NECESSITY OF TAXATION.—Taxation is one of the necessary burdens of society. A government as well as an individual must have money to pay its expenses, and the principal part, if not all, of this money must be raised by taxation of one kind or another. Men may differ as to the kind and the rate of taxation, but taxes must be paid in order that government may exist. The tax payer receives no immediate return for his taxes, but has a constant return in the way of protection to life, liberty, and property, the enjoyment of public conveniences, and the improvement of society.

By means of taxes each person bears his part in the cost of maintaining the social compact. He gives up a portion of his property in order that what remains may be the more secure and valuable, and that he may enjoy many other blessings that would otherwise be impossible. Although the rate is often high, even higher than necessary, it is safe to say that every tax payer of the country receives from the government more than he contributes by taxation.

Taxes are direct or indirect.

DIRECT TAXES.—A direct tax is levied directly at a given rate upon property or polls. Taxes levied by villages, towns, townships, cities, counties, and States are for the most part direct taxes.

A poll tax is levied upon the polls, or heads, of the male inhabitants who have attained a certain age, usually twenty-one years.

A property tax, as the name indicates, is levied upon property. Property is of two kinds, real and personal.

Real property, usually called real estate, consists of lands and buildings.

Personal property is that which can be moved from place to place, and includes everything that a person can own except real estate.

In all systems of taxation, much real estate, such as churches, cemeteries, colleges, charitable institutions, and public buildings, is exempt from taxes.

Five times in its history—namely, in 1798, 1813, 1815, 1816, and 1861—the United States levied a direct tax upon the people, but in each case the law was in force but a single year. From 1861 to 1871 there was also an income tax; that is, a tax of a given per cent. upon all annual incomes that exceeded a certain amount. In 1913, Congress passed a new income tax law, with additional taxes on very large incomes.

INDIRECT TAXES.—An indirect tax is assessed upon the property of one person, but is indirectly paid by another. The owner of the property at the time of assessment pays the tax to the government, but a part or all of the tax is ultimately paid by the consumer of the goods. All taxes now levied by the national government are indirect.

The indirect taxes levied by the national government are customs, or duties, and internal revenue.

CUSTOMS, OR DUTIES.—Customs, or duties, are taxes levied upon certain goods imported from foreign countries. The Constitution prohibits the taxation of exports.

The schedule or list of articles taxed and of duties to be paid is called the tariff. Custom dues are collected by officers of the national government at the custom-houses, located at the ports of entry, usually, but not always, on or near the sea-coast. By far the larger portion of the national revenue is derived from customs.

INTERNAL REVENUE.—Internal revenue, sometimes called excise, is a tax levied upon certain articles produced in this country, such as tobacco and spirituous liquors. It is collected by officers of the national government, called collectors, stationed in different parts of the country.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.

1. Name some of the items of expense in village government.

2. In township government.

3. In city government.

4. In county government.

5. In State government.

6. In national government.

7. What is the rate of property taxation in this country?

8. What is the rate in this State?

9. Where is the nearest custom-house?



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

PREAMBLE.

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I. LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.

SECTION I. Congress in General.

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

SECTION II. House of Representatives.

Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states; and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECTION III. Senate.

Clause 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the [Legislature][1] thereof for six years, and each senator shall have one vote.

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.][1]

Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

Clause 4. The Vice-president of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempere, in the absence of the Vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law.

SECTION IV. Both Houses.

Clause 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.

Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

SECTION V. The Houses separately.

Clause 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide.

Clause 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.

Clause 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.

Clause 4. Neither house during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

SECTION VI. Disabilities of Members.

Clause 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office.

SECTION VII. Mode of passing Laws.

Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills.

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

SECTION VIII. Powers granted to Congress.

The Congress shall have power—

Clause 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes;

Clause 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States;

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;

Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads;

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

Clause 12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy;

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; and

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United Stales, or in any department or officer thereof,

SECTION IX. Powers denied to the United States.

Clause 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.

Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it.

Clause 3. No bill of attainder, or ex-post-facto law, shall he passed.

Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.

Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

SECTION X. Powers denied to the States.

Clause 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility.

Clause 2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any state on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United Stales; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.

Clause 3. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

ARTICLE II. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.

SECTION I. President and Vice-president.

Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-president; chosen for the same term, be elected as follows:

Clause 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

[Clause 3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote, a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-president.][2]

Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States.

Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

Clause 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-president; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States."

SECTION II. Powers of the President.

Clause 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session.

SECTION III. Duties of the President.

He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them; and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.

SECTION IV. Impeachment of the President.

The President, Vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

ARTICLE III. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.

SECTION I. United States Courts.

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

SECTION II. Jurisdiction of the United States Courts.

Clause 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states; between a state and citizens of another state; between citizens of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.[3]

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court, shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

SECTION III. Treason.

Clause 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.

ARTICLE IV.

SECTION I. State Records.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

SECTION II. Privileges of Citizens, etc.

Clause 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states.

Clause 2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.

Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

SECTION III. New States and Territories.

Clause 1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union, but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state: nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the Legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress.

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other properly belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular state.

SECTION IV. Guarantee to the States.

The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature can not be convened), against domestic violence.

ARTICLE V. POWER OF AMENDMENT.

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first Article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

ARTICLE VI. PUBLIC DEBT, SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTITUTION, OATH OF OFFICE, RELIGIOUS TEST.

Clause 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation.

Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding.

Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.

ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION.

The ratification of the Conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names.

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President and Deputy from Virginia.

New Hampshire.—John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman.

Massachusetts.—Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King.

Connecticut.—Wm. Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman.

New York.—Alexander Hamilton.

New Jersey.—William Livingston, William Patterson, David Brearley, Jonathan Dayton.

Pennsylvania,—Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Thomas Fitzsimons, James Wilson, Thomas Mifflin, George Clymer, Jared Ingersoll, Gouverneur Morris.

Delaware.—George Read, John Dickinson, Jacob Broom, Gunning Bedford, Jr., Richard Bassett.

Maryland.—James M'Henry, Daniel Carroll, Daniel of St. Tho. Jenifer.

Virginia.—John Blair, James Madison, Jr.

North Carolina.—William Blount, Hugh Williamson, Richard Dobbs Spaight.

South Carolina.—John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Pierce Butler.

Georgia.—William Few, Abraham Baldwin.

Attest, WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLES I—X. Bill of Rights.

ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

ARTICLE II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation.

ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law.

ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive, fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively or to the people.

ARTICLE XI.

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.

ARTICLE XII. Mode of choosing the President and Vice-president.

Clause 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately by ballot the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-president shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.

Clause 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-president shall be the Vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice.

Clause 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-president of the United States.

ARTICLE XIII.

SECTION I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

ARTICLE XIV.

SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

SECTION 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.

SECTION 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an Officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability.

SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall he held illegal and void.

SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article.

ARTICLE XV.

SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

ARTICLE XVI.

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

ARTICLE XVII.

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

[1]Altered by the 17th Amendment.

[2]Altered by the 12th Amendment.

[3]Altered by the 11th Amendment.



Absolute monarchy, 159 Academy, naval, 142. Accused, rights of, 74. Actions, 171. Adjutant general, 84, 146. functions of, 89. Administrators, 54. Admiralty courts, 171. Agriculture, commissioner of, 84, 89. Alaska, 96. Aldermen, board of, 61. Aliens, 105. Alternate delegates, 194. Amendments, 199. Appropriation by State, 67. Area of counties, 49. Aristocracy, 159, 160. Assembly—general or legislative, 177. Assessor, Authority of, 61. duties of, 67. of township, 43, 44. Attorney, 174. county, 49. duties of, 50. general, 88. Auditor, township, 45. Australian ballot-system, 176, 179, 184.

Ballot, 176. blanket, 180, 181. box, 176, 177. forms of, 183. individual, 180. in Indiana, 183, 187. in Louisville, 183, 185. in Mass., 183, 186. official, 180, 182. secret, 179, 182. voting by, 176. Bank inspectors, 90. national, 138. Bargaining and trading, 183. Beat, the, 28, 30. Bill, 197, 199. of rights, 68, 72. of attainder, 197, 200. true, 173. Blind, voting of the, 182. Board of aldermen, 61. of education, 61. Board of pardons, 86. of public works, 61. of supervisors, 50. Boroughs, 57. Bribery, 177, 182. Buildings, county, 49. Bureau of construction and repair, 142. of medicine and surgery, 142. of navigation, 141. of ordnance, 141. of supplies and accounts, 142. of steam engineering, 142. of yards and docks, 141. Bureaus of navy department, 141. of treasury department, 136. of war department, 140. By-laws, township, 42.

Cabinet, presidential, 132, 149. Cadet, 141. Campaign, 194. Candidates, 176, 190. Canvass, 177. Cases, 171. Causes, civil, 171. criminal, 172. Census, 121. Challenge, 173. Chaplain, 123. Charges, 172. Chief of engraving and printing, 139. of bureau of statistics, 138. of fire department, 62. of ordnance, 145. of police, 62. Children, 22, 23. rights of, 22. duties of, 23. Circuit clerk, 54. court, 152. court of appeals, 152. Citizen, 67-69. duties of, 17. naturalization of, 102, 168. of civil district, 32, 33. duties of, 33. rights of, 32. of township, 38, 40. duties of, 39, 40. rights of, 38. Citizen, rights of, 32, 60. Citizenship, 38. City council, 61. court, 61. election, 61. engineer, 61. government, 60-63. incorporation, 58. institution, 59. judge, 62. officers, 61, 62. physician, 62. solicitor, 61. wards, 59. Civil district, 27, 36. government, 159. Civil law, 170. Civil rights, 163, 165. Civil unit, 28, 30. Clerks, 57, 174, 176. chief of Senate, 81. circuit, 54. common pleas, 49. of county, 41, 49, 52, 53. of township, 43. Collection of taxes, 45. Collector of city, 61, 62. of county, 54. of township, 45. of village, 57, 58. Commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, 130. Commerce, regulation of, 113, 153. Commercial law, 171. Commission plan of city government, 62. Commissioner, 135. of agriculture, 84. county, 50. court, 173. of general land office, 144. of Indian affairs, 145. of internal revenue, 138. of labor, 90. land, 84, 90. of patents, 145. of pensions, 144. railway, 84, 90. of internal revenue, 138. school, 49. street, 61, 62. township, 44, 49. Committee, 190. conference, 200. county, 191. district, 191. executive, 191. national, 192, 194. special, 198, standing, 198. Common law, 170. Communal district, 30. Commutation of sentence, 87. Comptroller, 87. in U. S. government, 137. Comptroller of currency, 138. Congress, acts of, 65. forbidden powers, 117. member of, 111, 112. power of, 110, 117. representation in, 95. Congressional districts, 191. Constable, district, 33. duties of, 35. election and term, 35. township, 43, 45. Consuls, 135. Constitution, 205-218. amendments to, 107, 215. formation of, 106. nature of, 105. Constitution of European countries, 70. of State, 69. necessity for, 106. ratification of, 99. value of, 71. Conventions, 192, 194. Copyright, 114, 145. Coroner, 49. duties of, 53. inquest, 54. in township, 46. Corporation, 166. municipal, 56. Corruption, 177. Council, city, 61, 62. common, 61. Councilman, 42, 57. Counterfeiting, 114. County, the, 48-55. area, 49. attorney, 51. auditor, 52. buildings, 49. clerk, 52. convention, 193. court-house, 49. executive department, 51. formation, 48. government, 49. infirmary, 50. jail, 49. judge, 54, 55. legislative department, 50. officers, 49. power, 48, property, 50. public affairs, 49. purposes, 48. sheriff, 51. superintendent of schools, 44. surveyor, 53. Court-house, 49, 50. Court, jurisdiction of, 151. of claims, 153. officers of, 155,173,174. supreme, 151, United States, 149. of appeals, U.S. circuit, 152. U.S. district, 153. Court-martial, 171.

Declaration of Independence, 65. Deeds, 49, 53. Defendant, 172. Democracy, 159, 161. Department, of agriculture, 146. of commerce, 147. county, 40. executive, of county, 51. fire, 59. government, 72. interior, 144-146. judicial, 40, 92, 149, 196. of justice, 146, 147. of labor, 147. legislative, of county, 80. of State, 77. of territory, 94. navy, 141, 142. post office, 142-144. State, 133. township, 40, 41. treasury, 136-139. war, 139-141. Despotism, 175. Diplomatic service, 134. Direct taxes, 202, 203. Director infirmary, 54. of mint, 139. school, 43, 44. Disfranchisement, 177. Disorder, 179. District-attorney, 155. District, civil, 27. clerk, 54. communal, 30. election, 29. magisterial, 29. marshal, 155. militia, 29. reporter, 155. school, 21, 28. Duties, 204. citizen's, 33. civil, 163. industrial, 165. moral, 166. of children, 22. of family, 19. of parents, 23. political, 167.

Education, board of, 61. of child, 27. Election act, 179. district, 29. judges of, 42. of county officers, 50. of justices, 93. precinct, 29, 30. presidential, 126, 127. returns, 87. Electoral college, 127. vote, 128. Electors, choice of, 115. Electric light, 59. Enabling act, 65. Engineer, city, 61. chief, 140. county, 53. ordnance, 140. State, 90. Enrolled bills, 200. Envoys extraordinary, 134. Examiner of state, 90. Examining trial, 34. Exercise, 204. Executive department, of county, 49. of State, 84. of territory, 94. of United States, 125-148. function of civil district, 31. Expenditure in county, 52.

Family, 17-20. definition of, 18. duties of members of, 19. officers, 19. members of, 18. powers of officers, 19. purposes of, 18. responsibilities, 19. rights of members, 19. Federal reserve banks, 138. Federal trade commission, 148. Fence-viewers, 45. Finance, 60. Fire department, chief of, 62. Freedom of assembly, 73. of conscience, 73. of press, 73.

Gas-works, 59. General assembly, 77. General, adjutant, 84, 140. attorney, 88, commissary, 140. inspector, 140. quartermaster, 140. surgeon, 140. surveyor, 140. Government, 157-162. departments, 77. duties toward, 69. economy of, 61. functions, 58, 59. national, 98, 99. origin of, 157, 158. purposes of, 100. school, 23-26. State, 77. Territory, 96. varieties, 17, 159. Governor of State, 85. of Territory, 94, powers and duties, 85, 86. Grand jurors, 172, 177. Guardians, appointment of, 54. Habeas corpus, 117. Hereditary monarchy, 160. House of congress, 110. of delegates, 78. of representatives, 81, 121, 122. Hundred, the, 28, 30.

Immigration commission, 90. Impeachment, 82. Inauguration, presidential, 128. Income tax, 203. Indiana ballot, 184, 187. Indian Territory, 96. Indictment, 172, 173. Industrial rights, 165. Initiative, 82. Inquest, coroner's, 54. Inspector-general, 140. of bank, 90. Instruction, superintendent of, 89. Insurance commissioners, 84, 89. Interior department, 144. Internal revenue, 204. International law, 170. Interstate commerce, 113, 148, 153. Intimidation, 179.

Jail, county, 49. Jailer, 54. Journal of house, 78. Judge, 171-173, 176. advocate-general, 140. appointment of, 93. county, 49, 50. district, 94. probate, 49, 55. supreme court, 92. surrogate, 49, Judicial department of State, 191. of U.S., 149. district, 191. Judiciary, functions of, 92. Jurisdiction of courts, 149. of supreme court, 151. jurors, 173. in township, 42. Jury, 122, 123. Justice, 163-168 of county, 50. of peace, 33, 34. precinct, 30. of township, 45, 46.

Labor commissioner, 90. Labor department, 147. Land commissioner, 84, 90. Law and liberty, 169-174. Law, enactment of, 79, 197. execution of, 84. ex post facto, 118. forbidden, 74. indexing, 87. making, 77. of nations, 170. of Territory, 95. Legislation, 197-200. in county, 54. Legislative department of county, 49, 50. power of presiding, 131. State, 77. Territory, 94. Legislative department of township, 41. of county, 50. of school, 24. of State, 77. of U.S., 110. Legislature, 77. Letters of marque, 114. Liberty, 169. Librarian, State, 90. Territory, 94. Licenses, 53, 54. Lieutenant-governor, 78, 84, 87.

Magisterial district, 29. Marshal of village, 52. Martial law, 171. Massachusetts ballot, 183, 186. Mayor, 57, 61. Members of congress, 111. of family, 19. of school district, 22. Ministers, 134, 135. Ministerial officers, 35, 45, 174. Militia, 115. district, 29, 30. Military academy, 145. government, 159. Mint, 138. Monarchy, 159. Money, coining of, 114. Moral law, 170. rights and duties, 166, 167. Mortgages, 49, 53. Municipal corporations, 56, 63.

National banks, 138. National committees, 191. convention, 191, 193, 194. government, 98, 99. legislation, 189. Naturalization, 102. Naval academy, 142. New Jersey ballot, 184. Nominations, 194, 195.

Officers, appointment of, 84. city, 61. civil district, 33. election, 54. election of, 176. house of representatives, 81. interior, 123. ministerial, 35. of family, 19, 20. powers of, 19. post-office, 143, 144. school, 24. of senate, 81. Officers of Territory, 94. township, 41. treasury, 136. of United States Court, 155, 156. Official ballots, 184. Oklahoma, 96. Oligarchy, 160. Oral instruction, 57. Ordinances, 42. Organization act, 94. Overseers, 54.

Papers, 49. Pardons, 131. Parents, rights and duties of, 33 Parish, 48. Parliamentary law, 171. Parties, 189-196. Party committees, 190, 191. conventions, 190, 191. machinery, 189, 191. Passports, 133. Patents, 144, 145. Patriarchy, 160. Patronage of president, 132. Paymaster, 140. Penalties, 177. Pensions, 144. Personal property, 203. Petit jury, 172. Piracy, 114. Plaintiff, 172. Plantations, 30. Platforms, 126, 194. Police, chief, 62. court, 61. Political conventions, 192. parties, 189. Polling list, 176. place, 176, 177, 180. in district, 31. Poll-tax, 39, 44, 203. Poor, support of, 54. Postmaster, 123. Post office, 114. bureau, 143. department, 142. Popular vote, 128. Porto Rico, 97. Pound keeper, 45. Powers of State, 79. Precinct election, 29, 30. justice's, 30. President, 125, 129, 130, 190, 193. cabinet of, 132. powers of, 108. Presidential election, 189. Press, freedom of, 72. Primary elections, 195. Privateers, 115. Private property, 72. Private tax, 203. Privilege of State, 78. Probate judge, 54, 55. Proceedings, legal, 174. Property tax, 203.

Quartermaster-general, 140.

Railway commissioners, 90. Real estate tax, 203. Recall, 63. Recorder, 58. county, 53. Referendum, 82. Register, county, 53. of land office, 84, 90. Representative democracy, 161. districts, 191. duties, 78. house of, 81. Reprieves, 86, 131. Reprisal, 114. Republic, 161, 163. Republican principles, 72. Residence, official, of president, 128. Revenue and taxation, 201, 204. collection of, 52, 88, 136. Rights, 163, 171. natural, 27. of accused, 74. of eminent domain, 166. of private property, 164. political, 175.

School, 21, 26. appointment of officers, 34. children, 22, 23. definition and purpose of, 21. directors, 43, 44, 51. district, 28. formation of, 21. functions of, 22. government, 23, 27. members, 22. position of, 28. power of teacher of, 25. rights of, 22. teacher, 25. Secret ballot, 179. Secretary of state, 87. of territory, 94. of treasury, 136. Security, personal, 72. Selectmen, 42. Senate, 81, 119. Senator, 110. Senatorial districts, 191. Sessions of congress, 131. Sheriff, 49, 174, 177. Shire town, 49. Society, 158, 165, 166. Social rights, 165, 166. Solicitor, 158, 166, 167. city, 61. general, 146. of treasury, 139. Speaker, 81, 82. Speech, freedom of, 157. State, 64-97. administration of, 116. engineer, 70. State examiner, 90. librarian, 90. officers, 84. secretary of, 87. subdivisions of, 48. teachers' institute, 89. Statistics, commissioner of, 90. Statute law, 170. Suffrage and elections, 175-178. rights of, 39. Suits, 171, 174. civil, 54. Superintendent of banking, 90. of coast survey, 138. Superintendent of elections, 51. of poor, 54. of public instruction, 89. Supervisor, 43, 44. Supreme court, 92, 150. Surveyor, 33, general, 90. county, 49, 53.

Tariff, 204. Taxation, 79, 201, 202. Taxes, 52, 53, 202, 203. collection of, 35, 43, 45. income, 203. indirect, 202. Teachers, 25, 26. duties of, 25. powers of, 25, 26. Territory, 65, 94, 95, 96. Theocracy, 160. Tipstaff, 174. Town (see Township), 39, 30, 37-47. meetings, 41. Township, or town, 37-47. assessor, 43, 44. citizens of, 38. clerk, 43. collector, 45. commissioner, 44. constable, 43, 45. councilmen, 42. governmental functions of, 37. Township, purposes, 38. selectmen, 42. supervisor, 43, 44. treasurer, 43. Treason, 86. Treasurer, city, 61. Treasurer, county, 52. township, 43. village, 57, 58. Treasury department, 136-139. Treaties, 120, 131. Trials, 171, 172. by jury, 173. Trustees, 57. of township, 42. duties of, 42.

Unit, the civil, 28-31. United States, 98-156. circuit courts, 152. circuit court of appeals, 152. district court, 153. formation of, 99. jurisdiction of courts, 149. supreme court, 150.

Veto, 86. Vice-president, 125, 190, 193, 194. Village, 56, 57. Voters, 29, 32, 33, 39, 60, 67, 68, 175, 182. Voting, 175, 176, 181, 183.

War, declaration of, 114. Ward convention, 195. Warrants, 34, 45. Water works, 59, 60. Wills, 49, 53, 54. Works, electric, 59. gas, 59. public, 57, 59, 60. water, 57. Writs, serving of, 35.



SUPPLEMENT.

BY HON. HOKE SMITH, U.S. SENATOR,

Formerly President of the Board of Education, Atlanta, Ga.

GEORGIA SUPPLEMENT.—PETERMAN'S CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

Copyright, 1901, 1908, 1914, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY,

THE STATE OF GEORGIA.

In the people of Georgia is vested the power of government and with them lies the supreme authority in the State, except in this: the people of Georgia can pass no law which conflicts with the provisions of the Constitution of the United States. As a safeguard and for the better administration of their affairs, the people of Georgia have established a Constitution. The present Constitution was adopted by delegates selected from Senatorial districts. The delegates met in convention and adopted the present Constitution in 1877. All laws in Georgia must be made in accordance with the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of Georgia. They must also be executed according to the provisions of these Constitutions. The Constitution of Georgia can be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of the General Assembly, but the action of the General Assembly in amending the Constitution must be ratified by the voters at the next election of members of the General Assembly; or, a new Constitution can be made by another constitutional convention, which can be called only by two thirds of the members of each house of the General Assembly.

The Constitution of Georgia places the administration of the civil government of the State in three departments, the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judicial.

LEGISLATIVE.—The Legislative department consists of two bodies, namely, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of forty-four members, one from each Senatorial district. The Senatorial districts consist of three or more counties. No one can be elected a State Senator who is not a citizen of the United States, who has not attained the age of twenty-five years, and who has not been a resident of the State four years.

The House of Representatives consists of one hundred and eighty-six members, apportioned among the different counties according to population. The six counties having the largest population have three representatives each; the twenty-six counties having the next largest population have two representatives each; the remaining one hundred sixteen counties have one representative each. A member of the House of Representatives must be twenty-one years of age, and must have resided in the State four years, and in the county from which elected one year. The members of the Legislature are elected biennially on the first Wednesday in October.

Both members of the Senate and the House are chosen for terms of two years at the general State elections.

The General Assembly meets annually on the fourth Wednesday in June, and can make all laws deemed by its members proper and necessary for the welfare of the State not in conflict with the Constitution of the State or Constitution of the United States. A majority of each House constitutes a quorum for the transaction of business. Neither branch of the Legislature has the right to adjourn for a longer time than three days without the consent of the other, but should they disagree upon a question of adjournment, the Governor may adjourn either or both of them. The Acts of the Legislature which are approved by the Governor and become laws are published each year for the information of the public. When the Legislature is called upon to elect some officer, both branches meet in the hall of the House of Representatives, and the President of the Senate presides over the joint body and declares the result. No bill can be passed by the Legislature unless it receives a majority vote of all members elected to each house of the General Assembly, and this fact must be shown by the journals of both houses. It is also necessary for a measure to receive the signature of the Governor before becoming a law. When a bill is vetoed by the Governor it may be passed by a two-thirds vote of the members of each house, thus making his approval unnecessary. The most important appointments made by the Governor must be confirmed by the Senate before the appointments become effective. The Senate has the sole power to hear impeachment proceedings. It requires a two-thirds vote of the Senate to sustain articles of impeachment before there can be a conviction. The House of Representatives must first pass all bills for raising revenue and appropriating money, but the Senate may propose or concur in amendments to such bills. The right to institute impeachments is vested in the House of Representatives.

FRANCHISE.—Every male citizen of this State and of the United States twenty-one years old, who has resided in the State one year prior to the election, and in the county in which he offers to vote six months, who has paid all taxes required of him by law since 1877, is an elector, and if registered, may vote. Those who have not paid their taxes, idiots, insane persons, illiterates of poor character who are neither ex-soldiers nor descendants of soldiers nor owners of a certain amount of property, and persons convicted of serious crime, unless pardoned, are disqualified from voting.

REGISTRATION.—Before a citizen can become entitled to vote he is required to register. On the first day of January of every year the tax collector opens a voters' book in which every person wishing to vote subscribes his name, showing that he is entitled to vote. From this book the tax collector prepares a list of registered voters of the county, which he files with the county registrars. The county registrars are appointed by the Judge of the Superior Court for a term of two years. The county registrars take this list and compare it with the list of disqualified voters prepared by the tax collector, the ordinary, and the clerk of the Superior Court, and from the two prepare a final list of registered voters. Only those whose names appear on the list of voters prepared by the registrars, are entitled to vote. On or before the hour for opening the election a copy of the list of registered voters is furnished the election managers. All elections are presided over by three superintendents. Votes are cast by ballot.

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.—The Executive Department of the State consists of the Governor, Secretary of State, State Treasurer, and Comptroller-General. Their powers and duties were originally vested in the Governor and his Council, but now the duties of each office are separate and distinct.

They are elected for a term of two years by the people of the State, at the same time the members of the Legislature are elected. The qualifications for these offices are: twenty-five years of age (for Governor thirty), a citizen of the United States ten years (for Governor fifteen), and of the State six years.

The Governor is commander in chief of the army and naval forces of the State. He has revision of all bills passed by the General Assembly, and, a two-thirds majority in each house is necessary to pass a bill over his disapproval. The Governor can commute sentences, and grant pardons to criminals, except in cases of treason or impeachment. He is empowered to fill many important offices by appointment. He issues commissions to all officers in the State. He may issue proclamations of rewards for the apprehension of criminals. He reports to the Legislature on the financial condition of the State, and gives suggestions as to any general law that should be passed.

The Secretary of State has the custody of the Great Seal of State and all State papers. He preserves all the original bills and acts passed by the General Assembly. He affixes the Great Seal to all State grants, and public documents executed by the Governor, keeps correct maps of surveys; and plats of lands granted by the State, and records all grants. The Secretary of State grants charters to banking, insurance, railroad, canal, navigation, express, telephone, and telegraph companies.

The Secretary of State is ex-officio Commissioner of Corporations. All State and foreign corporations are required to file an annual statement in his office. He is also the official who passes upon the legality of all stocks, bonds, debentures, and other securities offered for sale in the State of Georgia. He is the legal officer of the State who issues licenses for automobiles. The Secretary of State is ex-officio Surveyor-General who acts in disputed boundary lines of counties. He is the officer to whom election returns of all officers elected by the people are submitted for certification. He keeps a record in his office of the subdivisions of the State into counties, and all records pertaining to the original subdivisions of the State into counties and land districts.

The State Treasurer has custody of all State funds, and pays out moneys only on warrants issued by the Governor. The members of the General Assembly receive their pay from the Treasurer upon drafts drawn by the Speaker of the House or President of the Senate. He has control of the funds pledged to the payment of the public debt, and keeps accounts of all receipts and expenditures. He acts also as State Bank Examiner.

The Comptroller-General audits all accounts against the State. He examines the digests of all tax returns, receives and collects all evidences of debts due the State from any other source than taxes, issues executions against defaulting tax collectors, and countersigns all warrants drawn on the Treasury by the Governor. He must keep a record of all tax collectors' and receivers' bonds. He must make an annual report to the Governor, showing the currents account between the Treasurer and the State. The report must include a statement of taxes paid in by each county, the annual income from the educational fund, and the amounts paid out of said fund, the condition of the public debt, and accounts of all officers and agents disbursing public money. For the use of the members of the General Assembly he must prepare a table of the taxable property in each county of the State, a table of the polls and number of voters in each county, the number of children in each county returned for participation in the educational fund, and the amount drawn by each county out of that fund. He is ex-officio Insurance Commissioner, and has general supervision over all insurance companies doing business in Georgia.

This properly ends the executive department as fixed by the Constitution, but there are other State officers whose duties are such that they really belong to the same class, and may be considered under this head.

The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the executive department. He represents the State in all capital felonies in the Supreme Court, and in all civil and criminal cases in any court when required to do so by the Governor. He is elected by the people for a term of two years, and the same qualifications for this office apply as do those for judges of the Supreme Court.

The State Superintendent of Schools is elected at the time when the Governor is elected, for a term of two years. He is charged with the administration of the school laws. He has general superintendence of the business relating to public schools. It is his duty to instruct all officers under him as he thinks necessary for the better discharge of their duties, and to inspect the various schools of the State. He disburses the school fund according to the number of children between the ages of six and eighteen years in each county.

He is the Secretary and Executive Agent of the State Board of Education.

With the consent and approval of the State Board of Education, he may appoint three State School Supervisors to act under his direction and give normal instruction and training in each county; to grade, when required, the papers of applicants for professional certificates; and to aid him generally in supervising, systematizing, and improving the schools of the State. He appoints, with the advice and consent of the State Board of Education, an experienced auditor to examine and report on the accounts of all schools and colleges receiving State aid.

The State Superintendent of Schools is ex-officio a member of the State Board of Education, the State School-Book Commission, the State Geological Board, the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School at Athens, and the South Georgia Normal School at Valdosta.

The Commissioner of Agriculture is elected by the people of the State for a term of two years, at the same time that the governor is elected.

He has charge and control of the inspection and sale of all fertilizers sold in the State. The law requires all manufacturers and dealers in fertilizers in Georgia to first register all the brands to be sold. The law authorizes the Commissioner to appoint six inspectors for a term of one year each, and such other additional inspectors as may be required, to be paid for the actual time they are in service. After the samples are taken by these inspectors, they are forwarded to the Commissioner, who turns them over to the State Chemist, he making an analysis of the goods. If the analysis shows anything radically wrong, the Commission takes it up with the fertilizer manufacturers who sold the fertilizer, and the party who bought it.

The Commissioner of Agriculture is also charged with the inspection of foods, drugs, feeding stuffs, and of all oils of illuminating quality sold in the State. It is his duty to enforce the provisions of the Pure Food and Drug Laws, and he appoints a food inspector and a drug inspector. Both of these inspectors make their report to the Commissioner, and all samples taken are sent to the State Chemist for analysis. The Commissioner also has charge of the inspection of cattle in Georgia to protect them against diseases of all kinds. This department is called the Bureau of Animal Inspection, and is in the charge of the State Veterinarian, with a corps of assistants, all of whom are appointed by the Commissioner. This Bureau cooperates with the United States Department of Agriculture in Tick Eradication and Hog Cholera Contagion; and the general development of live stock industry.

The Commissioner of Agriculture also has charge of the horticultural interests, peaches, apples, fruits, and vines, of all description. Under the law he appoints an entomologist who may visit all the orchards and vineyards, and inspect them for the purpose of keeping down all diseases affecting the fruit in Georgia. In a general way the Commissioner of Agriculture is expected to look after the common good of the State connected with the varied farming interests.

By virtue of his office, the Commissioner of Agriculture is ex-officio a member of the board of Trustees of the State Board of Agriculture, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Georgia Experiment Station, and also Chairman of the State Board of Entomology.

The State Chemist is in charge of the laboratory in connection with the Department of Agriculture. He is appointed by the Commissioner of Agriculture, and his assistants are also appointed by the Commissioner on the recommendation of the State Chemist.

A State Geologist is appointed by the Governor, who holds his office during good conduct. He is removable by the Governor for inefficiency or misconduct. It is his duty to make a geological, mineralogical, and physical survey of the State; to make records of the survey; to make a record of the general physical characteristics of the different counties; to locate the deposits of mineral ores and phosphates, collect and classify specimens and preserve them in a museum.

The State Game and Fish Commissioners appointed by the Governor for a term of two years. It is his duty to see that all laws for the protection of game animals, game birds, and fish in the State are observed and enforced. He appoints game and fish wardens and deputy wardens in each county of the State to assist him in enforcing the laws, and in issuing licenses to proper persons to hunt and fish in the open season, in accordance with certain restrictions and regulations.

The State Tax Commissioner is appointed by the Governor, with the approval of the Senate, for a term of six years. His office is at the State Capitol in connection with the Comptroller-General. He acts as assistant to the Comptroller-General. He investigates all matters relative to taxation, and makes recommendations to the General Assembly, as to any alterations or changes that may bring about a more perfect and equitable system of taxation. It is his duty to examine carefully and compare the tax digests of the several counties of the State, to the end that property located in different counties may bear its equitable burden of taxation.

The Adjutant General is appointed by the Governor for the term of the Governor's tenure. He is at the head of the Military Department of the State, subordinate only to the Governor as Commander in Chief of the military forces of the State. He is custodian of all militia records and of all State and United States Military Equipment in the State. He renders an annual report to the Governor of the condition of the militia and accounts for all moneys received and disbursed for military purposes. He issues all orders relative to carrying into execution and perfecting the military establishment under the laws of the State and the United States.

The Commissioner of Commerce and Labor is elected at the same time and in the same manner as the Governor and the State House Officers for a term of two years. He is aided by an assistant commissioner and chief clerk. His duties are to provide for the collection and dissemination of authentic statistics pertaining to the various industries and resources of the State; also to collect data relative to the condition and welfare of laboring people and such other statistics concerning the industrial welfare of the citizens of the State as he may deem of interest and benefit to the public: He is especially required to investigate the operation and enforcement of various laws relative to the employment of child labor and of women. He may act as a mediator between employers and employees in the case of strikes, and tender his good offices to the opposing parties with a view to bringing about friendly and satisfactory adjustments. He makes a full report to the Governor, with such recommendations as may be likely to promote the efficiency of his Department.

The Railroad Commission consists of five members, one or two being elected every second year, for a term of six years. It is the duty of the Commission to protect the people from excessive passenger or freight rates on the various railroads operating in the State, and to prevent unjust discrimination. The Commissioners have the power to examine the books of any railroad company, to examine its officers and agents as to their methods of conducting the business of the road, and to examine the road to see that it is not in an unsafe and dangerous condition, and when any part is found to be unsafe, to require the company to put it in such condition as will render travel safe and expeditious.

The Commission also has a similar control over street railroads, wharves, docks, gas, electric light and power, terminal, express, telephone, telegraph, and cotton compress companies. The Commission is called upon to consider, hear, and adjust multitudes of differences and complaints that arise in reference to services, rates, and practices of more than two hundred public service corporations that are within its supervisory and regulatory jurisdiction.

Each of the companies, or corporations, over which the Railroad Commission has authority, before issuing stocks, bonds, notes, or other evidence of debt payable more than twelve months after the date thereof, must secure the approval and authority of the Commission; also they must show the purpose and use for which such issues are authorized.

The Prison Commission consists of three Commissioners elected by the people for a term of six years. The Commissioners elect one of their number chairman. All convicts, all convict camps, and the State Farm are under the direct supervision of the Prison Commission, which provides rules and regulations, subject to the approval of the Governor, for their management, discipline, and sanitation. Some member of the Prison Commission makes personal visits to the various convict camps of the State every six months and makes a thorough inspection of every detail of management, plan of operation, sanitation, and treatment of the convicts. The Commission apportions the convicts to the various counties desiring to use convict labor on the public roads.

The Prison Commission hears applications for pardons and makes recommendations for executive clemency to the Governor, but he may reject their advice.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM.—The judicial branch of our State government is vested in the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeals, superior courts, county, and city courts, courts of ordinary, justice courts, and courts recently established in certain cities in lieu of justice courts.

The difference in the courts consists of their varied jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is the power to hear and determine cases. Two questions are usually involved in determining the jurisdiction of a court. First, the residence of the defendant, and, second, the amount involved and the subject matter of the litigation. The jurisdiction of a court is usually limited to a particular territory, and, with the exception of the superior courts, it is limited as to the character of the litigation.

In each militia district of every county of the State, except in certain cities, there is a justice court. This court was established for the trial of cases involving small amounts, and for the preliminary trials of persons charged with offenses against the laws of the State. The justice is elected for a term of four years by the voters of the county. To be eligible for this office one must have been a resident of the district for three months, and such other qualifications apply as do to voters for members of the General Assembly. This court holds its sessions monthly.

Upon the recommendation of the grand jury of the county, a notary public and ex-officio justice of the peace may be appointed by the judge of the superior court and commissioned by the Governor. His powers are the same as a regularly elected justice, and his term of office is for the same number of years.

The jurisdiction of the court extends to all cases arising from contracts, or injuries, or damages to personal property, when the amount claimed does not exceed $100. Contests for the possession of personal property, when the title is not involved, may also be tried in justice courts. When the amount involved is less than $50 an appeal may be had to a jury of five men; if the amount exceeds $50, an appeal may be had to the superior court.

Upon the arrest of any person charged with any offense against the laws of the State he can be brought before the justice of the peace for a preliminary trial. If in the opinion of the justice there is sufficient evidence, he is bound over to a higher court for trial.

The justice of the peace can issue warrants for the arrest of persons charged with crimes, and is qualified to administer oaths. The executive officer of the justice court is the constable, who is elected by the people for a term of two years. He serves subpoenas, levies executions, conducts the sales of the court, and makes arrests.

In 1912, the provisions of the Constitution recommending the establishment of justice courts in each militia district were amended so as to allow such justice courts, the office of justice of the peace, and of notary public, ex-officio justice of the peace, to be abolished in certain cities in Georgia by the establishment in lieu thereof of such court, or system of courts, as the General Assembly may deem necessary. Such courts have been established in Atlanta and Macon. The territory, jurisdiction, and power of these courts are set forth in the act creating them.

A county court is established upon the recommendation of a grand jury in a county. The judge of the court is appointed by the Governor for a term of four years. The judge of a county court must be twenty-one years of age, and must have been a resident of the county one year. The court holds monthly and quarterly sessions at the county seat. The jurisdiction of the court extends over the county where it is located. The court has jurisdiction in all civil cases where the amount involved does not exceed $500, save where exclusive jurisdiction is given to the superior courts. Criminal cases are also tried in county courts when the crime with which the defendant is charged is called a misdemeanor. In some counties also there are county courts established by special acts of the Legislature.

Many city courts have been established by the Legislature. The judge of a city court is appointed by the Governor, or elected by the people, according to the provisions of the act establishing the court. The term and the qualifications of the judge, and the jurisdiction of the city court, are also fixed by the legislative act creating the court. The term is sometimes four years and sometimes two.

The solicitor of the city court is appointed by the Governor, or elected by the people, for a term of two or four years. It is his duty to represent the State in all criminal cases tried in that court.

There is in each county of the State a court of ordinary. The presiding officer of this court is styled the ordinary. He is elected by the voters of the county for a term of four years. The jurisdiction of the court of ordinary extends throughout the county over all matters relating to the administration of property of deceased persons, orphans, idiots, lunatics, and insane persons. In the ordinary is vested the power of appointing guardians of the person of orphans and insane persons. The ordinary also has charge of county roads and revenues where no board of county commissioners has been established. The ordinary is clerk of his own court, and the sheriff of the county is his executive officer.

The State is divided into twenty-six judicial circuits, and each circuit has one superior court judge (or mote than one if the Legislature so provides). This judge is elected by the people for a term of four years. To be eligible he must be thirty years of age; he must have been a citizen of the State for three years, and must have practiced law seven years.

The superior courts have original and appellate jurisdiction. Actions may be begun in this court, and actions may be appealed to this court. The original jurisdiction of this court extends exclusively over all suits for divorce, suits where titles to land are involved, cases in equity, and criminal cases where the person is accused of a crime the punishment for which is loss of life or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Offenses of a lesser grade are called misdemeanors. The court has jurisdiction over all civil cases. The judge of the superior court has the power to issue various writs for the enforcement of the law, and grant charters to all corporations, except banking, insurance, railroad, canal, navigation, express, telephone, and telegraph companies. Cases appealed from justice courts, county courts, courts of ordinary, and certain city courts lie to the superior courts.

The clerk of the Superior court is elected by the people for a term of two years. He has custody of all court papers, records, liens, deeds, mortgages, and other conveyances, issues executions, subpoenas, commissions to take interrogatories, and other writs with the authority of the court. He also has the power to administer oaths.

The sheriff of the county is properly a county officer, but his duties are closely allied with the superior court. He is elected by the people for a term of two years. It is his duty to execute all orders of the court, attend in person or by deputy all its sessions, keep a record of all sales and executions, publish advertisements of sales, and conduct sales at the county seat. He levies executions, serves warrants, and executes all the writs of the judge of the superior court. The sheriff may appoint deputies to assist him in the performance of his duties.

The solicitor-general is elected by the people for a term of four years. He must have been three years a citizen of the State, he must be twenty-five years of age, and must have practiced law three years. He is the solicitor of the whole circuit, and is not a county officer. He advises the grand jury, examines witnesses before that body, and draws up all indictments and presentments. It is his duty to prosecute or defend any civil action in his circuit in which the State is interested, collect moneys arising from fines and forfeited bonds, and all claims of the State, as ordered by the Comptroller-General. He represents the State in all criminal actions in the superior court, of which he is the solicitor, and in the Court of Appeals or the Supreme Court in cases appealed from his circuit.

The Court of Appeals consists of three judges, elected one every second year for a term of six years. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and five associate justices. They are elected two every second year for a term of six years. A judge of the Court of Appeals or a justice of the Supreme Court must be thirty years of age, must have been a resident of the State three years, and must have practiced law seven years.

The Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction in cases appealed from certain city courts, and in criminal cases, not capital, appealed from the superior courts. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction in civil cases appealed from the superior courts, and in all cases of conviction of capital crime. The Supreme Court also settles any question as to the meaning of the Constitution, and as to the constitutionality of a State law. It is the highest judicial authority in the State.

COUNTIES.—The State is divided into one hundred and forty-eight counties, and each county into militia districts, according to its size and population. Every militia district in the State must contain at the time of its organization at least one hundred male residents over twenty-one years of age who are subject to militia duty, and no militia district can be reduced in population below this requirement by the formation of a new one. While no additional counties can be created in the State except by a constitutional amendment, one may be abolished or merged into adjoining counties by a two-thirds majority of the voters of the county.

Each county in the State has an organized government, with powers delegated to it by the State government. These powers are largely administrative, and have for their chief purpose the enforcement of general laws. Each county is a body corporate, with the power to sue or be sued in any court, make contracts, and buy and sell real estate. Its debt cannot exceed seven per cent of the assessed valuation of the taxable property.

ORDINARY.—The office of ordinary is the most important in the county. He is the principal administrative officer in the county. When sitting for county purposes he has exclusive jurisdiction in directing and controlling all county property and in levying general and special taxes. He has control over all roads and bridges, establishes and alters election precincts and militia districts, appoints officers to fill all vacancies in the county. He audits the accounts of all county officers, makes rules and regulations for the relief of the poor. He issues marriage licenses, pays pensions to Confederate veterans, licenses and regulates peddling, and collects special taxes assessed by the State. He is elected for a term of four years.

He is both a judicial and an administrative officer. His judicial duties have been explained.

A part of his administrative duties as to roads and revenues is performed in some counties by a board of county commissioners.

COUNTY COMMISSIONERS.—A board of county commissioners may be created by the General Assembly to administer the executive powers of the ordinary. The powers of the commissioners differ in the various counties, and their duties are prescribed by the act creating them. They are called commissioners of roads and revenues. When county commissioners are provided for by legislative enactment the ordinary ceases to perform the duties given to the commissioners.

JURY COMMISSIONERS.—The board of jury commissioners is composed of six members, who are appointed by the judge of the superior court for a term of six years. Two members are appointed every second year.

This body meets in August, biennially, to revise the jury list. It selects from the books of the tax receiver "upright and intelligent men" to serve as jurors. The most intelligent and experienced are selected for the grand jury. The name of each person subject to serve on the jury is written on a separate slip of paper and placed in the "jury box." At each term of the superior court the judge draws out of this box from eighteen to thirty names, from which the grand jury is impaneled. In the same manner thirty-six names are drawn for the petit jury.

Grand Jury.—The grand jury consists of not less than eighteen nor more than twenty-three members. A foreman is elected by the jury. It is their duty to indict or present for trial all persons who from their own knowledge, or from evidence brought before them, are charged with an offense against the laws, and against whom sufficient evidence is produced to sustain the charge. It is also their duty to inspect the books and accounts of all county officers, examine the tax receiver's digest, and inquire into the condition and management of the county roads, jails, and schoolhouses. It advises the ordinary in the administration of the county tax, determines the salary of the county judge, jurors, and bailiffs, and appoints the members of the board of education.

County Treasurer.—All revenue paid into the county arising from taxes, and all other sources, is paid to the county treasurer, who disburses it only upon warrants issued by the ordinary or board of county commissioners.

Tax Receiver.—It is the duty of the tax receiver to secure from each taxpayer, under oath, a statement of the character and amount of his taxable property. Three digests are prepared from the full returns made to the tax receiver, who must furnish one to the Comptroller-General, the tax collector, and the ordinary.

Tax Collector.—It is the duty of the tax collector to collect all taxes due the State and county, and to pay the same over to the Comptroller-General and County Treasurer, the portion due the State going to the Comptroller-General. He is to search out and ascertain as far as possible all poll and professional taxes due and unpaid, and all taxable property not found in the digest, and to assess the same and collect thereon a double tax. He also issues against all defaulters, executions, which are placed with the proper officials for collection.

Road Commissioners.—Each county is arranged into road districts in order that the labor and expense may be divided as equally as possible throughout the county. Three commissioners are appointed in every district for a term of two years, and are excused only for providential causes; but while serving they are exempt from jury, militia, and other road duty.

All male residents of the State between the ages of sixteen and fifty years are subject to work on the public roads, with the exception of preachers, cripples, and employees of the Insane Asylum, and the like. No person, however, is required to work for a longer time than fifteen days in the year, or for a longer time than five days in succession. The commissioners have the power to fine or imprison defaulters. Counties may, however, adopt an alternative plan for working the roads: in such counties a special tax is levied on property, the proceeds of which are spent on the roads, and able-bodied men between eighteen and fifty years of age are subject to road duty for not more than five days each year, or they may pay a small commutation tax instead.

CORONER.—The principal duty of the coroner is to hold inquests, with a jury composed of six electors, over the bodies of all persons who have died suddenly and under suspicious circumstances. Upon the verdict of the jury, the coroner may commit to prison, to await trial, any person found guilty of homicide. The coroner is also ex-officio sheriff when the latter is disqualified or absent from the county.

County Surveyor.—The county surveyor makes surveys of county and district lines, and such other surveys as are required by the Comptroller-General.

CITIES AND TOWNS.—Where the necessity demands it in very thickly populated districts, and where the county government would be inadequate for the requirements of the community, local governments are established, which are termed municipal corporations.

Such corporations are chartered by the General Assembly, and the form of government of each municipality is prescribed in the act creating it. No distinction is drawn in Georgia between towns and cities.

The form of the municipal government conforms to a large extent to that of the State government, the legislative power being delegated to a council or board of aldermen, the executive to the mayor, and the judicial to a recorder, or some one performing the duties usually given to this officer.

The council is composed of the mayor and a number of councilmen. They are elected by the voters, usually for a term of one or two years. The councilmen in some places are elected from various city wards; in others they are elected by the town or city at large. In some cities the recorder is elected by the council, and in some he is elected by the people. In some the mayor performs the duties of the recorder.

Under some charters, the city comptroller, tax collector, treasurer, and city attorneys are elected by the voters, while the minor officers, such as the city clerk, tax assessors, members of the board of health, the board of education, and the board of police commissioners, are elected by the council.

The revenue of a city is derived from a general tax on all real and personal property, which must be uniform, and a license tax on all occupations, which is varied with the occupation.

EDUCATION.—There is a thorough system of public schools for the education of the children of the State, the expenses of which are provided for by taxation or otherwise. The schools are free to all children of the State, but separate schools are provided for white and colored children. The State appropriates money directly to the support of the public schools.

Authority may be granted to counties, school districts, or to municipalities, upon the recommendation of the corporate authority, to maintain schools by local taxation, levied in addition to the amount appropriated by the State. But such a law takes effect in any county district, or municipality, only if ratified by a two-thirds majority of the citizens voting on the question.

The State Superintendent of Schools is the executive head of the school system of the State, and to him are submitted reports from the county school superintendents. He prepares the questions for teachers' examinations.

The State Board of Education is composed of the Governor, State Superintendent of Schools, and four other persons who are appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. At least three of these appointees must be men of practical experience in teaching schools and of high standing in educational work, having had at least three years' practical experience in the schools of Georgia.

The board is authorized to receive bequests for education, and invest the principal sums when the interest only is to be expended. The board is an appellate and advisory body. The State Superintendent of Schools is required to advise with the board for the better performance of his duties, and appeals from his decisions lie to the board.

It is the duty of the State Board of Education to provide rules and regulations for the supervision of all schools in the State; to provide the course of study and select textbooks for all common and high schools of the State receiving State aid; also to provide a system of certification for the teachers of the public schools.

The schools of each county are under the control of a County Board of Education. The grand jury of a county selects five citizens to serve on the board for the term of four years. The county is divided by the board into school districts, and a school is established in each district which may have three trustees who act under the general supervision of the County Board of Education.

The board employs teachers, rents property, buys school furniture, and makes all arrangements necessary for the efficient operation of the schools.

The County School Superintendent is elected by the qualified voters of each county for a term of four years. Under a recent act the term of all these officials is uniform and expires January 1, 1917. He must be a resident of the county in which he offers for election and be a person of good moral character. In addition to the above there are four tests laid down by law and the County School Superintendent must qualify under at least one of these:—

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