2-INCH BRASS FERRULE.—When it is found necessary to connect cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a brass ferrule wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very common joint and is found on sink, tray, and bath connections, as well as in many other connections that have lead and cast-iron pipes for wastes.

4-INCH BRASS FERRULE.—The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped on lead pipe is found under almost every closet. There is generally a piece of lead connecting the toilet with the soil pipe. Therefore, a brass ferrule is wiped on the lead and the ferrule connected with the soil pipe. This joint is also found on rain leader connections near the roof, connecting the gutter with the rain leader stack.

STOP COCK.—When a shut-off is required in a line of lead water pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to joint lead and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat control over the lead and the brass is the essential point in these joints.

BRANCH JOINTS 5/8 AND 1/2 INCHES.—Where it is found necessary to take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at the connection. In practice, this joint may have to be wiped in positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the wiping of joints in the positions called for in the exercises is exceedingly good practice.

BRANCH JOINTS 1-1/2 INCHES.—These joints are very common and are found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found on urinal flush-pipe connections where the branch often is brass and the run lead.

BIB.—When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a sink, this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe in a piece of brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead pipe, in which case this joint is called for.

THE DRUM TRAP.—The drum trap is used under sinks, baths, showers, and trays.



CHAPTER VII

LAYING TERRA-COTTA AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC SEWERS. WATER CONNECTIONS TO MAINS IN STREETS

TERRA-COTTA PIPE

One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called upon to do, when building operations commence, is to run in the terra-cotta sewer from the street sewer into the foundation wall.



When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every few feet. A record of the branches and their distance from the manhole is kept generally in the Department of Sewers or Public Works. Therefore, the exact measurement of any branch can be obtained and the branch found by digging down to the depth of the sewer. A branch should be chosen so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch, the same way as the main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting the measurements of two of these branches and choosing the one that will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in the street and no branches left out, the sewer must be tapped wherever the house sewer requires it (see Fig. 35).

DIGGING TRENCHES.—After the measurements and location of the house sewer and sewer branches are properly located, the digging of the trench is started. The methods employed to dig the trench vary according to the nature of the ground, that is, whether it is sand, rock, or wet ground. A line should be struck from sewer to foundation wall to insure a straight trench.



SANDY GROUND.—If the ground is sandy, the sides of the trench will have to be sheathed or planked and the planks braced so as to prevent the bank caving in. As the trench is dug deeper, the planks are driven down. When the trench is very deep, a second row of planking is necessary. The planks must be kept well down to the bottom of the trench and close together, otherwise the sand will run in. It is well to test the planking as progress is made by tamping the sand on the bank side of the planks.

GRAVEL.—Where the ground is mostly gravel and well packed, the above method of planking is unnecessary. The bank should have a few stringers and braces to support it. When only a few planks are used the term "corduroy the bank" is used (see Fig. 37).



ROCK.—Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted to. The plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring the use of powder. It is dangerous in the hands of a person not used to handling it and the work should be sublet.

A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches is given and a little study will make them clear.

LAYING OF PIPE

The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a pitch of at least 1/4 inch per foot fall. In laying, the start should be made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe toward the building. The trench should be dug within a few inches of the bottom of the pipe, then as the pipe is laid the exact depth is dug out, the surplus dirt being thrown on the pipe already laid. The body length of pipe should be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub as shown in Fig. 38 allows for this, also allows for the proper cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take for example 1/4 inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a piece of wood or metal on one end 1/2 inch thick will answer. The end with the 1/2-inch piece on should be on the lower hub and the other end resting on the hub of the pipe about to be put in place. When the bubble shows level, then the pipe has the 1/4-inch fall per foot. If a tile trap is used, it should be laid level, otherwise the seal will be weakened or entirely broken.



CUTTING.—The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be done carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken out, thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta pipe, stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the pipe with sand to the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel and hammer cut around the pipe two or three times and the pipe will crack around practically straight.

CEMENTING.—If the pipe is free from cracks, the only possible way roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta pipe is through the cement joint. There are two ways of making these joints. Both ways are explained below and are used today on terra-cotta work.

First.—The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled with cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is laid in place, then more cement is placed into the hub until the space between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a trench, a trowel is rather unhandy to work with, while the hands can be used to better advantage. The cement can be forced into place with the hands and then surfaced with a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab out the inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was forced through the joint (see Fig. 39). The cement used should be 1/2 cement and 1/2 clean sharp sand.

Second.—Half of the space between the hub and the pipe is first packed with oakum and then the other half filled with cement of the same proportions as that used above.



LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS



If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are perhaps three or four joints that cannot be reached, they should be put into place as follows: The pipe should be laid in the trench from the sewer in the street as far as the tunnel, then start at the other end of the tunnel. Lay the first piece of pipe on a board, lengthwise with the board, nail two cleats in the shape of a > (Fig. 40) for the pipe to rest in; push this pipe and board into the tunnel and then cement into its hub a second piece; push the two pieces in 2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece and push the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as it is pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the hub. The joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those outside. This explains how pipe is run through a tunnel.

CONNECTING.—The proper method of connecting the house sewer with the street sewer is shown in Fig. 35. The connection should be made above the spring of the arch. The pipe should extend well into the sewer so the sewage will discharge into water and not drop on sides.

INSERTING.—To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, pursue the following method (see Fig. 41): Cut or break out one joint, preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that is in. Cut away the top of the hub on the pipe to be inserted, then place the pipe in position and turn around until the part of the hub on the piece inserted is on the bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will have a hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can be done without difficulty.



While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the sewer gases and foul odors from escaping. This stopper sometimes is of tile, sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. This stopper is sometimes cemented in by inexperienced men and the trouble created can only be guessed at. If a stopper is used, the workman must see that it is taken out.

REFILLING.—After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should be covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement time to harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and settled by means of a tamper or by flooding with water. The planks should not be taken out until the trench is well filled. To pull the plank, a chain or shoe and lever will have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt will have to be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not to disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and tamped, the trench will settle and cause a bad depression in the street surface.

TERRA-COTTA PIPE.—Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, free from fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the hub and outside of the plain end should not be glazed. This allows the cement to take hold.

TABLE OF STANDARD TERRA-COTTA PIPE

- Size Thickness, Weight per ft., Depth of Annular space inches pounds socket - 3 1/2 7 1-1/2 1/4 4 1/2 9 1-5/8 3/8 5 5/8 12 1-3/4 3/8 6 5/8 15 1-7/8 3/8 8 3/4 23 2 3/8 9 13/16 23 2 3/8 10 7/8 35 2-1/8 3/8 12 1 45 2-1/4 1/2 15 1-1/8 60 2-1/2 1/2 18 1-1/4 85 2-3/4 1/2 20 1-3/8 100 3 1/2 -

Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in ground.

Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks or cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe they grow until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot be forced or wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The writer has seen a solid mass of roots 10 feet long taken out of a tile sewer.

In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only one way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should be laid on planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe will not be broken.

WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE

TAPPING MAIN.—The water service for a building is put in at the same time as the sewer is connected and run into the house. For a 1-1/4-service pipe a 1/2-inch tap is furnished. The water company taps the main, at the expense of the plumber, and inserts a corporation cock.



DIGGING TRENCH.—The trench for the water main should be dug at least 4-1/2 feet deep or below frost level and the trench should be kept straight. When the sewer is put in at the same time, one side of the sewer trench can be cut out after it is filled up to the level of the water main. The water pipe can then be laid on this shelf at least 2 feet away from the original trench of sewer. Sometimes the surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or driven through under that portion not dug. These places are often tunnelled (see Fig. 42).

In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to destroy any of the numerous pipes encountered.

LAYING PIPE

The trench should be dug straight out from the house so the pipe can be laid and the main tapped straight out from the building. The water companies keep a record of these taps so that in case of trouble the street can be opened and the water shut off. In laying the water service, the pipe from the curb to the main should be laid first. This takes in all the pipe in the street. At the main there is a shut-off in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle must be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb cock (see Fig. 43). One trench either outside or inside of the curb should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of pipe can be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to open a trench the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench 10 feet long is dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot trench is dug and the two are connected with a small tunnel and pipe pushed through. When the pipe has been put in place between the curb and main, the water is turned on and the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb should now be shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show. The street part is now ready to fill in. At this point Fig. 43 should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the pipe and corporation cock. This piece of lead should be extra heavy and always laid in place the shape of the letter S or goose neck. In case the street should settle, this piece of lead will allow for it. These "lead connections" or "goose necks" are made as follows: 3 ft. of 5/8 lead pipe; 1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one brass corporation cock coupling (wiped on).

LAYING PIPE.—This lead connection can be screwed on the pipe after the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on the main with the coupling.



After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the trench in the street can be filled as described later. The pipe from the curb to the building can now be laid. If necessary to push the pipe through a tunnel, the end of the pipe should first be capped. Start by screwing a length in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe comes in a tunnel an additional length must be put on before putting in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, the valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe flushed out. The valve can then be put on and water turned on to test the pipe.

SETTING CURB BOX.—A cast-iron box, adjustable length, with cover should extend from the curb cock to the surface. This makes it possible with a long rod to control the water service into the building. To set a curb box some flat stones should be laid around the curb cock and the box set on these stones. Then the space around the box and pipe should be closed in with brick or other covering to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The box should be adjusted for height and then held in place by placing the curb key rod in place and holding the rod and box while the trench is filled. The refill should be tamped evenly on all sides of the box.

REFILL.—In refilling the trench around the corporation cock and goose neck, the greatest care should be taken. The writer has seen cases when indifferent workmen have tossed heavy stones in the ditch and broken off the corporation cock or destroyed the goose neck. After the pipe is covered with 18 inches of refill and tunnels have been filled, water can be run in the trench and will settle the refill.

There are a number of special points concerning water services and taps at mains that should not be overlooked. Take for example a water service pipe which must be run through ground where electricity is escaping under trolley tracks, around power houses, etc. The electricity will enter the pipe and wherever it leaves the pipe a hole is burned. The surface of the pipe in a short time will be full of small pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add to the life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star of copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another piece of copper should be put on the pipe near the building. The electricity will leave the pipe by way of the points on the star. This method may not be a cure for electrolysis, but will add to the life of the pipe. Another method employed is to put the pipe in the center of a square box, then fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened the pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture and bar electricity to a marked degree.

MATERIALS USED.—Galvanized steel pipe does not last under ground.

Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden pipes were once used and stood years of service. No service smaller than 1-1/4 should be used.

When the water service pipe passes through the foundation wall, the pipe should not be built in, but a small arch should be built over the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe can be used as a sleeve (Fig. 44).



POINTS TO REMEMBER.—

SEWER INSTALLATION

First, select good sound pipe and fittings.

Second, locate branch connection in street sewer.

Third, lay out run of house sewer.

Fourth, take out necessary permits from departments of sewer.

Fifth, dig trench in the street, then into the house.

Sixth, lay pipe and cement joints.

Seventh, refill trench, tamping every foot.

Eighth, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another heading.

WATER SERVICE

First, take out necessary permits.

Second, list material and deliver to job.

Third, lay out and dig trench.

Fourth, have main tapped.

Fifth, lay pipe to curb and test.

Sixth, fill in street trench.

Seventh, lay pipe into building and test.

Eighth, set curb box.

Ninth, refill trench.

Tenth, thoroughly consider any special conditions.

Street Sewer.—Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and waste from buildings.

House Sewer.—Conveys sewage from building to street sewer, extends from foundation wall to sewer.

Street Main.—Water pipe running parallel with the street, belonging to the water company.

Service Pipe.—Runs from the street main into the building.

Corporation Cock.—Brass stop tapped into street main.

Goose Neck.—Lead pipe which connects the street main and service pipe.

Trench.—Hole dug to receive pipe.

Main Tapped.—Hole drilled through wall of main and a thread made on it while pressure is on.

Curb Cock.—Brass shut-off placed at curb.

Solder Nipple.—Piece of brass pipe with thread on one end and plain on the other end which connects lead and iron.

Coupling.—Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe.

Stop Cock.—Brass fitting for stopping flow of water.

Curb Box.—Iron box extending from curb cock to surface.

Curb Key.—A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate curb cock.

Swab.—Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end.



CHAPTER VIII

INSTALLING OF FRENCH OR SUB-SOIL DRAINS



When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, some means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground must be provided for, or the basement of the building will be flooded with water. For the thorough understanding of the methods employed in laying a drain of this kind, I will go over it carefully and the beginner can read it and then study it, and understand just how it is done. A site may appear to be dry on the surface of the ground and yet be very wet under the surface. If no information can be had regarding the site, it is always well to drain the site if it is on a slope or near a body of water and on the water shed of a river or lake. If a building is a large one and the foundation goes down very deep, the site should always be drained. The drain is laid under the basement floor and around the outside of the foundation wall on a level with or lower than the basement floor. The value of draining a building site when the building is first started is very often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved in a few years as the basement will be free from all excessive dampness. The expense of installing a sub-soil after the building is up and in use is great as well as inconvenient. The drain is called "sub-soil drain" on account of its location under the ground and on account of its duty of taking off all surplus water that is underground. With the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site can be made practically dry (see Fig. 45).

MATERIALS USED IN SUB-SOIL CONSTRUCTION.—The object of the drain is to collect water and carry it away from the building by means of pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or without hubs, are used. Perforated tile pipe is sometimes used. This pipe is unglazed terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches from the center. These holes allow the surplus water to enter the bore of the pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site.

When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, the trenches made for the house drain and its branches are used as a drain in the following manner: The trenches are dug deeper than is required for the house drain. The trenches are then filled to the correct level with broken stones. There is space between these stones for the water to find passage to a point away from the building. When this method is employed, some provision must be made to prevent the house drain from settling. When locating the drain, we must consider approximately the amount of water that is likely to be in the soil and required to be carried off. If there is considerable water, the pipes should extend all around the outside of the building foundation wall, also a main pipe running under the cellar bottom with six branches, three branches on each side.

If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be put in and one drain line running through the basement will be sufficient.

LAYING THE PIPE.—The drain pipe should be handled with care, for it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out and dug, then the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward the outlet or discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are used, the hub should not be cemented. A little oakum is packed in the hub to steady the pipe and keep sand out, the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of tar paper can be laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand out. With joints made this way, the water can find its way to the bore of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. As soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a clear passageway to some discharge point away from the building. If tile pipes without any hubs are used, some covering should be put around the joint to keep out the sand and still allow the water to find its way into the pipes.

DISCHARGE OF SUB-SOIL DRAIN.—The water that accumulates in a sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point away from the building. As the pipes are generally under the cellar bottom and under the house drain, it is very evident that this drain cannot discharge into the house drain sewer, directly. If the building site is on a hill, the drain can be carried out and discharged on the surface at a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the pipe under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into a pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is filled, then it will automatically empty itself as later explained.

PIT CONSTRUCTION.—The pit for the sub-soil water is constructed of cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep will answer all requirements. A pit of this depth will allow a pitch for all lines of pipe, and is large enough for ordinary installations. The pit is built up to the surface of the cemented floor of the basement and covered with a removable iron cover.

CELLAR DRAINER OR PUMP.—A cellar drainer is employed to empty the above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer works automatically. When the pit is filled with water, the drainer operates and empties the pit and discharges the water into a sink or open sewer connection. When the pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, a small jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The velocity of this small jet of water creates a suction and carries along with it some of the water in the pit. This suction continues until the tank is empty. There should always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also on the supply pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into the valve. The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty into an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility of the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure will leak through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage can be seen where it discharges, then the trouble can be rectified. The cellar drainer is connected directly with the water pressure and should have a valve close to the connection to control the supply.



CHAPTER IX

STORM AND SANITARY DRAINAGE WITH SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN VIEW

The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains should be studied in detail by the reader. The location of each trap and fitting should be studied carefully and the reason that it is put in that particular place should be thoroughly understood. Below, each plan has been taken and gone over in detail, bringing out the reasons for fittings and traps, also the arrangement of the piping.



The first thing to note in Fig. 46 is the number and kinds of fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set of three-part wash trays. This will require a 2-inch waste and a 1-1/2-inch vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch waste extending to the fixtures above. On the same line is a rain leader with a trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. There are two 4-inch rain leaders on the opposite corners of the plan, in the rear of the building. There is a 4-inch soil stack for fixtures above and a 4-inch soil stack in the basement on the same line for a basement toilet. On the front there are rain leaders in each corner. These will be connected outside of the house trap (this feature should be noted). The outlets that are to discharge into the house drain are as follows:

Two 4-inch rain leaders.

One 2-inch sink waste.

One 2-inch wash tray waste.

One 4-inch floor drain.

One 4-inch soil pipe.

One 4-inch closet connection.

Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house sewer.

If we were to install this job, we would first locate each pipe that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would be particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. From this drain we must make sure that at least 1/4 inch to the foot fall is secured. We must then locate the house sewer where it enters the foundation wall, then the work can be started. I will not attempt to list the material that is necessary for this work, at this time. With all the material at hand the house drain is started. All of this work is installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches out and in doing so he must have in mind all connections and the fittings he can use so that the trenches can be dug at the right angle. The trenches must be dug allowing a pitch for the pipe. The height of the cellar is 8 feet below the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long which can be used to get the trenches below the cement floor at the right depth. After the digging is completed, the house trap, which is a 6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward the sewer bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on the inside. The fittings and traps and pipe are caulked in place as fast as possible. When possible, the joints are caulked outside of the trench in an upright position. There are a number of different ways to caulk this pipe together, and to make it clear to the beginner just how it is done the following exercise is suggested. This job brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various positions. Two or three can work on this job together. Fig. 47 shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, which needs no further explanation. Therefore, we will go over in detail only the caulking of the joints in the various positions.



MATERIAL NEEDED.—One length of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, double hub; one running trap, one full Y, one 4-inch 1/4 bend; two 4-inch clean-out screws with iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one 4-inch 1/8 bend; 30 pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum.

TOOLS REQUIRED.—Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold chisel, yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot.

The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints with the trap held in place. The cold chisel should be sharp as it is used to cut the cast-iron pipe.

To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub end and make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a vertical position, the spigot end of the pipe is entered into the hub end of another piece. A wad of oakum is taken and forced into the hub with the yarning iron. This piece of oakum is forced to the bottom of the hub, then another piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by using the yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a water-tight joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, pieces of it will have to be taken and rolled into long ropes about 18 inches long, the thickness of the rope corresponding with the space between the hub and the pipe. If rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be used. After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and the hub filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with the caulking tool and hammer, making one blow on each side of the joint. This sets the lead evenly on every side. If there is any surplus lead, it can now be cut off, using the hammer and cold chisel. The caulking iron is again taken and the lead next to the pipe is tamped, striking the iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the lead against the pipe. After this has been done all around, the caulking iron is held in such a position that the lead around the hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been done, the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should be tight. With a little practice, this can be done very rapidly. The lead should be poured in while it is very hot. The caulking must not be done by hitting heavy blows as there is a possibility of splitting the hub and thereby rendering the joint unfit for use.

CAULKING JOINT IN HORIZONTAL POSITION.—It is necessary in a great many cases to caulk a joint in a position where the lead would run out of the joint unless provision were made to hold it in. To caulk a joint in a position of this kind, the pipe is lined up and secured, then the oakum is put in and forced to the bottom of the hub. Then a joint runner, which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet long and about 1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and forced against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so arranged that a channel will be left in a V shape. This channel allows the hot lead to run between the asbestos runner and the hub. When the lead has had a chance to cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where the clamp was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking out beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, but no attempt should be made to do so until it has been caulked in place and well set; also the rest of the lead should be set. Then the cold chisel can be used and this extra piece of lead taken off. The caulking of the lead in this position is the same as in the previous position and should be carried out closely. The beginner should understand that it is necessary to have not only the joints tight so that running water will not leak out of them, but that the joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil stacks is explained under another heading. The lines of cast-iron pipe depend to a considerable extent upon these joints to make the whole line rigid.

CAULKING OF FITTINGS.—The caulking of fittings, while done the same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The improper making of these joints is the cause of many leaks. A long sweep fitting is caulked without a great deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting is used, the matter of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so short that it is almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the throat. The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a large number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In order to caulk the fittings, they must be put in their exact location and positions before the lead is poured in, for after the lead is once in the fitting cannot be moved. When there is a series of fittings on a line, their positions in relation to each other must be considered before the lead is poured.



Fig. 48 shows the same fixture and stack connections as Fig. 46. Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a sanitary drain, the other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line has an intercepting trap. On the sewer side of these traps the two lines are brought together, beyond which point the two front rain leaders connect; each of the two front leaders is trapped separately.



Fig. 49 differs from the preceding one in only two points. First, the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and connected into the storm drain on the house side of the intercepting trap. Second, the storm and sanitary drains are connected on the outside of the building.

Fig. 50 shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch house drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside of the building. This plan is a good one as all the storm water is kept entirely outside the building. If the storm drains are kept 5 feet away from the cellar walls (see Plumbing Code) the pipes can be of tile. Another good feature of this plan is that all the pipes under the cellar are 4-inch.

Fig. 51 is similar to Fig. 46, the difference being in the location of the floor drain and the connection of the two rear rain leaders, into the house drain.

In Fig. 52 the drains shown take the waste and storm water from the apartment building, also a building set in the rear. The leader pipes in this case are trapped on the outside of the wall. The building in the rear you will note has a separate fresh air inlet and house trap, and the house sewer is continued through the front house and connected into the house drain of the front building, on the sewer side of the intercepting trap.

These drawings should be studied carefully and the student should in each case list correctly all of the material required for the installation of these jobs.



CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE.—To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp cold chisel and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked all around, just where it is to be cut. Then it is laid with the part of the pipe that is to be cut resting on a block of wood. A groove is cut with the hammer and chisel around the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the other does the cutting. After a little experience one man can cut and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and deeper until the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is being cut, a file is generally resorted to for cutting the groove. On account of the lightness of the pipe, a hammer and chisel will crack the pipe lengthwise. When cutting extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy blow must be struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After a few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow that must be struck to cut the pipe quickly.



CHAPTER X

SOIL AND WASTE PIPES AND VENTS. TESTS

SOIL PIPES

The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge from water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary dwellings should be 4 inches.

SIZE OF SOIL PIPES

One to three closets—4-inch XX cast-iron. Four to eight closets—5-inch XX cast-iron. Eight to twelve closets—6-inch XX cast-iron.

There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, but the practice is not recommended.

The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. The connection between soil pipe and closet should be of lead to allow for any expansion of settling that might take place.

MATERIAL OF SOIL PIPES.—Soil pipe in common use today is made of light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast iron uncoated and coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, and steel pipe. The best kind to use depends upon the job and place where it is to be used. All kinds of bends and fittings can be had in any of the above-mentioned materials. In choosing the material of the pipe that is best to use, the following points should be carefully considered.

First, new work or overhauling.

Second, temporary or permanent job.

Third, construction of building.

Fourth, amount allowed for cost of materials on job.

Fifth, size of job, that is, the number of toilets.

Sixth, size of chases and pipe partitions.

LOCATION OF SOIL PIPE.—The location of the soil pipe depends to a great extent upon the location of the toilets. The soil stack should be located on an inside partition. The horizontal pipe should not run over expensively decorated ceilings unless run inside of a trough made of copper or sheet lead. As far as possible, the pipes should be confined, to runs short, and the number of bends reduced.

SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS

Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit the conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of these fittings should be familiar to the mechanic so that when ordering he can give the correct name. 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4 bend, sanitary tee, tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return bend, cross branches, double Y, double TY, traps. The uses of these cast-iron fittings perhaps are obvious, but a word about the use of each one will be of service.

The 1/4 bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe 90 deg. A long-sweep 1/4 bend is used on work requiring the best practice. 1/8, 1/16, and 1/6 bends are used to change the direction of pipe 45 deg., 22-1/2 deg., and 16-2/3 deg. Two 1/8 bends should be used in preference to one 1/4 bend where there is sufficient room. Side outlet 1/4 bend is used for waste connection. They can be had with an outlet on either side of the heel. Their use is not recommended.

Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used for vents only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use of a Y-branch together with an 1/8 bend for a 90 deg. connection with the main line is always preferable to a TY or, as they are commonly called, sanitary T. A tapped fitting gets its name because it is tapped for iron pipe thread. Tapped fittings are used for venting and should not be used for waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of 45 deg.

These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with oakum and pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub full of molten metal. When cool, the lead should be set and then caulked around the pipe and around the hub.

The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized joints is as follows:

Pipe size 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 Pounds of lead 1-1/2 2-1/4 3 3-3/4 4-1/2 6 7-1/2 9 11-1/4 Oakum (ounce) 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30

RUST JOINTS.—The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron pipe in places where lead and oakum will not be of service for the joints. In cases of this kind, a rust joint is made. This "rust" is made according to the following formula:

1 part flour of sulphur. 1 part sal-ammoniac. 98 parts iron borings (free from grease).

This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using water to mix thoroughly and bring all parts into contact with each other. When it hardens, it becomes very hard and makes a tight joint which overcomes the objections to lead and oakum joints.

WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE

This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of the following makes and shapes, and their use is fully explained. The lengths of pipe come with a thread on each end and a coupling screwed on one end. The lengths come in bundles up to 1-1/2-inches and in single lengths over that size. Screw pipe fittings, it will be noted, are called by a different name than cast-iron ones. The fittings in common use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3. The Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3 are used to change the run of pipe that many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are tapped to give the pipe a pitch of 1/4 inch to the foot. It is better to use two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is possible.



INVERTED Y.—The inverted Y is used in venting to good advantage. The use of these fittings is illustrated in the sketches.

WASTE PIPES.—Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or convey the discharge of waste matter to the house drain, from wash trays, baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers.

The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes are made of the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass pipe are also in common use. All exposed waste pipes in bath and toilet rooms are brass, nickel-plated. The waste pipes under kitchen sinks and wash trays are either lead or plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run with a pitch towards the house trap and should be properly vented as explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access, with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste pipes under a tile or cement floor should be covered with waterproof paper and a metal V-shaped shield over the entire length. If the waste pipes are over a decorated ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined box. This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste pipes are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals are thrown, either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should be used. If terra-cotta is used, it should have at least 6 inches reinforced concrete around it and the joints of pipe made of keisilgar.

SIZE OF WASTE PIPES

Urinals 2 inches Kitchen sink 2 inches Slop sink 3 inches Receptacles 1-1/2 inches Bath tubs 1-1/2 inches Lavatories 1-1/2 or 1-1/4 inches Wash trays 2 inches

TELL-TALE PIPE.—The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that extends from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of pipe or fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen running out of this pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere in the line of pipe that is in the box or trough. The use of this pipe saves the destruction of walls and ceilings.

VENTS



Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing system. Modern plumbing successfully attempts to make living in crowded and thickly populated districts, as well as in isolated buildings, free from all unpleasant odors and annoyances. This could not be accomplished without the use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure in the system by furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced by the waste discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions is to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping the action that would break the seal of the trap under fixtures. The pipe extending from top fixture connection, up to and through the roof, is called the ventilation pipe. All vents that do not pass directly through the roof terminate in this ventilation pipe.

To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the basement of a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of wash trays in the laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays should have a 1-1/4-inch vent pipe leading from the crown of the trap up along side of the stack. On the first floor a 1-1/4-inch pipe from the crown of the kitchen sink trap will lead into it. Here the pipe should be increased to 2 inches. On the second floor the 1-1/4-inch pipes leading from the lavatory and bath traps come into it. The vent stack now extends up into the attic and connects with the ventilation pipe. In a general way, the above is an example of venting. The old method of venting was very complicated and is almost beyond describing with the pen.



In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, namely: circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous venting. The circuit venting, Fig. 55, is used in connection with the installation of closets. Take a row of toilets in which the waste connection of each closet discharges into a Y-branch, and there will be a series of Y-branches. One end of this series of branches discharges into the main stack while the other end continues and turns up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs up along side of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected to the series of Y-branches to travel back, it is called a loop vent. This type of vent supplies air to the complete line of toilets and is very efficient.



CONTINUOUS VENTING, Figs. 57 and 58, applies more to fixtures other than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T in the stack. The lower part of the T acts as and connects with the waste pipe while the upper half is and connects with the vent pipe. A study of the figures will aid the reader to understand thoroughly the above explanations. In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture is discharged into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any rust scales that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and render it unfit to perform its duty, to be washed away into the sewer.

CROWN VENTING, Fig. 59, is as its name implies, a vent that is taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main vent.

Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered good practice, provided it is properly installed and correctly connected with the use of proper fittings.



THINGS TO REMEMBER.—

First, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning.

Second, also to allow free passage of air.

Third, circuit vent—loop vent.

Fourth, continuous venting.

Fifth, crown venting.

Sixth, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through roof.



CHAPTER XI

HOUSE TRAPS, FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS, DRUM TRAPS, AND NON-SYPHONING TRAPS

The house trap is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. The trap is placed at this point for a number of reasons: first, to keep sewer gases from entering the pipes in the house; second, this location is where the house drain ends. This trap should have two clean-outs, one on each side of the seal. The clean-outs should be of extra heavy cast-iron body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap should have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the cap. This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly level, otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer gases can enter.

Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just outside of the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should be built large enough for a workman to get down to it to clean it out when necessary.

A mason's trap was formerly used to a considerable extent, but is very poor practice to use today on modern work. This trap was built square of brick with a center partition. The brick soon became foul and the trap would be better termed a small cesspool than a trap.

POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT HOUSE TRAPS.—

First, should be a running trap.

Second, two clean-outs.

Third, deep seal, at least 2 inches.

Fourth, set level.

Fifth, set inside foundation wall.

Sixth, accessible at all times.

Seventh, same size as house drain.

Eighth, fresh air should connect with it.

FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS

The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet for fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of the main trap. The connections made vary considerably. A few good connections in common use are explained below.

When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be used for the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should be placed in the hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should be used for the fresh air and the run should be used for a clean-out.

A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and the branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a good fitting to use directly back of the trap. These branches should be taken off the top of the pipe. The branch taken off for the fresh-air inlet should not have any waste discharge into it and should not be used for a drain pipe of any description.

The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into the outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes terminate in a number of different ways, some with a return bend, above the ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a strainer. When necessary to run pipe through the sidewalk, a box of brick is made with a heavy brass strainer fitted level with the sidewalk into which the pipe runs. If the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up from the bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled up is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates above the roof of the building.

Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it supplies fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the pipes in a much better sanitary condition.

Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is pushed out of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are evident. This is why it should be located as far as possible from any window. Special care should be taken on the part of the plumber not to locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than 15 feet to the fresh-air intake of the heating system.



When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the same care should be exercised as with other pipes. That is, if the pipe is 4 inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the wall for the 4-inch pipe to pass through.

POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT FRESH AIR.—

First, never should be smaller than 4 inches.

Second, one size smaller than trap.

Third, location, directly back of trap.

Fourth, leads to outer air.

Fifth, keep away from windows and intake of heating system.

Sixth, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or return bend.

Seventh, make as few bends as possible.

Eighth, supplies fresh air to system.

DRUM TRAP

The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber as well as efficient and practicable when installed. The trap can be purchased without any outlets or inlets, so the plumber can put them in according to the necessary measurements. The making of these traps with lead is explained in the chapter on Wiping Joints. The open end has a brass clean-out screw on it. When this clean-out screw comes below the floor, another brass screw cap and flange is screwed on the floor above the trap so that the clean-out screw in the trap is easily accessible.



These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used mostly on bath wastes. They should never be installed with the clean-out exposed to the sewer side of the trap. In the best practice, heavy brass drum traps are used.

NON-SYPHONING TRAP



After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would not syphon without venting, we find in use today a large variety of non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their seal against all practical forms of syphonic action, or other threatening features, have been made and used and serve the purpose for which they are intended. Various means to prevent the breaking of the seal of these traps are employed. While some depend on a ball or other kind of valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they are designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent obstruction for the free passage of waste; therefore, in time, these traps become inoperative. It should be borne in mind that any traps with a mechanical seal or an inside partition are not considered sanitary. The inside partition might wear out or be destroyed and thus break the seal without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer gas to enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the trap were cleaned out often or examined occasionally, these traps could be used with a greater degree of safety. Some of the forms of non-syphon traps in common use are:

The Flask Trap, Fig. 62. This trap gets its name from its shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal depends. This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside walls of the pipe are combined into one. This wall should be of heavy cast brass, free from sand holes.

Clean Sweep Trap, Fig. 63. Some clean sweep traps are dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are made of 1/2-S, 3/4-S, and full S.



Sure Seal Trap. The sure seal trap is designed to be non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. If this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these traps are made as shown in the second sketch with the way inside of a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior wall leaks.

Centrifugal Trap. The centrifugal trap is made similar to the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet enters the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the trap self-scouring which is a good feature.



CHAPTER XII

PIPE THREADING

The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by some mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies and different kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe threads very hard and the adjustable dies should be used on it. These dies cut more easily and leave a cleaner thread than other dies when used on steel pipe. When threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread than other dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the quality of the thread, oil is used freely while the dies are cutting.

THREADS.—The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe and the fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a fitting is tapped with a left thread it is marked so. The following table gives the standard number of threads that a die will or should be allowed to cut on the pipe:

+ + -+ Size Length, inches Threads per inch Threads per end + + -+ 3/8 9/16 18 10.825 1/2 3/4 14 10.500 3/4 3/4 14 10.500 1 15/16 11-1/2 10.800 1-1/4 1 11-1/2 11.500 1-1/2 1 11-1/2 11.500 2 1-1/8 11-1/2 12.930 + + -+

To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following exercise is given. In it there are a great many of the actual problems that come up when the pipe is put in on a job. This is the last exercise that is required in this book. The sketch shows clearly just what the job is and below I have gone over each operation that is necessary to complete the job.



MATERIALS NECESSARY.—Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; four 1-inch black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right and left coupling; oil.

TOOLS NECESSARY.—Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, pipe cutters, stock and 1-inch follower right and left die and reamer.

The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being taken before it is put in place to provide room enough to swing the stocks. A length of 1-inch pipe is put into the vise and the vise clamped around it. The end of the pipe that is to be threaded should stick out through the vise about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this end, the dies should be run over it to make sure that it is a standard thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and their use shown.

DIES.—A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks and dies is composed of right and left dies from 1/8 inch up to 1 inch, with a guide for each size, also a small wrench with which to turn the set screws. The dies come in sets, two in a set. These are the Armstrong patent that I am describing. Take the stock and the handles, and a set of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the box. The dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are taken out of the stock and the dies inserted in their proper place. There is a deep mark on the edge of each die and under it a letter S. This letter means "standard." This mark on the die is set even with a similar mark on the stock and when the set screws are in place and tightened, a standard thread will be cut. There is an adjusting screw on the stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies.

STOCK.—The stock is taken and the handles are put into it. There are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set for holding the dies in place and the other set for adjusting the dies. On the stock there is a deep mark to correspond with the standard thread mark on the dies. On the opposite side of the stock there is a place for the follower and a set screw to hold it in place. After the stocks have been looked over and examined thoroughly, the 1-inch right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch thread. Now take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches long and put it in the vise, letting it extend out from the vise about 9 inches. The stock is now taken and the follower end is put on the pipe first and the dies brought up in place to cut. The end of the pipe is allowed to enter in between the two dies so that the teeth of each die rest on the pipe. Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6 inches from the body of the stock and standing directly in front of the pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the dies will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and turn the stock, taking hold of the ends of the handles and standing at one side. The dies are run up on the pipe until the pipe extends through the face of the dies one thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at least twice during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. If the dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will have been cut. This thread can now be cut off with the pipe cutters.

PIPE CUTTERS.—To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter is a simple matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter itself. There are one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We will use a one-wheel cutter tool. This cutter is forced into the surface of the pipe with a set screw having a long tee handle. The pressure that is brought to bear on the pipe while being cut is sufficient to cause a large burr to form on the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is completely crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user of these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The pipe is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe that the pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter wheel, the cutter resting on the mark that indicates the point at which the pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed down and the cutters turned around the pipe; each time the cutters make a complete turn the handle is screwed down more. This procedure is continued until the furrow has been cut clear through the pipe.

CUTTING AND THREADING NIPPLES.—Nipples are short pieces of pipe threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer than 6 inches are not called nipples. When a nipple is so short that the threads cut on each end meet in the center of the piece, the nipple is called a "close nipple." When there is a space of about 1/4 inch between the threads, it is called a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and thread these nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary.



NIPPLE HOLDERS.—Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 inches long and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches long. Take a 1-inch coupling and screw it on this end until the end of the pipe is almost through the end of the coupling. At least four threads should be allowed at this end of the coupling. Now we have a piece of pipe 12 inches long having a thread 2 inches long on one end with a coupling on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now, to cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the pipe off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple holder in the vise with the coupling out from the vise about 8 inches. Take the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on one end, screw this thread into the coupling until it touches the pipe that has been screwed through from the other end. Now the stocks having the 1 dies and the follower in are put on the pipe. The follower will not go over the coupling, therefore take the follower out of the stock. Now the stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can be cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be cut. There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the market, but as they are not always at hand the above method is resorted to and serves every purpose.

LONG SCREWS.—To cut a long screw which comes in use frequently on vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long is taken and a regular length thread is cut on one end, and a thread 4 inches long is cut on the other end. Then a coupling is cut while screwed on a pipe, so that a lock nut about 1/2 inch wide is made. The description and use of these long screws will come under screw pipe venting.

Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, we will proceed with the exercise according to the sketch. With a length of pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the stock, run over the thread on the pipe. Note that all the measurements are center to center. Screw an elbow on the pipe and measure off the first length, which we will take as 12 inches center to center. Place the rule on the pipe with one end of it at the center of the opening of the elbow just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This mark represents the center of another ell. Now take another ell and hold the center of one outlet on this mark. It will readily be seen that to have the measurement come right, the pipe must be cut off at a point where it will make up tight when screwed into the ell. Therefore, about 1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1 inch shorter than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and before taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still in the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and ream out the burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused by the pipe cutter. An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. The next measurement is marked off as explained, the pipe cut, then the piece in the vise threaded and reamed. The measurements must be accurate and the dies should be adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of pipe, each piece having one thread. Now the threads on the other end can be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws into the right and left coupling. This thread is a left-handed thread and must be cut with the left dies. Change the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn the stock in the opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and the dies will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can easily be put together as shown in the sketch by following the center to center measurements. The right and left coupling is the only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A right and left coupling can be used only when there is sufficient give to the pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe to be coupled together are only 1/2 inch apart. To get the coupling in place to start the threads, the pipe must spread apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe cannot be spread that much, a right and left coupling cannot be used. The proper way to make up a right and left coupling is as follows:



Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with a piece of chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point on each where the coupling makes tight. Take off the coupling and count the turns and make note of the number. Now do the same on the left thread and make a note of the number of threads. If the left thread has six turns and the right has four and one-half, then to insure that the left thread will be tight when the right thread is, the coupling must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns before it is started on the right thread. Now with four and one-half turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight. A little thought and practice will make this connection clear. If all the measurements in this exercise are not cut accurately, the right and left coupling will not go together.



CHAPTER XIII

COLD-WATER SUPPLY. TEST

The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping it to the various fixtures makes a very interesting study. We have gone over the methods of laying and piping for the house service pipe. We will go over the different systems now employed to supply the water, quickly.

UNDERGROUND WATER.—In thinly populated districts the well is still employed to supply water to the building. The water is brought to the surface by means of a large bucket or by means of a pump. A well point can be driven into the ground until water is reached and then the water can be brought to the surface by means of a pump operated by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is closed and put under pressure. From either tank the water will flow to any desired outlets. A windmill can be employed to furnish power to operate the pump. Water supply that is received directly from underground is by far the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must not be allowed on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open well is not as sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water and leaves, etc., get into it and decay and pollute the water, and soon make it unfit for domestic use.

STREAMS AND BROOKS.—The brooks and streams furnish a good source of supply for water to a building or community of buildings. The writer recently worked on a system of piping that supplied 15 or 20 buildings. The water supply came from a brook that was higher than the houses. Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the brook into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner of the brook applied business ethics to the privileges of taking water from it. He had a scale of prices, and the highest-priced location was an inch or so below the bed of the brook, the next price was level with the bottom, the next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom. As the surface was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry time of the year those at the bottom of the brook always had water while those at the top location had to wait for the water to rise, and had to do without water during the dry time. Where the stream is on a lower level than the building a hydraulic ram can be used.

RIVERS AND LAKES.—Rivers and lakes make an abundant supply for water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, also a river that is used for carrying off the sewage of a town. Special provision is now made for the using of water that is polluted. A lake that is supplied by springs is by far the best source of supply. The water is pumped from the river or lake into a reservoir and then flows by gravity into mains and from the mains into the buildings. The water should always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the distributing mains.

WATER PRESSURE.—Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that the water will flow is generally obtained by the force of gravity. When this method is not sufficient, a pneumatic system is employed. This method is employed to force the water to the top floors or to supply the whole building in high structures. The pneumatic system requires a pump, an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various outlets. The water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part of the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot escape and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping will compress the air until the limit of the apparatus is reached. If a valve or faucet that is connected with the tank is opened, the air will expand and force the water out of the opening. This explains in a general way the operation of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water can be pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river, lake, or from the city supply mains.



PIPING.—From the service pipe on which there has been placed a shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through the basement, overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to a partition in the center of the cellar. The pipe is brought down and connected into the end of a header. This header or banjo is made of Ts placed 4 inches center to center. From each T a line of pipe is run to each isolated fixture or set of fixtures (see Fig. 70). A stop and waste cock is placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks will come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from the waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe which connects with a sink. This way of running pipes while it is expensive makes a very neat and good job. Each stop cock has a tag on it stating explicitly what it controls. If the building is a large one a number of these panelled headers are used. A less expensive way to run this pipe is to branch off from the main at points where the branch pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings as possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each branch near the main.

All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which it is connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly straight. If it seems necessary to bend the pipe to get around an obstacle, then good judgment has not been used in placing the fitting into which the pipe is screwed. The fitting should be re-located so that the pipe can be run without bending. To have true alignment of pipes the whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping is cut. This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner of a good job. When getting measurements for piping the same rule or tape should be used to get out the pipe as was used to get the measurements.

The water main and branches that run through the basement of a building are generally hung on the ceiling. Rough hangers of wood, rope, or wire are usually used to hold the pipe in place at first, then neat and strong adjustable hangers are placed every 8 feet apart. There are in use too many kinds of hangers to explain or describe them here. The essential point of all good hangers is to have them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of the pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that no strain will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger should be placed near each side of unions so that when the union is taken apart neither side of the pipe will drop and bend. Hooks and straps should be used to hold vertical pipes rigid and in position. A vertical pipe should be so held in place that its weight will come on the hooks and straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal pipe into which it connects. Where there are six or eight horizontal lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for each pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes considerable time to install them properly. A hanger having one support run under all the pipes will allow space for proper alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance must be made on all lines of pipe for drainage. When a building is vacant during cold weather, the water is drawn off; therefore, the pipes should have a pitch to certain points where the pipes can be opened and the entire system drained of water.

KINDS OF PIPE.—The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water supply depends on and varies according to the kind of water, the kind of earth through which it runs, and the construction of the building. Wrought iron, steel, lead, brass, tin-lined brass, are in use.

The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it directly under the fixture. This will allow the water to be shut off for repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply of other fixtures.

The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important matter, especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies were perfect, and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, and the fittings were perfectly tapped to correspond to the dies used on the pipe, of course a perfect union between pipe and fitting would result and the joint would be found to be perfect on screwing the pipe home. As all the above conditions are not found on the job, threads are made tight by the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put on the thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads and the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil should be used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds are too conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound should be used with discretion, for if too much is put on a burr of it will collect in the bore of the pipe and reduce it considerably. This is not tolerated, so only a small amount is used. Water pipes should be run in accessible places, making it possible to get at them in case of trouble. In climates that have freezing weather water pipes should not be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have no inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be properly covered and protected. The different methods of covering pipes are described in Chapter XV.



CHAPTER XIV

HOT-WATER HEATERS. INSTANTANEOUS COIL AND STORAGE TANKS. RETURN CIRCULATION, HOT-WATER LINES AND EXPANSION

The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures is one that has required years of study. Each job today demands considerable thought to make it a perfect and satisfactory hot-water system. We will find installations today where the water is red from rust, where there is water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs where the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they must be solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the fundamental principles of hot-water circulation. We must first know how much hot water is to be used, also the location of the outlets and the construction of the building; then the size of the pipes and the size of the tanks and their locations can be settled. If the job is a large one, a pump may be employed to insure the proper circulation. After this the pipe sizes and connections can be worked out. The one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air. Therefore, no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient water to supply all fixtures, even when every fixture demands a supply at the same time, is installed in a convenient place and the heating arrangement connected with it. A thermostat can be placed on the system and the temperature of the water controlled. According to the size of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing fixtures with hot water increases.

METHODS OF HEATING HOT WATER.—There are a number of ways of furnishing hot water. Some of the installations are listed below.

A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot of a stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot and water jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed inside a hot-water boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are connected with hot water storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous heaters are connected with the piping direct.

Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve the purpose for which they are intended. For instance, the tank can be connected with a coal range and a gas coil heater, heat being furnished by the range alone or the coil heater alone, or both can be used at the same time. This combination can be connected with the furnace in the cellar, and during the winter months, when the furnace is in use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In warm weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can supply the heat.

CONNECTIONS OF TANK AND HEATING APPARATUS.—The ordinary house boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, two on top, one on the side, and one on the bottom. The top connections are used for the entrance of cold water into the tank and for the supply of hot water to the fixtures (see Fig. 71). The cold-water inlet has a tube extending into the tank below the side connection. This tube has a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top. This hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe coming from the top of the water back. The bottom opening in the tank is for the connection of the pipe coming from the lower water back connection, also for draining the boiler. The circulation of the water can be followed thus: cold water enters the boiler in the tube and discharges into the boiler below the side connection. From here it flows out of the bottom connection into the water back, through the upper connection into the boiler, through the side opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the fixtures through the fixture supply opening.



Fig. 69 shows a thermostatic control valve attached to the bottom of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. The best arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not shut off the gas supply until the boiler is full of hot water.

CONNECTING TANK AND COIL GAS HEATER.—The boiler and the coil gas heater have a different connection. The bottom of the tank and the bottom of the heater are connected. The top of the heater and the top of the boiler are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how this connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler into which the gas-heater connection is made is not the first fitting and placed as close to the outlet as possible, the water will not circulate freely into the boiler. This connection according to the drawing should be studied and memorized.



INSTANTANEOUS GAS-HEATER CONNECTIONS.—An instantaneous gas heater is placed in the basement. The copper coil in it is connected at the bottom with the cold-water supply and the top outlet of the coil is connected with the hot-water system of piping. There is no need of a storage tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in any part of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open so that the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied with gas, and the burners are lighted from a pilot light. When the faucet is closed, the gas supply is shut off and the burners are put out. The pilot is lighted all the time. Space will not permit going over these connections in detail. It is a large field and requires considerable thought.

SAFETY AND CHECK VALVES.—When a meter is used on a water system, the water company demands that a check valve be placed on the hot-water system to prevent the hot water from being forced back into the meter in case the pressure got strong enough in the boiler. If a check valve is used for this purpose, or for any other purpose, a safety valve must be placed on the boiler piping system to relieve any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern type, no reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If an excessive pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved in the water main.

When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes more intense and steam is formed, the expansion is much greater, and some means must be provided to allow for it. This expansion can be allowed to relieve itself in the water main as explained above. When a check valve is placed on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and a safety valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the pressure would be so great that an explosion would result. When steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks and connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to rust and parts of the piping are stopped up with rust scales. The water also becomes red with rust when the water becomes hot enough to circulate. When the pipes are stopped up, steam is formed and a snapping and cracking sound is heard. To avoid these conditions, the piping should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should be of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is greater than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in two or three years, as is the case with other material. A valve should be placed on the cold-water supply to control the entire hot-water piping system. A pipe with a stop cock should be placed underneath the boiler and should extend into a sink in the basement so that the boiler can be drained at any time for cleaning or repairs.

CONNECTING WITH FIXTURES.—To have all fixtures properly supplied with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed a circulating pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of pipe extending from the top of the boiler to the vicinity of the fixtures and then returning to the boiler and connecting into the pipe leading out of the bottom of the boiler. From this circuit all branches are taken to supply all fixtures requiring hot water. This circulating pipe has hot water circulating through it all the time. Therefore the fixtures are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air pockets.



When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that not only does the water expand when heated, but the pipe expands also. Therefore due allowance must be made for this expansion. The long risers should have an expansion loop as shown in Figs. 73, 74 and 75. There are installed on some jobs what is known as an expansion joint. This will allow for the expansion and contraction of the pipe. The writer's experience with these joints has not been very satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and they must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. An expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made with elbows, will prove satisfactory. If the threads on the fittings and pipe are good, no leak will appear on this joint.

All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry off the products of combustion.



CHAPTER XV

INSULATION OF PIPING TO ELIMINATE CONDUCTION, RADIATION, FREEZING, AND NOISE

PIPE COVERING.—Pipe covering is another important branch of plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were the only pipes that it was thought necessary to cover. The ever-increasing demands made by the public keep the wideawake plumber continually solving problems. The water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy some people, and provision must be made to avoid this noise or to silence it. This is one of the many problems that the plumber must solve by the use of pipe covering.

PIPES THAT NEED COVERING.—First of all, the covering must be put on properly to be of high service. Hot-water circulating pipes need covering to reduce the amount of heat loss. If the pipes and the tank are not covered, considerable more fuel will be needed to supply the necessary amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank were covered with a good covering. Cold-water pipes need covering in places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering under some conditions to keep them from sweating. They are covered also to prevent the material which surrounds them from coming into direct contact with the pipe. Waste pipes need covering to prevent them from freezing and to silence the noise caused by the rush of water through them. Ice-water pipes are covered to prevent the water from rising in temperature and to prevent any condensation forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety of covering that I have listed below some of them and the methods employed for putting them on the pipe.

Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, waterproof paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These coverings come in the form of pipe covering with a cloth jacket. They also come in the shape of fittings as well as in blocks and rolls of paper, and in powdered form. Any thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe covering is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled back a short distance and the covering will open like a book. It can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled back and pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, come with the pipe covering. These are put on and the pipe covering is then held securely in place. Practically all the coverings are applied in this manner and are made up in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe. To cover the fittings and valves, the same kind of sectional covering can be obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings and molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic covering comes in bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm water to the consistency of thick cement and applied with a trowel. When the covering is put on the pipes and fittings, it should be done thoroughly to get satisfactory results. Each section of the covering has on one end an extra length of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the next section to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length.

Magnesia covering is employed mostly on steam pipes, especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement.

Asbestos air cell covering is employed to cover hot-water circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe covering or in corrugated paper form.

Molded asbestos covering is also used on hot-water pipes, and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks.

Wool felt covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos paper and covered with a cloth jacket.

Waterproof paper and wool felt is used on cold-water pipes and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined with waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket.

Cork.—A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for cold-water pipes. This covering comes in sections as other coverings, also in blocks and sheets.

Hair felt is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It comes in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various thicknesses.



CHAPTER XVI

"DURHAM" OR "SCREW PIPE" WORK. PIPE AND FITTINGS

"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote that the job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or steel screw pipe. We speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning that cast-iron pipe was used for the piping. A completely different method of work is used when screw pipe is employed for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is to be used or considered for use, it is well to know something concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but galvanized pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe and wrought-iron screw pipe should be studied, and every person interested should, if possible, understand how these different pipes are made and how the material of which they are composed is made. In some places one pipe is better than another and a study of their make-up would enlighten the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar conditions. The maker's name should always be on the pipe. The following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses of screw pipe: