, as, or but, is nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiser than I [am."] "I saw nobody but [I saw] him."

NOTE 1. The conjunction as, when it is connected with such, many, or same, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a relative pronoun; as, "Let such as presume to advise others," &c.; that is, Let them who, &c. See page 116.

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; as "Wo is me;" that is, to me; "To sleep all night;" i.e. through all the night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. on a journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. over a space called a league.

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its force, they must be expressed.

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved.

FALSE SYNTAX.

They are much greater gainers than me.

They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian than them.

They were all well but him.

None were rewarded but him and me.

Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.

REMARKS ON THE TENSES.

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed.

Instead of saying, "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away;" we should say, "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, "I remember the family more than twenty years;" it should be, "I have remembered the family more than twenty years."

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one; Observe what the sense necessarily requires.

To say, "I have visited Washington last summer; I have seen the work more than a month ago," is not good sense. The constructions should be, "I visited Washington, &c.; I saw the work, &c." "This mode of expression has been formerly much admired:"—"was formerly much admired." "If I had have been there;" "If I had have seen him;" "Had you have known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I have been, I had been; but what sort of a tense is, had have been? To place had before the defective verb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:—"had ought, hadn't ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of theirn, hern, and hizzen, tother, furder, baynt, this ere, I seed it, I tell'd him.

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in which it took place; remains, the imperfect tense should be used; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the perfect tense should be employed.

Thus, we say, "Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century;" "He was much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the perfect tense; as, "Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century;" "He has been much afflicted this year;" "I have read the president's message this week;" "We have heard important news this morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak.

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "They have, in all ages, claimed great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly say, "The Druid priests have claimed great powers;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests claimed great powers."

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, "was recently at Philadelphia;" because the adverb recently refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles has grown, since I saw him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its having been so long postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the city:"—"They had arrived."

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of it." It should be, "will have completed the building," &c. "This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past:"—"has been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"—"I would rather write than beg."

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, "because he would know; or, being willing to know," &c. "The blind man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, may would be preferable to might. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived:"—"that I should lose." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if I could have performed it;" or, "It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:"—"that has been, or will be published."

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express.

Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, ought to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the Infinitive mood.

"Last week I intended to have written," is improper. The intention of writing was then present with me; and, therefore, the construction should be, "I intended to write." The following examples are also inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected to have found him;" "My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, to have withdrawn my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected to find him;" "to withdraw my wealth."

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself to have been written," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, "To have seen him;" or, "To see him would afford me pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them:"—"were sufficient to satisfy." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings:"—"to invent such a species."

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the present tense.

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty were equal to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was useful, was good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue was always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "are equal to twenty;" "whatever is useful, is good;" "virtue is always advantageous."

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men.

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.

Is it me or him who you requested to go?

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.

By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed.

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good.

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.

They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed.

I intended to have called last week, but could not.

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president.

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.

I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with me, if he could.

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the nature of the religion which they reject.

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.

Education is not attended to properly in Spain.

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.

He has little more of the great man besides the title.

Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves.

Those two authors have each of them their merit.

Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve.

It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.

Beauty and innocence should be never separated.

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope.

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures.

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian.

The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline him to offend.

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.

They that honor me, them will I honor.

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time.

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.

Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention.

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed.

Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place.

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.

He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better.

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator.

* * * * *

CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.

OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common sense:—"Sing the two first and three last verses." Just as if there could be more than one first and one last. There may be a first two, a second two, &c.; a first three, a second three, a last three. "Within the two last centuries;" "The second syllable of the three first words;" "The three first of these orthoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"—"the last two centuries;" "the first three words;" "the first three of these orthoepists."

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The higher the river, the swifter it flows;" "James learns easier than Juliet; he sees deeper into the millstone than she:"—"the more swiftly it flows;" "learns more easily; farther into the millstone." "He conducted the boldest of any:"—"the most boldly."

3. More requires than after it. The following sentences are therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, as his companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more beloved as Cinthio;" "Richard is more active as his companion," &c.

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally substitutes for two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you accompany me to Europe next summer?" "Yes." "Do you believe that the voyage will restore your health?" "No." In these examples, the adverbs yes and no, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualify any words understood. Yes, in this instance, literally means, "I will accompany you to Europe next summer;" and no, "I do not believe that the voyage will restore my health." Many other adverbs are often employed in a similar manner.

"Firstly," is often improperly used instead of the adverb first; "a good deal," instead of, much, or, a great deal.

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of such and so. The former may be employed in expressing quality; the latter, in expressing a degree of the quality; as, "Such a temper is seldom found;" "So bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, so should be used instead of such: "He is such an extravagant young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw such large trees."

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to be imitated. "On page forty-five;" "Look at page nineteen;"—forty-fifth, nineteenth.

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to John with the conjunction and;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement." These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated by the conviction;" "by those golden precepts;" "by the conjunction and;" "predilection for;" "much of at Argos;" "on going;" "falling a long time;" "deserving encouragement."

7. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, where they follow verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went to Washington." But at is employed after the verb to be; as, "I have been at Washington;" "He has been to New York, to home," &c. are improper. The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He lives in France, in London, in Philadelphia, in Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant countries, at is commonly used; as, "He lives at Park-place;" "She resides at Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They live in New Orleans, or, at New Orleans."

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be employed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house to let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business to perform this session;" because the agents, house, horses and carriages, and business, which are really passive, are, according to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, "This house to be let;" "Horses and carriages to be let;" "much business to be performed."

9. AMBIGUITY.—"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not literally correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and unexceptionable.

"A crow is a large black bird:"—a large, black—bird.

"I saw a horse—fly through the window:"—I saw a horsefly.

"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw, through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail.

"One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half an eye, how the world goes.

"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to the sea shore; whereas, he meant, "A large stone, which, after a long search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor."

"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice only those called personal pronouns.

10. TAUTOLOGY.—Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as, "Now extant, free gratis, slow mope, cold snow, a hot sun, a flowing stream, a dull blockhead, wise sages." "I am just going to go there;" I am about to go.

11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES.—"I can learn him many things."

It ought to be, "I can teach him." To learn, is to acquire or receive information; to teach, means to communicate it.

"I don't think it is so." You do think, that it is not so.

Ever, always. "I have ever been of this mind." I have always been. Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one indefinite period of time; as, "If he ever become rich:" always means at all times.

Excuse, pardon. The former signifies to release from an obligation which refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" pardon me.

Remember, recollect. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind; we recollect it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have power to call it back.

Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, is defective; a total absence of the thing, is a deficiency.

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work.

* * * * *

CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY.

From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the following are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's Dictionary.

INCORRECT. CORRECT. Abridgement Abridgment abscision abcission achievment achievement adze addice agriculturalist agriculturist ancle ankle attornies attorneys baise baize bason basin bass base bombazin bombasin boose bouse boult bolt buccaneer bucanier burthen burden bye by calimanco calamanco camblet camlet camphire camphor canvas canvass carcase carcass centinel sentinel chace chase chalibeate chalybeate chamelion chameleon chimist chemist chimistry chemistry cholic colic chuse choose cimetar cimeter clench clinch cloke cloak cobler cobbler chimnies chimneys chesnut chestnut clue clew connection connexion corset corslet cypher cipher cyphering ciphering dactyl dactyle develope develop dipthong diphthong dispatch despatch doat dote drouth drought embitter imbitter embody imbody enquire inquire enquirer inquirer enquiry inquiry ensnare insnare enterprize enterprise enthral inthrall entrench intrench entrenchment intrenchment entrust intrust enwrap inwrap epaulette epaulet etherial ethereal faggot fagot fasset faucet fellon felon fie fy germ germe goslin gosling gimblet gimlet grey gray halloe halloo highth height hindrance hinderance honied honeyed impale empale inclose enclose inclosure enclosure indict endict indictment endictment indorse endorse indorsement endorsement instructor instructer insure ensure insurance ensurance judgement judgment laquey lackey laste last licence license loth loath lothsome loathsome malcontent malecontent maneuver manoeuvre merchandize merchandise misprison misprision monies moneys monied moneyed negociate negotiate negociation negotiation noviciate novitiate ouse ooze opake opaque paroxism paroxysm partizan partisan patronize patronise phrenzy phrensy pinchers pincers plow plough poney pony potatoe potato quere query recognize recognise reindeer raindeer reinforce re-enforce restive restiff ribbon riband rince rinse sadler saddler sallad salad sceptic skeptic sceptical skeptical scepticism skepticism segar cigar seignor seignior serjeant sergeant shoar shore soothe sooth staunch stanch streight straight suitor suiter sythe scythe tatler tattler thresh thrash thwak thwack tipler tippler tranquility tranquillity tripthong triphthong trissyllable trisyllable valice valise vallies valleys vise vice vollies volleys waggon wagon warrantee warranty whoopingcough hoopingcough woe wo yeast yest

CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY.

The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to Cobb's Dictionary, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the mispronunciations given are provincial.

1 2 3 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 5 6 1 4 Fate, far, fall, fat—me, met—pine, pin—no, nor, not, move—tube, tub, 7 34 37 bull—oil—found—-thin—THIS.

ORTHOGRAPHY. IMPROPER. PRONOUNCED. 4 1 4 4 Again a-gane' a-gen' 4 1 4 4 Against a-ganste' a-genst 4 1 4 1 Ally al'le al'li' 1 2 Are are ar 4 4 1 1 Azure azh'ur a'zhure 1 1 Bade bade bad 1 11 Beard bard beerd 4 11 4 Been ben or been bin 22 11 Bleat blaat bleet 1 34 Boil bile boil 4 4 5 4 Bonnet bun'net bon'nit 2 66 Brooch brotsh brootsh 4 3 4 4 Canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' 4 4 Catch ketsh katsh 4 1 3 1 Causeway kros'wa kawz'wa 4 4 1 4 Chalice kal'is tshal'is 4 1 Chasten tshas'tn tshase'sn 4 1 4 1 Chimney tshim'ble tshim'ne 3 1 Chine tshime tshine 34 1 Choir koir kwire 4 4 1 1 Clevy klev'is klev've 4 4 Clinch klensh klinsh 5 4 5 4 Column kol'yum kol'lum 5 4 4 4 Combat kom'bat kum'bat 5 1 5 4 Comma kom'me kom'ma 1 4 3 4 Coquet ko-kwet' ko-ket' 3 1 Corps korps kore 4 4 4 4 Cover kiv'ur kuv'ur 11 4 Deaf deef def 1 4 4 1 1 4 Decisive de-sis'iv de-si'siv 1 5 1 1 Depot de'pot de-po' 4 1 1 1 1 Depute dep'u-tize de-pute' 4 1 1 1 1 4 Deputed dep'u-tizd de-pu'ted 1 1 1 1 Design de-zine' de-sine' 4 4 Dint dent dint 1 5 4 Docile do'slle dos'sil 4 4 4 4 Disgust dis-gust' diz-gust' 4 1 4 1 Dismay dis-ma' diz-ma' 4 1 4 1 Disown dis-one' diz-one' 1 4 Dost dost dust 1 4 Doth doth duth 66 4 Does dooz duz 11 1 Drain dreen drane 37 37 Drought drouth drout 37 4 37 Drowned dround'ed dround 4 1 4 4 Ductile duk'tile duk'til 1 4 Edge aje edje 1 1 4 Either i'THur e'THur 4 4 4 4 English eng'lish ing'glish 1 1 1 1 Era e're e'ra 1 1 Ere ere are 1 4 Fasten fas'tn fas'sn 4 7 11 7 Fearful fer'ful feer'ful 4 4 4 1 Figure fig'gur fig'ure 4 11 Fiend fend feend 4 4 First fust furst 34 1 1 1 1 Foliage foil'aje fo'le-aje 3 4 3 1 Fortune for'tshun for'tshune 3 4 3 1 Fortnight fort'nit fort'nite 37 37 4 Fountain foun'tn foun'tin 4 4 4 1 Fracture frak'tshur frak'tshure 1 4 1 4 Fragrance frag'ranse fra'granse 1 1 1 4 Futile fu'tile fu'til 4 4 4 4 Gather geTH'ur gaTH'ur 4 4 Get git get 4 4 Girth gurt gerth 66 1 Goal gool gole 1 1 4 1 4 Going gone or go'in go'ing 66 1 Gold goold gold 66 4 Gum goom gum 1 4 4 Grudge be-gretsh' grudje 4 4 4 4 Gypsum gip'sum jip'sum 4 4 Has hez haz 1 4 Have have hav 11 4 Heard heerd herd 4 4 2 Hearth hurth or hath harth 4 4 Hiss siss hiss 1 34 Hoist histe hoist 4 1 1 1 Homely hum'ble home'le 4 66 Hoof huf hoof 3 4 5 4 Hostler haws'lur os'lur 4 4 Humble hum'bl um'bl 11 4 4 4 Jesting jeest'in jest'ing 4 4 Kettle kit'tl ket'tl 4 4 4 1 Lecture lek'tshur lek'tshure 4 4 1 1 Leisure lezh'ur le'zhure 4 4 1 4 Lever lev'er le'vur 4 4 Lid led lid 1 5 1 4 Lilach la'lok li'lak 66 1 Loam loom lome 1 66 Loo lu loo 1 1 4 1 Maintain mane-tane' men-tane' 1 4 1 4 Matron mat'run ma'trun 1 1 4 1 Mermaid mare'made mer'made 37 37 Mountain moun'tn moun'tin 1 4 1 1 Nature na'tshur na'tshure 1 4 1 4 Neither ni'THur ne'THur 1 11 1 1 Oblige o-bleeje' o-blije' 1 11 5 1 Oblique o-bleek' ob-like' 5 5 Of of ov 1 34 Oil ile oil 5 4 1 1 1 Only on'le or un'le one'le 1 4 4 4 Panther pane'tur pan'thur 4 4 1 4 Parent par'ent pa'rent 2 4 2 4 Partner pard'nur part'nur 2 4 4 1 Pasture pas'tshur pas'tshure 4 4 1 4 Patron pat'run pa'trun 4 4 4 4 Pincers pinsh'urz pin'surz 4 4 Pith peth pith 11 1 Plait pleet plate 1 1 4 Poem pome po'em 1 34 Point pinte point 5 4 4 Pother poTH'ur puTH'ur 4 4 1 4 Precept pres'sept pre'sept 1 1 4 4 Preface pre'fase pref'fas 1 1 4 1 Prelude pre'lude prel'ude 1 4 5 4 Process pro'ses pros'ses 1 4 5 4 Product pro'dukt prod'ukt 1 4 5 4 Progress pro'gres prog'res 1 1 1 11 Profile pro'file pro-feel' 4 4 4 4 Pumpion pungk'in pump'yun 4 7 Put put (verb) put 1 34 Quoit kwate kwoit 1 1 4 1 Rapine ra'pine rap'in 1 11 Rear rare reer 4 1 4 4 Reptile rep'tile rep'til 4 4 Rid red rid 1 1 Rind rine rind 4 4 Rinse rense rinse 5 4 5 4 Rosin roz'um roz'in 87 1 66 11 Routine rou tene roo-teen' 4 66 Roof ruff roof 4 4 1 4 Sacred sak'red sa'kred 1 4 Said sade sed 4 4 Sat set sat 1 4 Says saze sez 2 1 Scarce skarse skarse 4 1 4 1 Schedule sked'ule sed'jule 4 4 Shut shet shut 4 4 Since sense sinse 4 11 Sleek slik sleek 4 4 1 4 Sliver sliv'vur sli'vur 3 7 1 7 Slothful slawth'ful sloth'ful 4 66 Soot sut soot 4 4 1 2 Spikenard spig'nut spike'nard 1 34 Spoil spile spoil 4 4 11 2 Steelyard stil'yurdz steel'yard 5 4 Stamp stomp stamp 4 4 Stint stent stint 1 1 Sword sword sord 1 5 4 4 Synod si'nod sin'ud 1 1 4 1 Therefore THare'fore THer'fore 4 4 Thill fil thil 1 66 To to too 37 66 Tour tour toor 4 4 Treble trib'bl treb'bl 1 3 1 4 Towards to-wardz' to'urdz 5 1 1 1 Trophy trof'fe tro'fe 1 1 1 1 Tuesday tshuz'de tuze'de 4 4 4 1 Verdure vur'jur ver'jure 1 4 4 11 Vizier vi'zhur viz'yeer 5 4 5 1 Volume vol'lum vol'yume 1 4 Were ware wer 1 1 Yea ya ye 4 4 Yes yes yis 11 33 4 Yest yeest or eest yest 4 4 Yet yit yet 1 66 You yu yoo 1 66 Your yure yoor 1 66 Youth yuth yooth 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 4 Ague and fever fe'vurn-a'gur a'gu-and fe'vur 3 4 1 4 4 1 Alternate awl-ter'nate al-ter'nate 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 Annunciate an-nun'shate an-nun'she-ate 4 1 4 4 1 4 Andiron hand'i-urn and'i-urn 4 1 1 4 4 1 11 Antipodes an'te-podz an-tip'o-deez 4 4 4 4 1 4 Apparent ap-par'ent ap-pa'rent 2 1 4 4 2 3 4 1 Architecture artsh'e-tek-tshur ar'-ke-tek-tshure 4 4 4 4 4 4 Assumption as-sump'shun as-sum'shun 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 1 Auxiliary awks-il'a-re awg-zil'ya-re 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 Certiorari sash-ur-ar'ur ser-she-o-ra'ri 4 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 Christianity kris-tshan'e-te kris-tshe-an'e-te 4 4 1 4 4 4 Clandestine klan-des'tine klan-des'tin 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 Coadjutor ko-ad'ju-tur ko-ad-ju'tur 5 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 Compendium kom-pen'de-um kom-pen'je-um 5 4 1 1 4 1 Connoisseur kon-nis-sure' ko-nes-sare' 1 1 4 4 1 4 Courteous kore'te-us kur'tshe-us 4 4 4 4 4 4 Coverlet kuv'ur-lid kuv'ur-let 37 4 1 37 4 4 Cowardice kou'urd-ise kou'urd-is 1 4 4 1 4 4 Decrepit de-krip'id de-krep'it 4 5 1 1 5 1 Demonstrate dem'on-strate de-mon'strate 1 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 1 4 Desideratum de-sid-er-at'um de-sid-e-ra'tum 1 4 1 1 4 Diamond di'mund di'a-mund 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 Discrepance dis-krep'an-se dis'kre-panse 4 4 1 4 4 4 Disfranchise dis-fran'tschize dis-fran'tschiz 4 5 4 4 5 4 Dishonest dis-on'est diz-on'est 4 3 4 4 3 4 Disorder dis-or'dur diz-or'dur 1 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 Electrify e-lek'tur-ize e-lek'tre-fi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Emaciate e-ma'shate e-ma'she-ate 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 Expatiate eks-pa'shate eks-pa'she-ate 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 Expiatory eks-pi'a-to-re eks'pe-a-tur-re 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 Extempore eks-tem'pore eks-tem'po-re 4 1 1 4 1 4 Feminine fem'e-nine fem'e-nin 4 4 1 1 4 1 Frequently frek'went-le fre'kwent-le 4 1 1 4 1 4 Genuine jen'u-ine jen'u-in 2 11 2 1 4 Guardian gar-deen' gyar'de-an 4 4 4 4 4 4 Gymnastic gim-nas'tik jim-nas'tik 4 1 1 4 4 1 66 4 Hallelujah hal-le-lu'ja hal-le-loo'ya 5 4 4 5 3 4 Hospital hos'pit-al os'pe-tal 1 4 4 1 4 4 Humorous hu'mur-us yu'mur-us 1 1 1 1 4 Idea i-de' i-de'a 4 1 4 4 4 1 3 4 Ignoramus ig-no-ram'us ig-no-ra'mus 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 Indecorous in-dek'o-rus in-de-ko'rus 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 Irradiate ir-rad'e-ate ir-ra'de-ate 4 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 Literati lit-er-at'i lit-er-a'ti 1 1 4 4 1 4 Maintenance mane-tane'anse men-'te-nanse 4 1 1 4 1 4 Masculine mas'ku-line mas'ku-lin 4 4 1 mur'kan-tile } 4 4 11 } 4 4 4 Mercantile mur-kan-teel'} mer'kan-til 4 4 4 } mur-kan'til } 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Meliorate me-li'o-rate me'le-o-rate 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 Molestation mo-les-ta'shun mol-es-ta'shun 1 1 4 1 1 4 Museum mu'ze-um mu-ze'um 1 4 4 4 4 4 National na'shun-al nash'un-al 1 4 4 1 5 4 1 1 Nomenclature no-men'kla-ture nom-en-kla'tshure 5 1 4 5 1 4 4 Nominative nom'e-tiv nom'e-na-tiv 5 5 1 4 5 4 4 4 Obstreperous ob-strop'pu-lus ob-strep'er-us 5 2 1 5 1 1 Octavo ok-ta'vo ok-ta'vo 5 1 1 1 5 4 4 1 Oratory or'a-to-re or'a-tur-re 1 4 1 4 4 1 Parentage pa'rent-aje par'ent-aje 2 4 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 Partiality par-shal'le-te par-she-al'le-te 1 4 1 4 4 4 Patronage pa'trun-aje pat'run-ije 4 1 2 1 1 2 Patriarch pat're-ark pa'tre-ark 4 1 4 1 1 4 Patriot pat're-ut pa'tre-ut 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 4 Patriotism pat're-ut-izm pa'tre-ut-izm 1 5 1 4 1 5 1 4 Philologist fi-lol'lo-jist fe-lol'lo-jist 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 Philosophy fi-los'o-fe fe-los'o-fe 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 5 1 4 Philosophical fi-lo-sof'ik-al fil-o-zof'e-kal 1 4 4 1 4 4 Plagiarism pla'ga-rizm pla'ja-rizm 5 4 5 4 Possess pos-ses' poz-zes' 5 4 1 5 4 1 Possessive pos-ses'siv poz-zes'siv 5 4 4 5 4 4 Possession pos-sesh'un poz-zesh'un 1 4 4 4 1 4 4 Preventive pre-vent'a-tiv pre-vent'iv 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 Pronunciation pro-nun-se-a'shun pro-nun-she-a'shun 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 Propitiation pro-pis-e-a'shun pro-pish-e-a'shun 5 1 1 5 1 1 Prophecy prov'e-si (noun) prof'e-se (noun) 5 1 1 5 1 5 Prophesy prov'e-si (verb) prof'e-si (verb) 1 1 1 1 1 Ratio ra'sho ra'she-o 1 4 4 4 4 4 Rational ra'shun-al rash'un-al 1 4 4 1 4 4 Sacrament sa'kra-ment sak'ra-ment 1 1 1 4 1 1 Sacrifice sa'kre-fize, sak're-fize 4 or (fis) 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 Stereotype ster'o-tipe ste're-o-tipe 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 Stupendous stu-pen'du-us, stu-pen'dus 1 4 stu-pen'jus 1 5 1 1 4 1 4 Synonyme se-non'e-me sin'o-nim 4 4 4 4 1 4 Transparent trans-par'ent trans-pa'rent 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 1 Transparency trans-par'en-se trans-pa'ren-se 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 Tremendous tre-men'du-us, tre-men'dus 1 4 1 tre-men'jus 4 4 4 4 1 4 Verbatim ver-bat'im ver-ba'tim 5 2 1 5 1 1 Volcano vol-ka'no vol-ka'no 4 1 4 11 Whiffletree hwip'pl-tre hwif'fl-tree

NOTE 1.—When the words learned, blessed, loved, &c. are used as participial adjectives, the termination ed should generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A learn-ed man; The bless-ed Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs, the ed is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He learn'd his lesson; They are lov'd; I have walk'd."

2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables expressed in the italic characters: Eu ro pe an, hy me ne al, Ce sa re a, co ad ju tor, ep i cu re an, in ter est ed, in ter est ing, rep a ra ble, rec og nise, leg is la ture, ob li ga to ry, in com pa ra ble, ir rep a ra ble, in ex o ra ble. In a large class of words, the vowels a, e, and ai, should be pronounced like long a in late; such as, fare, rare, there, their, where, air, chair, compare, declare, &c. In the words person, perfect, mercy, interpret, determine, and the like, the vowel e before r, is often erroneously sounded like short u. Its proper sound is that of e in met, pet, imperative.

3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words sky, kind, guide, &c. it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the correct one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr. John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds 11 1 1 in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the common mass, and perverted by those who, in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these words, say, 1 1 1 1 1 1 ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words boil, toil, in two 3 4 3 4 syllables; thus, bo-il, to-il.

4. _My_, _wind_. When _my_ is contrasted with _thy_, _his_, _her_, _your_, 1 1 &c, it is pronounced, mi: in all other situations, it is pronounced, me; as, "_My [me]_ son, give ear to _my [me]_ counsel." When _wind_ ends a line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with _mind_, _bind_, kind_, &c. it is 1 4 pronounced, wind; but, in other situations, it is pronounced, wind.

"Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind."



PROVINCIALISMS.

CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES.

As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various phrases respectively belong.

IMPROPER. CORRECT.

Aint Are not haint have not taint 'tis not haint are not maint may not wont will not wer'nt were not waunt was not woodent would not mussent must not izzent is not wazzent was not hezzent has not doozzent does not tizzent 'tis not whool who will don't can't i'll 'tis

COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.

4 Akst askt 4 4 ben bin 4 2 hul hole 4 1 hum home 4 1 stun stone 66 4 dooz duz 2 4 glass glass 2 4 mass mass 2 4 brass brass 2 4 pass pass 3 2 flawnt flant 4 4 hiz'zn hiz 37 37 4 hou'zn houz'iz 1 4 1 4 an'shent ane'tshent 1 4 1 1 an'jel ane'jel 4 4 1 4 dan'jur dane'jur 4 4 1 4 stran'jur strane'jur 2 4 1 4 tscham'bur tshame'bur 1 4 1 1 na'tur na'tshure 4 4 4 4 1 4 nat'ur-el natsh'u-ral 3 4 3 1 for'tin for'tshune 3 1 1 3 1 1 for'tew-nate for'tshu-nate 4 1 4 1 vur'tew ver'tshu 4 1 4 4 1 4 vur'tew-us ver'tshu-us 1 1 4 4 1 4 ak'tew-el ak'tschu-al 4 1 1 4 1 1 ed'ew-kate ed'ju-kate 4 4 2 4 faTH'ur fa'THur heft weight stoop porch stent task helve handle muss disorder dump unload scup swing shay gig or chaise cutter one-horse sleigh staddle sapling foxy reddish suple spry or supple

IN PENNSYLVANIA.

Strenth strength lenth length brenth breadth ort ought nan what wisht wish wunst once ouch oh cheer chair spook ghost furnentz opposite wanity vanity in wain in vain ornary ordinary for by to spare we bit small piece disremember do not remember

IRISH.

66 1 Door dore 66 1 floor flore 5 4 ond and 5 55 loss looz 66 1 koorse korse 66 1 soorse sorse 4 66 till too 4 7 put put 4 7 fut fut 4 66 4 54 a-koont' ak-kount' 4 4 7 4 pul'pit pul'pit 1 4 3 pare'sun par'sn

IMPROPER. CORRECT.

MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c.

2 1 THar THare 2 1 whar hware 2 1 bar [bear] bare 2 4 war wer 37 1 mout mite [might] 1 1 4 gwine go'ing 4 4 4 shet or shut rid 1 5 1 1 4 4 tote or fotch kar're, fetsh, or bring 1 4 hop'd helpt 4 66 2 4 4 ca-hoot' part'nur-ship 3 66 5 mar'bl moov off

NOTE, Clever, pretty, ugly, curious, expect, guess, and reckon, though correct English words, have, among the common people of New England and New York, a provincial application and meaning. With them, a clever man, is one of a gentle and obliging disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound acquirements. Pretty and ugly, they apply to the disposition of a person, instead of, to his external appearance. In these states, one will often hear, "I guess it rains," when the speaker knows this to be a fact, and, therefore, guessing is uncalled for. "I expect I can go;" or, "I reckon I can;" instead of, "I suppose or presume." In New England, a clergyman is often called a minister, in New York, a priest, and south of N.Y. a parson. The last is preferable.

NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK. CORRECTED. I be goin. He lives to hum. I am going. He lives at home.

Hese ben to hum this two weeks. He has been at home these 2 weeks.

You haddent ought to do it. Yes You ought not to do it. had ought. Certainly I ought.

Taint no better than hizzen. 'Tis no better than his.

Izzent that are line writ well? Is not that line well written?

Tizzent no better than this ere. It is no better, or it is not any better than his.

The keows be gone to hum, neow, The cows are gone home, and and I'mer goin arter um. I am going after them.

He'll be here, derights, and, bring He will here, directly, and bring yourn and thairn. yours and theirs.

He touched the stun which I shew He touched the stone which I him, an di guess it made him sithe, showed him and it made him for twas cissing hot. sigh, for it was hissing hot.

Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for Go, Nathaniel, and cut a sapling, to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter to make a lever of. I was about go, daddy. to go, or intending to go immediately, father.

Where shell I dump my cart, square? Where shall I unload my cart? Dump it yender. Whats the heft of Yonder. What is the weight your load? of your load?

When ju git hum from Hafford? When did you return from A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye? Hartford? A fortnight ago. It Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a is possible! Didyou see my son tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore Daniel, who has opened a public I got there. O, the pesky criter! house there? No. He had left Hele soon be up a stump. before I arrived there. O, the paltry fellow! He will soon come to naught.