[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the construction, "The faith of them," the word them, is a personal pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:—it represents a noun understood. What, then, is their, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is it not obvious, that, if them is a personal pronoun, their must be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former.

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, mine, ours, hers, or theirs, the word book is included in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine book, ours book, hers book, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be giving a double answer: but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's book; Richard's book.

This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds what, whoever, and others, is respectfully submitted to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If what, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs?

5. Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent h; as, "Blot out all mine iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not compound. His always has the same form, whether simple or compound; as, "Give John his book; That desk is his." Her, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take her hat: when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat to her.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the declension of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing a PERSONAL PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and why?—personal, and why?—person, and why?—gender and number, and why?—RULE: case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one rule in parsing I and my, and two in parsing thou, him, and they.

"I saw my friend."

I is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it represents the person speaking, understood—first person, it denotes the speaker—singular number, it implies but one—and in the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs it, agreeably to RULE 3. The nom. case gov. the verb. Declined—first pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.

My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates the person speaking, understood—first pers. it denotes the speaker—sing. num. it implies but one—and in the possessive case, it denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to RULE 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses. Declined—first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.

"Young man, thou hast deserted thy companion, and left him in distress."

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates "man"—second person, it represents the person spoken to—mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands, according to RULE 13. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender and number.

Thou is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. The nom. case governs the verb. Declined—sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you.

Him is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates "companion"—third pers. it represents the person spoken of—mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it stands: RULE 13. Pers. pro. &c. (Repeat the Rule.)—Him is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20. Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case. Declined—third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. them.

"Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but they dreaded the force of my arm."

They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it represents "chiefs"—third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of—mas. gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE 13. Pers. Pron. &c. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it: RULE 3. The nom. case, gov. the verb. Declined—third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. them.

NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and two Rules.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them.

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us: its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts.

NOTE. Horace, Charles, and ladies, are of the second person, and nom. case independent: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first you is used in the nom. poss. and obj. case.—It represents Charles, therefore it is singular in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, you personifies ladies, therefore it is plural. Given is a perfect participle. You following given, is governed by to understood, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. Run over is a compound verb. And is a conjunction. The first its personates vale; the second its represents stream.

You may now parse the following examples three times over.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

"Juliet, retain her paper, and present yours."

Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your paper. Your is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates "Juliet"—second person, it represents the person spoken to—fem. gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but plural in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. Pers. Pron. &c.—Your is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. A noun or pron. &c. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a thing—common, the name of a sort of things—neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case.

NOTE. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper, any more than it means your book, your house, your any thing, let it be borne in mind, that pronouns have no definite meaning, like other words; but their particular signification is always determined by the nouns they represent.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin.

NOTE. She understood, is nominative to soiled, in the first example; and the substantive part of mine, after than, is nom. to is, understood: Rule 35. The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouns understood.

REMARKS ON IT.

For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun it, many grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass.

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all its mystery. It, formerly written hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb haitan. It means, the said, and, therefore, like its near relative that, meaning, the assumed, originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or gender. "It is a wholesome law;" i.e. the said (law) is a wholesome law; or, that (law) is a wholesome law;—the assumed (law) is a wholesome law. "It is the man; I believe it to be them:"—the said (man) is the man; that (man) is the man: I believe the said (persons) to be them; I believe that persons (according to the ancient application of that) to be them. "It happened on a summer's day, that many people were assembled," &c.—Many people were assembled: it, that, or the said (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day.

It, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is it with you?" that is, "How is your state or condition?" "It rains; It freezes; It is a hard winter;"—The rain rains; The frost frosts or freezes; The said (winter) is a hard winter. "It is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days." What is delightful? To see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing, is delightful. It, then, stands for all that part of the sentence expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days, is delightful."

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OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification.

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The former stand for nouns, and never belong to them; the latter belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist. Each, every, either, this, that, some, other, and the residue, are pure adjectives.

Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be divided into three sorts; the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. They are all known by the lists.

I. The distributive adjectives are those that denote the persons or things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. List: each, every, either, and sometimes neither; as, "Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation;" "Every man must account for himself;" "Neither of them is industrious."

These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of thought. "Man must account for himself;" "Mankind must account for themselves;" "All men must account for themselves;" "All men, women, and children, must account for themselves;" "Every man must account for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of every, distributes them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race.

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of the two, or every one of any number taken separately.

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them all taken separately.

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies the one or the other. "Either of the three," is an improper expression. It should be, "any of the three."

Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other; as, "Neither of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more than two, none should be used instead of neither; as, "None of my friends was there."

* * * * *

II. The demonstrative are those which precisely point out the subject to which they relate. List: this and that, and their plurals, these and those, and former and latter; as, "This is true charity; "that is only its image."

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application of the and that. When reference is made to a particular book, we say, "Take the book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, we say, "Take that book;" or, if it be near by, "Take this book." You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, and a little more.

This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, that and those to the most distant; as, "These goods are superior to those." This and these indicate the latter, or last mentioned; that and those, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, this, discontent."

"Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; Those call it pleasure, and contentment, these."

They, those. As it is the office of the personal they to represent a noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight departure from analogy in the following application of it: "They who seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: They that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and they, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to those.

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III. The indefinite are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. List: some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, another none. Of these, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is declined, but wants the plural.

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of difference in meaning, we say, Give me a paper, one paper, any paper, some paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to a particular object. We therefore call them indefinite.

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as "You may take either; He is pleased with this book, but dislikes that (book;) All (men) have sinned, but some (men) have repented."

The words, one, other, and none, are used in both numbers; and, when they stand for nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite pronouns; as, "The great ones of the world have their failings;" "Some men increase in wealth, while others decrease;" "None escape."

The word "ones," in the preceding example, does not belong to a noun understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "the great one men, nor ones men," therefore one is not an adjective pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great men of the world," therefore ones is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun men understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word others, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to other men; and should be parsed like mine, thine, &c. See Note 4th, page 100.

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss for definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But before you proceed, you may commit the following

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is—an adjective pronoun, and why?—distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?—to what noun does it belong, or with what does it agree?—RULE.

"One man instructs many others." One is an adjective pronoun, or specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun—indefinite, it expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to the noun "man," according to RULE 19. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood.

Others is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and a noun, and is equivalent to other men. Other is an adjective pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun—indefinite, it expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to men: Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) Men is a noun, a name denoting persons—common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs, &c.

"Those books are mine."

Those is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referred to—demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which it relates—and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. Adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns.

Mine is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to my books. My is a pron. a word used instead of a noun—personal, it stands for the name of the person speaking—first person, it denotes the speaker—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is gov. by "books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline the pronoun.) Books is a noun, the name of a thing—common, &c. (parse it in full;)—and in the nominative case after "are," according to RULE 21. The verb to be admits the same case after it as before it.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs to the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; the former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot.

NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undo Rule 19, should be applied.

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III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase going before, which is called the antecedent. They are who, which, and that.

The word antecedent, comes from the two Latin words, ante, before, and cedo, to go. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going before; thus, "The man is happy who lives virtuously; This is the lady who relieved my wants; Thou who lovest wisdom, &c. We who speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences, relates to the several words, man, lady, thou, and we, which words, you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly called antecedents.

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a man, we say he, and of a woman, she; in speaking of one person or thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on; but there is no such variation of the relative. Who, in the first of the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar form to denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its antecedent in sense. Thus, when I say, The man who writes, who is mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The ladies who write, who is feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.

WHO, WHICH, and THAT.

Who is applied to persons, which to things and brutes; as, "He is a friend who is faithful in adversity; The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown; This is the tree which produces no fruit."

That is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied both to persons and things; as, "He that acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman."

NOTES.

1. Who should never be applied to animals. The following application of it is erroneous:—"He is like a least of prey, who destroys without pity." It should be, that destroys, &c.

2. Who should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, "The child whom we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child that we have just seen."

3. Which may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as, "Which of the two? Which of them is he?"

4. That, in preference to who or which, is applied to persons when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by the pronominal adjective same; as, "Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw;—He is the same man that we saw before."

5. That is employed after the interrogative who, in cases like the following; "Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus?"

When the word ever or soever is annexed to a relative pronoun, the combination is called a compound pronoun; as, whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever.

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. " whoever, " whosever, " whomever. " whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever.

Which and that are indeclinable, except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; as, "Is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished;" that is, the followers of which are punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers; but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications, should be confined to rational beings.

That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.

That is a relative only when it can be changed to who or which without destroying the sense; as, "They that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends; From every thing that (which) you see, derive instruction." That is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, "Return that book; That belongs to me; Give me that." When that is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as, "Take care that every day be well employed." The word that, in this last sentence, cannot be changed to who or which without destroying the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a conjunction.

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word that, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.

Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you one example of affronted that, which may serve as a caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical. The first that is a noun; the second, a conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh, a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that which that lady parsed, was not the that which that gentleman requested her to analyze.

WHAT.

What is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which; as, "This is what I wanted;" that is, that which, or, the thing which I wanted.

What is compounded of which that. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained: what—wh[ich—t]hat; (which-that.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and finally, what.

What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. When it is equivalent to that which, the thing which, or those things which, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try what (that which) can be found in female delicacy; What you recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, those things which you recollect, &c.

When what is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, that, the antecedent part of what, is in the obj. case, governed by the verb "will try;" which, the relative part, is in the nom. case to "can be found." "I have heard what (i.e. that which, or the thing which) has been alleged."

Whoever and whosoever are also compound relatives, and should be parsed like the compound what; as, "Whoever takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, whoever is equivalent to he who, or, the man who; thus, "He who takes that oath, is bound," &c.

Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as, "Who is he? Which is the person? What are you doing?"

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, "Whom did you see? The preceptor. What have you done? Nothing." Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means following, or coming after. What, when used as an interrogative, is never compound.

What, which, and that, when joined to nouns, are specifying adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or indefinite kind; as, "Unto which promise our twelve tribes hope to come;" "What misery the vicious endure! What havock hast thou made, foul monster, sin!"

What and which, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "What man is that? Which road did he take?"

What, whatever, and whatsoever, which, whichever, and whichsoever, in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not compound relatives; as, "In what character Butler was admitted, is unknown; Give him what name you choose; Nature's care largely endows whatever happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take which course, or, whichever course he will." These sentences may be rendered thus; "That character, or, the character in which Butler was admitted, is unknown; Give him that name, or, the name which you choose; Nature's care endows that happy man who will deign, &c.; Let him take that course, or the course which he will." A compound relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being the article the, or the adjective pronoun, that; therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.—With regard to the word ever annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, ever is entirely excluded from the sentence.

What is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But what! is thy servant a dog, that he should do this? What! rob us of our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science; but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you please.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing a RELATIVE PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and why?—relative, and why?—gender, person, and number, and why?—RULE:—case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.

"This is the man whom we saw."

Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent—mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 14. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. Whom is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to

RULE 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member of the sentence.

Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline who.)

"From what is recorded, he appears," &c.

What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which—Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a noun, the name of a thing—com. the name of a species—neuter gender, it has no sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "thing" for its antecedent—neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. Rel pron. &c. Which is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," agreeably to

RULE 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb.

"What have you learned? Nothing."

What is a pron. a word used, &c.—relative of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question—it refers to the word "nothing" for its subsequent, according to

RULE 17. When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. What is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. Rel. pron. agree, &c.—It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. When a nom. &c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.

NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative when the answer to the question is not expressed.

WHO, WHICH, WHAT.

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they would be found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved.

Of the words called "relatives," who, only, is a pronoun; and this is strictly personal; more so, indeed, if we except I and we, than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as well as who. Which, that, and what, are always adjectives. They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either expressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives, and connect sentences.

Who supplies the place of which or what and its personal noun. Who came? i.e. what man, what woman, what person;—which man, woman, or person, came? "They heard what I said"—they heard that (thing) which (thing) I said. "Take what (or whichever) course you please;"—take that course which (course) you please to take. "What have you done?" i.e. what thing, act, or deed have you done? "Which thing I also did at Jerusalem." "Which will you take?"—which book, hat, or something else? "This is the tree which (tree) produces no fruit." "He that (man, or which man) acts wisely, deserves praise."

They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God.

[5] The second person singular of do, when used as a principal verb, is spelled with an e; thus, "What thou doest, do quickly;" but when employed as an auxiliary, the e should be omitted; as, "Dost thou not behold a rock with its head of heath?"

NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the objective case, before the verb that governs it. Whom, in every sentence except one, house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the third what and which, the relative part of the first two whats, are all in the objective case, and governed by the several verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. Tree is nom. after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of whatever, is nom. to "fortifies;" which, the relative part, is nom. to "purifies." Nothing is governed by do, and poem, by have, understood. Henry is nominative to does, understood. Whose and John's are governed according to RULE 12. I, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood. Him, in the last sentence but five, is governed by declare, and I is nominative to declare. George and Eliza are in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "Whatever science," &c. is equivalent to, that science which suits your taste;—"whichever pattern;" i.e. that pattern which pleases you best. Whoever is a compound relative; he, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will behold." Take agrees with you understood. Forsake is in the infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep his commandments, which is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this phrase is the antecedent to which.

The conjunction as, when it follows such, many, or same, is frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with such as have a refined taste;" that is, with those who, or them who have, &c. "Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct;" that is, Let those, or them who presume, &c. "As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, they, those, or all who were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the same testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, those testimonials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be found to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are who have a refined taste; Let such persons, as those persons are who presume," &c.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term pronoun derived?—Do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns?—Name the three kinds of pronouns.—What distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?—How many personal pronouns are there?—Repeat them.—What belong to pronouns?—Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns?—To which of them is it applied?—Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender?—How many persons have pronouns?—Speak them in their different persons.—How many numbers have pronouns?—How many cases?—What are they?—Decline all the personal pronouns.—When self is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used?—When is you singular in sense?—Is it ever singular in form?—Why are the words, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns?—Why are the words, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated compound pers. pron.?—How do you parse these compounds?—What is said of others?—Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun.—What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the nom. case?—What rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case?—What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?—What Rules in parsing the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &c.?—What is said of the pronoun it?

What are adjective pronouns?—Name the three kinds.—What does each relate to?—To what does every relate?—To what does either relate?—What does neither import?—To what do this and these refer?—Give examples.—To what do that and those refer?—Give examples.—Repeat all the adjective pronouns.—When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed?—When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun.—What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns?—What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?—Repeat them.—From what words is the term antecedent derived?—What does antecedent mean?—Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number?—To what are who and which applied?—To what is that applied?—Should who ever be applied to irrational beings or children?—In what instances may which be applied to persons?—Decline the rel. pronouns.—Can which and that be declined?—Is that ever used as three parts of speech?—Give examples.—What part of speech is the word what?—Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?—Give examples.—What is said of whoever?—What words are used as interrogative pronouns?—Give examples.—When are the words, what, which, and that, called adj. pron.?—When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?—What is said of whatever and whichever?—Is what ever used as an interjection?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.—What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?—What Rules in parsing a compound relative?—What Rules in parsing an interrogative?—Does the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent?—When does the conjunction as become a relative?—Give examples.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case.

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of the verb will go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, he, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) Him and I are connected by the conjunction and, and him is in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples, thee should be thou, according to the NOTE. The verbs, does and is, are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person, dost do and art, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples, four times over.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him.

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil.

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of these and those.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons deserves most credit?

In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. The use of the personal, them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.

* * * * *

LECTURE IX.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.

A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good."

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.

The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, con, which signifies together, and jungo, to join. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences.

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, "Wheat grows in the field."

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and one finite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, "Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it."

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it."

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice and cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice add cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition; as, "The sun and (add) the planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, and connects two words.

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He labors harder—more successfully—I do. That man is healthy—he is temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is temperate.

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.

I. The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Two and three are five; I will go if he will accompany me; You are happy because you are good."

In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that expresses an addition; in the second, if connects a member that implies a supposition or condition; and in the third, because connects a member that expresses a cause.

II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her, but they went away without her."

But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning.

The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following lists, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as,

1. Though—yet or nevertheless; as, "Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor."

2. Whether—or; as, "Whether he will go, or not, I cannot tell." It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or no."

3. Either—or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself."

4. Neither—nor; as, "Neither thou nor I can comprehend it."

5. As—as; as, "She is as amiable as her sister."

6. As—so; as, "As the stars, so shall thy seed be."

7. So—as; as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary."

8. So—that; as, "He became so vain, that everyone disliked him."

NOTES.

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form them into compound sentences; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members.

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, "Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments."

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing a CONJUNCTION, is—a conjunction, and why?—copulative or disjunctive, and why?—what does it connect?

"Wisdom and virtue form the good man's character." And is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in this example it connects only words—copulative, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition—it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."

Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing—(You may parse it in full.)—Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."

Virtue is a noun, the name, &c.—(Parse it in full:)—and in the nom. case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, according to RULE 33. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case.

Form is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.—of the third person, plural, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural.

"Wisdom or folly governs us." Or is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects words—disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning—it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."

Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.—of the third person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to RULE 9. Two or more nouns singular, joined by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the singular:

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, "Orlando and Thomas, who study their lessons, make rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are connected by the copulative conjunction and, therefore the verb make, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who and their, and the noun lessons, are plural, agreeing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according to RULE 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, according to RULE 4.

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read: "Orlando or Thomas, who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study and make rapid progress; but it asserts, that either the one or the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb makes is singular, because it expresses the action of the one or the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who and his, and the noun lesson, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to RULE 9. Studies is also singular, agreeing with who, according to RULE 4.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.

NOTE. The verb form is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb comfort agrees with they for its nominative. It is connected to support by the conjunction and, agreeably to RULE 34. Angels is nom. to are understood, and Great Britain is nom. to can boast understood, according to RULE 35.

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, for it was in vain to resist;" in this example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in the objective case: "He contended for victory only."

In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "Since we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him since that time; Our friendship commenced long since."

"He will repent before he dies; Stand before me; Why did you not return before" [that or this time;] in the first of these three examples, before is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, "In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever."

"When coldness wraps this suffering clay, "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"

That the words in, if, and when, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles between the members which they connect: thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished in the days of Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee if thou seek him; but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him:"

"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, "When coldness wraps this suffering clay?"

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term conjunction derived?—What is a sentence?—What is a simple sentence?—What is a compound sentence?—Give examples.—In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature?—How many sorts of conjunctions are there?—Repeat the lists of conjunctions.—Repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions.—Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences?—Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.—Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjunction?—What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another?—What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative conjunction?—What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive?—In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?—Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech?—Give examples.—What is said of the words for, since, and before?—What is said of the transposition of sentences?

* * * * *

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

On scientific principles, our connectives, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.

"I wish you to believe, that I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction that, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe that [assertion."] Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employing that, and its inferential meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, by the former, I merely wish you to believe that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not affirm, that as a fact.

That being the past part, of thean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a participle, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the assumed [fact or statement;] or, the fact assumed or taken."

If, (formerly written gif, give, gin,) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will go, if he will accompany me:"—"He will accompany me. Grant—give that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertaining the primitive meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of if as it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? I trow not. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed if as a verb when they used the following circumlocution: "My son will reform. Give that fact. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our language, by using if as a conjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of gin, a contraction of given: thus, "I will pardon my son, gin he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?

But perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:—we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.

But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-utan, to be-out. "All were well but (be-out, leave-out) the stranger." "Man is but a reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed, floating on the current of time; but (be-out this fact) he is not a stable being."

And—aned, an'd, and, is the past part. of ananad, to add, join. A, an, ane, or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. And also refers to the thing that is joined to, added to, or made one with, some other person or thing mentioned. "Julius and Harriet will make a happy pair." Resolution: "Julius, Harriet joined, united, or aned, will make a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet made one with Julius; will make a happy pair.

For means cause.

Because—be-cause, is a compound of the verb be, and the noun cause. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim, for I know it to be true;"—"I believe the maxim, be-cause I know it to be true;" i.e. the cause of my belief, be, or is, I know it to be true.

Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or, of other. Nor is, not other-wise: not in the other way or manner.

Else is the imperative of alesan, unless, of onlesan, and lest, the past part. of lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, unless he repent;"—"Unless, release, give up, (the fact) he repents he will be punished." Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafigan, to allow, and yet of getan, to get. Yet is simply, get; ancient g is the modern y. "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him:—Grant or allow (the fact) he slay me, get, or retain (the opposite fact) I will trust in him."

* * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived?—What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?—From what is each of the following words derived, that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, and yet?



LECTURE X.

OF INTERJECTIONS.—CASES OF NOUNS.

INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker; as, "Alas! I fear for life;" "O death! where is thy sting?"

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it is not the representative of a distinct, idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make noises, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the like.

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them.

A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS.

1. Of earnestness or grief; as, O! oh! ah! alas! 2. Contempt; as, Pish! tush! 3. Wonder; as, Heigh! really! strange! 4. Calling; as, Hem! ho! halloo! 5. Disgust or aversion; as, Foh! fy! fudge! away! 6. Attention; as, Lo! behold! hark! 7. Requesting silence; as, Hush! hist! 8. Salutation; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!

NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an interjective phrase; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing an INTERJECTION, is—an interjection, and why?

"O virtue! how amiable thou art!"

O is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker.

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six weeks; but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you nearly three months to acquire the same knowledge.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the happiness of all around him.

Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide.

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life.

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act; but, alas! I fear the consequence.

E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, I set me down a pensive hour to spend; And, placed on high, above the storm's career, Look downward where a hundred realms appear:— Alas! the joys that fortune brings, Are trifling, and decay; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they.

NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, which is governed by the verb to hide, according to RULE 16. He is nom. to carries; who is nom. to plans. Follows agrees with who understood, and is connected to plans by and; RULE 34. What did the king give? A reward to me. Then reward is in the obj. case, gov. by gave; RULE 20. Me is gov. by to understood; NOTE 1, RULE 32. The phrase, committing that barbarous act, is gov. by for; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by to spend; RULE 20. Look is connected to set by and; RULE 34. Joys is nom. to are. That is gov. by brings; RULE 16. Those is nom. to are understood. They is nom. to are understood; RULE 35.

CASES OF NOUNS.

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing.

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which he is nominative. What does he do? He carries on a thread, &c. He, then, is nominative to the verb carries. What does who do? Who plans, and who follows, &c. Then who is nom. to plans, and who understood, is nominative to follows.

"A soul without reflection, like a pile Without inhabitant, to ruin runs."

In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sentence, is the nominative, put the question; What does a soul without reflection do? Such, a soul runs to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nominative to runs.

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes after, and the objective, before the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question is asked: as, "Whence arises the misery of the present world?" "What good thing shall I do to inherit eternal life?" Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will precede, and the objective follow its verb: thus, "The misery of the present world arises whence; I shall do what good thing to inherit eternal life."

"Now came still evening on, and twilight gray Had, in her sober livery, all things clad."

"Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore With patience many a year she bore."

What did the evening do? The evening came on. Gray twilight had clad what? Twilight had clad all things in her sober livery. Evening, then, is nom. to came, and the noun things is in the objective case, and gov. by had clad: RULE 20. What did she bear? She bore thy rigid lore with patience, for, or during, many a year. Hence you find, that lore is in the objective case, and governed by bore, according to RULE 20. Year is gov. by during understood: RULE 32.

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [there is] the poor Indian! whose untutored mind." "O, the pain [there is!] the bliss [there is] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful nightingale [was not sunk."] "He thought as a sage [thinks,] though he felt as a man [feels."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them by, as dust [is blown by."] Rule 35 applies to these last three examples.

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it.

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.

Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in the nominative case independent; as, "James, I desire you to study."

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to James that is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore you know that James is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule 5. Recollect, that whenever a noun is of the second person, it is in the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as, Selma, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my lord, become a churchman, better than ambition; O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, but ye would not!—For a farther illustration of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax.

NOTE. When a pronoun of the second person is in apposition with a noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "Thou traitor, I detest thee."

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree with it, is in the nominative case absolute; as, "The sun being risen, we pursued our journey."

Sun is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, according to RULE 6.

NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always of the second person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the third person.

2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, him descending," &c.; it should be, he descending.

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION.

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "Cicero, the great orator, philosopher, and statesman of Rome, was murdered by Antony."

Apposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the first name mentioned.

You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is merely the proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional appellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher, and statesman, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all names given to the same person; therefore, if Cicero was murdered, the orator was murdered, and the philosopher was murdered, and the statesman was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person.

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in apposition; as, He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvious, that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student, because Charles was the student, and the student was Charles; therefore the noun student is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7.

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically.

PARSING.

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore."

Maid is a noun, the name of a person—- com. the name of a sort—fem. gender, it denotes a female—second pers. spoken to—sing. num. it implies but one—and in the nominative case independent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to

RULE 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case independent.

"The general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to depart."

General is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)—and in the nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle "being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to

RULE 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute.

"Thou man of God, flee to the land of Judah."

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates "man"—second pers. spoken to—mas. gender, sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the Rule.)—Thou is in the nominative case independent and put by apposition with man, because it signifies the same thing, according to

RULE 7. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case.

Man is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. Flee agrees with thou understood.

"Lo! Newton, priest of Nature, shines afar, Scans the wide world, and numbers every star."

Newton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to "shines." RULE 3.

Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with "Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.)

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Turn from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's wondrous power. O king! live for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and shades its white head in the breeze.

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is, sin being excepted.)

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace of mind, delightful guest! and dwell with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.

Soul of the just, companion of the dead! Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled? Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:— The world was sad, the garden was a wild, And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled.

NOTE. Those verbs in italics, in the preceding examples, are all in the imperative mood, and second person, agreeing with thou, ye, or you, understood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed and must be done are passive verbs. Art fled is a neuter verb in a passive form. Clothed is a perfect participle. Till is an adverbial conjunction.

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Repeat the list of interjections.—Repeat some interjective phrases.—Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.—In order to find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?—Give examples.—Is the nominative case ever placed after the verb?—When?—Give examples.—Does the objective case ever come before the verb?—Give examples.—Is a noun ever nom. to a verb understood?—Give examples.—When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent?—Give examples.—Are nouns of the second person always in the nom. case independent?—When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, in what case is it?—When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case absolute?—Give examples.—When are nouns or nouns and pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?—Give examples.—In parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should be applied?—In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?—What Rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?—Do real interjections belong to written language?—(Phil. Notes.)—From what are the following words derived, pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

The term INTERJECTION is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as written words are the ocular representatives of articulate sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, real interjections are not a part of written language.

The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily shown by tracing them to their roots.

Pish and pshaw are the Anglo-Saxon paec, paeca; and are equivalent to trumpery! i.e. tromperie, from tromper.

Fy or fie is the imperative, foe, the past tense, and foh or faugh, the past part. of the Saxon verb fian, to hate. Lo is the imperative of look. Halt is the imperative of healden, to hold. Farewell—fare-well, is a compound of faran, to go, and the adverb well. It means, to go well. Welcome—well-come, signifies, it is well that you are come. Adieu comes from the French a Dieu, to God; meaning, I commend you to God.

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LECTURE XI.

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress.

I. OF THE MOODS.

The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the manner in which its action, passion, or being, is represented.

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the declarative or indicative mode; as, The man walks; but sometimes the action or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not declare it positively, but I must adopt another mode of expression; thus, If the man walk, he will refresh himself with the bland breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is called the subjunctive or conditional mode.

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or conditional manner; but we wish to command some one to act. We then use the imperative or commanding mode, and say, Walk, sir. And when we do not wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his power or ability to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the potential mode; as, He can walk; He could walk. The fifth and last mode, called the infinitive or unlimited mode, we employ in expressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it, in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, To walk, to ride. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary according to the different intentions of the mind.

Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the mode or manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to great perplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has fourteen moods; his interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precautive, requisitive, enunciative, &c. But as far as philosophical accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what arrangement cannot be objected to?

There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive.

The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He writes;" or it asks a question; as, "Does he write? Who wrote that?"

The term indicative, comes from the Latin indico, to declare. Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to declare things, whether positively or negatively; thus, positively, He came with me; negatively, He came not with me. But in order to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative mood in asking a question; as, Who came with you?

The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense; therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive.

The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner or,

When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve; I will respect him, _though_ he _chide_ me; He will not be pardoned, _unless_ he _repent; _Had_ he _been_ there, he would have conquered;" (that is, _if_ he _had been_ there.)

The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding examples, express condition, doubt, &c.; therefore, the verbs study, chide, repent, and had been, are in the subjunctive mood.

NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in the potential.

2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "If he ride out every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he shall or should ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the indicative, or some other mood; as, "Though he rides out daily, his health is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are explained in the conjugation of the verb to love. See page.

The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, "Depart thou; Remember my admonitions; Tarry awhile longer; Go in peace."

The verb depart expresses a command; remember exhorts; tarry expresses entreaty; and go, permission; therefore they are all in the imperative mood.

The imperative, from impero, to command, is literally that mood of the verb used in commanding; but its technical meaning in grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and permitting.

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, ye, or you, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by the sense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always second person, and frequently understood; as, George, give me my hat; that is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the verb; as, Go thou; Depart ye; or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, Do thou go; Do ye depart. (Do is the auxiliary.)

The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation; as, "It may rain; He may go or stay; We must eat and drink; I can ride; He would walk; They should learn."

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary may implies possibility; in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or to stay; in the third, must denotes necessity; can denotes power or ability; would implies will or inclination; that is, he had a mind to walk; and should implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, and should learn, are in the potential mood.

NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "If I could deceive him, I should abhor it; Though he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable." I could deceive, is in the potential; If I could deceive, is in the subjunctive mood.

2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?"

The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a general and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person nor number; as, "To speak, to walk."

Infinitive means unconfined, or unlimited. This mood is called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative. A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in number and person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has no nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called finite or limited, excepting those in the infinitive mood.

NOTE. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me to proceed. See RULE 25. To is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood; thus, to ride, to rule; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it.

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when I say, I write, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, if I write, or, unless I write, &c. the verb is in the subjunctive mood; write thou, or write ye or you, the imperative; I may write, I must write, I could write, &c. the potential; and to write, the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the same manner.

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II. OF THE TENSES.

TENSE means time.

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses.

The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at the time in which it is mentioned; as, "I smile; I see; I am seen."

NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as, "He rides out every morning."

2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well; An honest man is the noblest work of God."

3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, when, before, after, as soon as, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; as, "When he arrives we shall hear the news."

The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant; or,

The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished, but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I loved her for her modesty and virtue; They were travelling post when he met them."

In these examples, the verbs loved and met express past and finished actions, and therefore constitute a perfect tense as strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense may properly be denominated an indefinite past. By defining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an imperfect tense in the expression, were travelling. This course, however, would not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the terms imperfect and perfect, as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these tenses correctly, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a consideration of very great moment.

The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the present; as, "I have finished my letter."

The verb have finished, in this example, signifies that the action, though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect may be properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its accomplishment.

The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past time specified; as, "I had finished my letter before my brother arrived."

You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, represents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another past action; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, because the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified in the same sentence.

The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I will finish; I shall finish my letter."

The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; as, "I shall have finished my letter when my brother arrives."