Damnonii, 57, 58, 61, 80, 247 Deal, 89, 108 Decangi, 146 Decentius, 231 Decurions, 182 Dedication of churches, 261 Dene Holes, 41 "Dioceses," 222 Diocletian, 59, 71, 219, 221, 222, 224-227 Divitiacus, 82, 109 Divorce, 259 "Divus," 123, 227 Dobuni, 57, 132 Dogs, British, 190 Dol, 235 Dolmens, 29 Domestic animals, 45, 46 Domitian, 163 Domitilla, 257 Dorchester, 61 Dover, 87 Dragon standard, 244 "Druidesses," 71, 154, 155 Druidism, 62-72 Duke of the Britains, 239, 243, 247 Duke of the Britons, 245 Duns, 60 Durotriges, 57, 61

Eagles, Legionary, 90, 91, 228 Eboracum, 174 Eborius, 259 Elephants, 107, 119, 134 Eleutherius, 258 Emeriti, 214 English, 232, 245, 246 Epping Forest, 47, 190 Equinoctial hours, 39, 40 Erinus Hispanicus, 204 Ermine Street, 166-170 Exports, British, 128, 129

Fastidius, Faustus, 263 Flavians, 133 Fleam Dyke, 144, 145 Fleet, British, 182, 221 Forests, 47, 56-58, 189 Fosse Way, 166, 167, 169 Frampton, 267 Franks, 219, 224, 237 Frisians, 200, 220, 248 Fruit-trees, 186

Gael, 32, 50 Galerius, 222, 227, 228 Galgacus, 163 Galloway, 46, 194, 233, 248, 261 Gates of London, 179 Geese, 46 Gelt, R., 210 Genuini, 197 Germanus, 263-265 Gerontius (Geraint), 242 Geta, 201, 213 Gladiators, 136, 137, 224 Glass, 48, 129 Glastonbury, 27, 57, 254, 255 Glazed ware, 188 Gnossus, 37 Gog-Magog Hills, 219 Gold, 30, 39, 48 Goths, 249 Grindelwald, 262 Gulf Stream, 40

Hadrian, 181, 194-197 Hair-dye, 48, 129 Handicrafts, 187, 188 Hardway, 36 Hasta Pura, 138 Havre, 223 Helena, 222, 227 "Hengist and Horsa," 245 Heretics, 263 Honorius, 242, 243 Horseshoes, 177 Hounds, 190 Hugh, St., 185 Huntingdon, 171 Hypocausts, 189, 205

Iberians, 51 Iceni, 54, 57, 58, 59, 120, 130, 142-146, 152, 157, 170 Icknield Street, 144, 145, 167, 170, 186 Ictis, 35 Ierne, 32, 234, 236. See Ireland Immanuentius, 109 Imperial visits, 134, 194, 201, 223, 230 Ireland, 162, 232, 262, 268. See Ierne Iron, 33, 50 Itinerary, 171, 172, 173, 175

Jadite, 29 Jerome, St., 46, 191, 233, 260 Jerusalem, 160, 181, 260 Joseph of Arimathaea, 254 Julia Domna, 209, 210, 213 " Lex, 192, 243 Julian, 191, 225, 231, 232 Julianus, 200 Julius Caesar. See Caesar " Classicianus, 158 " Firmicus, 230 " of Caerleon, 259 Juridicus Britanniae, 181 Justinian, 181, 248 Justus, 262

Kalendar of Druids, 64 "Keels," Saxon, 221, 245 Kent, 55, 121, 127, 142, 247-249 Kilns, 187 King's Cross, 157 Koridwen, 155

Labarum, 188, 228, 229, 267 Labienus, 107, 122, 123 Lambeth, 168 Lead-mining, 39, 146, 188 Legates, 141, 197, 200, 232 Legion II., 133, 150, 157, 174, 182, 239 " VI., 174, 182, 239 " VII., 99 " IX., 133, 154, 157, 178, 181, 194 " X., 91, 99 " XIV., 133, 150, 156, 160 " XX., 133, 150, 157, 160, 174, 182, 234, 237, 240 Legionary feeling, 91, 157 Legions, Roman, 86, 90, 91, 231, 238, 239 Leicester, 183 Libelli, 226 Liber Landavensis, 259 Licinius, 228 Ligurians, 51 Lincoln, 171, 175, 185, 250, 259 Linus, 257 Lion, British, 126, 210, 221 Loddon, R., 134 Logris, 51 Lollius Urbicus, 197, 198 London, 60, 117, 118, 122, 154, 156, 157, 166, 168, 169, 171, 179-183, 224, 233, 241, 250, 259 Lupicinus, 232 Lupus, 263 Lyminge, 265 Lyons, 200, 258

Magna, 208 Magnentius, 230, 231 Maiden Castle, 61 " Way, 169 Mandubratius, 109, 122, 127 Mansions, 189 Manures, 40 Marcus Aurelius, 215 Marseilles, 35, 38 Martial, 43, 141, 255-257 Martin, St., 261, 262 Martyrs, British, 227, 259 Mastiffs, 190 Mater Deum, 209, 210 Maxentius, 228 Maximian, 222, 225, 227, 228 Maximin, 228 Maximus, 235 Mead, 42 Meatae, 201, 202, 232 Mendips, 39, 188 Mile Castles, 195, 204 Milestones, 180 Millstones, 44 Missionaries, British, 261, 262 Mistletoe, 67, 68 Mithraism, 207, 208, 228 Mona, 154, 155, 161 Money-box, 184 Morgan, 263 Mutter-recht, 46

Narcissus, 131 Needwood, 58, 190 Nennius, 171-173, 244-247 Neolithic Age, 28-30 Nero, 151, 158, 159 Nervii, 54 Newcastle, 204 Ninias, 261, 262, 264 North Tyne R., 211 Notitia, 171, 173, 174, 237-242

Oberland, 262 Ocean, 33, 85, 97, 122, 131, 236, 238, 256 Ogre, 29 "Old England's Hole," 111 Optio, 211 Ordovices, 57, 147, 161 Ostorius, 142-149 Otho, 159, 160

Paganism suppressed, 230 Palaeolithic period, 26-28 Pansa, 198 Pantheon, Druidic, 62, 64 Parisii, 54, 58, 82 Parjetting, 187 Patrick, St., 71, 262 Paul, St., 251-257 Pax Romana, 165, 178, 187 Pearls, British, 128 Peel Crag, 203 Pelagius, 263 Perennis, 199 Pertinax, 200 Peter, St., 252, 253 Petronius, 158 Phoenicians, 33-37 Picts, 193, 207, 232-236, 245, 259, 261, 264 Pilgrims, British, 260 Pilgrims' Way, 36 Pillars, multiple, 185 Pilum, 158 Pirates, 219-221, 235, 245 Plautius, 131, 134, 137, 147, 256 Plough, British, 40 Pomponia, 256 Population, 59, 178 Portsmouth Harbour, 132, 240, 252 Port Way, 186 Posidonius, 36, 82 Posting, 189, 227 Postumus, 218 Pottery, 30, 187 Praetorium, 181 Prasutagus, 152 Precedents, British, 182 Prefectures, 221 Prince of Wales, 247 Priscilla, 257 Priscus, 159 Probus, 192, 218 Pro-consuls, 74, 77, 142, 198 Procurator of Britain, 152, 153, 158 Prosper, 263 Provinces, 59, 74, 77, 195, 198, 222, 225, 230, 240 Ptolemy, 171-175 Pudens, 141, 256, 257 Pytheas, 34-36, 38-40, 42, 45, 49, 51, 55

Querns, 44 Quiberon, Battle off, 81 Quintus Cicero, 104, 105, 106

Radagaisus, 237 Rampart of Agricola, 163, 194, 198, 201, 234 Rationalis Britanniarum, 241 Regni, 57, 142 Ribchester, 176, 266 Richborough, 88, 108, 121, 175, 223, 233, 235, 239 Rings, 186 Rite, British, 267 River-bed men, 26, 27 Rogation Days, 267 Roman citizenship, 140, 141, 213, 214 Roman roads, 117, 166-171 Royal roads, 167 Rycknield Street, 166, 170

Saexe, 219, 246 Sallustius Lucullus, 164 Samian pottery, 188 "Sarsen," 30, 31 Sarum, 175 Saturnalia, 132 Saxons, 193, 206, 219, 233, 234, 236, 238, 244, 245 See English Saxon Shore, 219 Scotch dogs, 191 Scots, 232-238, 246, 262 Scythed chariots, 100 Seers, 66 Segontium, 127, 172, 228 Selwood, 38, 190 Seneca, 140, 152 Settle, 251 Severus, 200-203, 209-213, 231 Sherwood, 58, 190 Shields, British, 49, 50 " Roman, 178 Ships, British, 37, 80 " Venetian, 79, 80 " Caesar's, 81, 103 " Scotch, 232 " Saxon, 245 Silchester, 56, 162, 175,179, 183-188, 264, 265 Silurians, 51, 57, 146-150, 161 Silver, 39, 186 Simon Magus, 71 " Zelotes, 253 "Snake's Egg," 70, 71 South Foreland, 89 Spain, 77, 103, 155, 200, 222, 242 Squads, 239 Squared word, 189 Stamford, Battle of, 232, 246 Staters, 38 "Stations," 202, 203 Stilicho, 235-237, 242 Stoke-by-Nayland, 265 Stonehenge, 30, 31 "Streets," 169 Suetonius Paulinus, 154-158, 161 Sul, 183 Sussex, 50, 128, 142 Sylla, 75 Syracuse, 219

Tabulae Missionis, 214 Tartan, 47 Tasciovan, 54, 127, 128, 130, 156 Tattooing, 48 Taxation, 192 Thames, 56, 117-119, 122, 134 Thanet, 36, 108, 245 Theatres, 153, 184 Theodosius the Elder, 233, 234 " " Great, 230, 235, 242, 268 Thimbles, Roman, 177 Tides, 88, 93, 96, 108, 124, 233 Tin, 33-38. 128 Tincommius, 54, 125, 128 Titus, 133, 137 Togodumnus, 134, 147 Tonsure, Druidic, 72 Treasury, 180, 241 Trebatius, 104 Trees, 47 Tribal boundaries, 56-58 Tribune, 114, 138, 209, 239 Trident, 49 Trinobantes, 55, 57, 59, 109, 122, 127 Triumphs, 135, 149 Tufa, 244, 247 Turf wall, 197, 198, 206 Tyrants, 53, 54, 247

"Ugrians," 29-31, 62 Ulpius Marcellus, 199, 211 Ulysses, 64, 248 Uriconium, 150, 179, 184 Ushant, 155 Uther, 244

Valens, 234 Valentia, 225, 234, 237, 240 Valentinian I., 230, 233 " II., 235 " III., 177, 246 Vallum, 205-207, 233 Vandals, 219, 237 Varus, 130 Veneti, 79-81 Verica, 125 Vericus, 130, 142, 143, 152 Verulam, 120, 127, 156, 157, 168, 227, 263 Vespasian, 133, 137, 159 Vexillatio, 210 Via Devana, 166, 167 Vicar of Britain, 240, 243 Victorinus, 218 Villages, 27, 44, 45, 129 Villas, 188, 189, 267 Vine-growing, 192 Visi-goths, 243 Volisius, 54 Vortigern, 245

Wagons, 36 Wall (of Hadrian), 174, 195, 196, 202-212 Wall (of London, etc.), 179 Water-supply, 60, 162, 211 Watling Street, 118, 166-170 Wattle churches, 254, 255, 265 Weald, 57, 189 Wells, 186 West Saxons, 248 Whitherne, 261, 262 Wight, I. of, 36, 133, 189, 224 Winchester, 175 Winter thorn, 254



FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: Published by the Record Office, 1848.]

[Footnote 2: Published by the Royal Academy of Berlin. Vol. VII. contains the Romano-British Inscriptions.]

[Footnote 3: His later books only survive in the epitome of Xiphilinus, a Byzantine writer of the 13th century.]

[Footnote 4: See p. 171.]

[Footnote 5: See p. 256.]

[Footnote 6: In the British (?) village near Glastonbury the bases of shed antlers are found hafted for mallets.]

[Footnote 7: This name is simply given for archaeological convenience, to indicate that these aborigines were non-Aryan, and perhaps of Turanian affinity.]

[Footnote 8: Skeat, however, traces "ogre" (the Spanish "ogro") to the Latin Orcus.]

[Footnote 9: The latest excavations (1902) prove Stonehenge to be a Neolithic erection. No metal was found, but quantities of flint implements, broken in the arduous task of dressing the great Sarsen monoliths. The process seems to have been that still used for granite, viz. to cut parallel channels on the rough surface, and then break and rub down the ridges between. This was done by the use of conical lumps of Sarsen stone, weighing from 20 to 60 lbs., several of which were discovered bearing traces of usage, both in pounding and rubbing. The monoliths examined were found to be thus tooled accurately down to the very bottom, 8 or 9 feet below ground. At Avebury the stones are not dressed.]

[Footnote 10: Sarsen is the same word as Saracen, which in mediaeval English simply means foreign (though originally derived from the Arabic sharq = Eastern). Whence the stones came is still disputed. They may have been boulders deposited in the district by the ice-drift of the Glacial Epoch.]

[Footnote 11: Professor Rhys assigns 600 B.C. as the approximate date of the first Gadhelic arrivals, and 200 B.C. as that of the first Brythonic.]

[Footnote 12: Whether or no this word is (as some authorities hold) derived from the Welsh Prutinach (=Picts) rather than from the Brythons, it must have reached Aristotle through Brythonic channels, for the Gadhelic form is Cruitanach.]

[Footnote 13: A certain amount of British folk-lore was brought back to Greece, according to Plutarch ('De defect. orac.' 2), by the geographer Demetrias of Tarsus about this time. He refers to the cavern of sleeping heroes, so familiar in our mediaeval legends.]

[Footnote 14: The word is said to be derived from the root kash, "shine." Some authorities, however, maintain that it came into Sanscrit from the Greek.]

[Footnote 15: 'Hist.' III. 112.]

[Footnote 16: See p. 48.]

[Footnote 17: For a full notice of Pytheas see Elton, 'Origins of English History,' pp. 13-75. See also Tozer's 'Ancient Geography,' chap. viii.]

[Footnote 18: Posidonius of Rhodes, the tutor of Cicero, visited Britain about 100 B.C., and wrote a History of his travels in fifty volumes, only known to us by extracts in Strabo (iii. 217, iv. 287, vii. 293), Diodorus Siculus (v. 28, 30), Athenaeus, and others. See Bake's 'Posidonius' (Leyden, 1810).]

[Footnote 19: The ingots of bronze found in the recent [1900] excavations at Gnossus, in Crete, which date approximately from 2000 B.C., are of this shape. Presumably the Britons learnt it from Phoenician sources.]

[Footnote 20: Saxon coracles are spoken of even in the 5th century A.D. See p. 245.]

[Footnote 21: 'Coins of the Ancient Britons,' p. 24.]

[Footnote 22: This familiar feature of our climate is often touched on by classical authors. Minucius Felix (A.D. 210) is observant enough to connect it with our warm seas, "its compensation," due to the Gulf Stream.]

[Footnote 23: 'Nat. Hist.' xviii. 18.]

[Footnote 24: Ibid. xvii. 4.]

[Footnote 25: Solinus (A.D. 80) adds that bees, like snakes, were unknown in Ireland, and states that bees will even desert a hive if Irish earth be brought near it!]

[Footnote 26: Matthew Martin, 'Western Isles,' published 1673. Quoted by Elton ('Origins of English Hist.,' p. 16), who gives Martin's date as 1703.]

[Footnote 27: Strabo, iv. 277. The word basket is itself of Celtic origin, and passed into Latin as it has passed into English. Martial ('Epig.' xiv. 299) says: "Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis." Strabo wrote shortly before, Martial shortly after, the Roman Conquest of Britain.]

[Footnote 28: One of these primitive mortars, a rudely-hollowed block of oolite, with a flint pestle weighing about 6 lbs., was found near Cambridge in 1885.]

[Footnote 29: Diod. Siculus, 'Hist.' v. 21.]

[Footnote 30: 'British Barrows,' p. 750.]

[Footnote 31: 'Geog.' IV.]

[Footnote 32: 'Legend of Montrose,' ch. xxii.]

[Footnote 33: Diod. Sic. v. 30: "Saga crebris tessellis florum instar distincta." This sagum was obviously a tartan plaid such as are now in use. The kilt, however, was not worn. It is indeed a comparatively quite modern adaptation of the belted plaid. Ancient Britons wore trousers, drawn tight above the ankles, after the fashion still current amongst agricultural labourers. They were already called "breeches." Martial (Ep. x. 22) satirizes a life "as loose as the old breeches of a British pauper."]

[Footnote 34: Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' viii. 48.]

[Footnote 35: Id. xxviii. 2. Fashions about hair seem to have changed as rapidly amongst Britons (throughout the whole period of this work) as in later times. The hair was sometimes worn short, sometimes long, sometimes strained back from the forehead; sometimes moustaches were in vogue, sometimes a clean shave, more rarely a full beard; but whiskers were quite unknown.]

[Footnote 36: Tozer ('Ancient Geog.' p. 164) states that amber is also exported from the islands fringing the west coast of Schleswig, and considers that these rather than the Baltic shores were the "Amber Islands" of Pytheas.]

[Footnote 37: 'Nat. Hist.' xxxvii. 1.]

[Footnote 38: See p. 128.]

[Footnote 39: A lump weighing nearly 12 lbs. was dredged up off Lowestoft in 1902.]

[Footnote 40: A.D. 50.]

[Footnote 41: Seneca speaks of the blue shields of the Yorkshire Brigantes.]

[Footnote 42: See Elton, 'Origins of English History,' p. 116.]

[Footnote 43: Thurnam, 'British Barrows' (Archaeol. xliii. 474).]

[Footnote 44: Propertius, iv. 3, 7.]

[Footnote 45: 'Celtic Britain,' p. 40.]

[Footnote 46: This seems the least difficult explanation of this strange name. An alternative theory is that it = Cenomanni (a Gallic tribe-name also found in Lombardy). But with this name (which must have been well known to Caesar) we never again meet in Britain. And it is hard to believe that he would not mention a clan so important and so near the sphere of his campaign as the Iceni.]

[Footnote 47: See p. 109.]

[Footnote 48: These tribes are described by Vitruvius, at the Christian era, as of huge stature, fair, and red-haired. Skeletons of this race, over six feet in height, have been discovered in Yorkshire buried in "monoxylic" coffins; i.e. each formed of the hollowed trunk of an oak tree. See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 168.]

[Footnote 49: This correspondence, however, is wholly an antiquarian guess, and rests on no evidence. It is first found in the forged chronicle of "Richard of Cirencester." The names are genuine, being found in the 'Notitia,' though dating only from the time of Diocletian (A.D. 296). But, on our theory, the same administrative divisions must have existed all along. See p. 225.]

[Footnote 50: General Pitt Rivers, however, in his 'Excavations in Cranborne Chase' (vol. ii. p. 237), proves that the ancient water level in the chalk was fifty feet higher than at present, presumably owing to the greater forest area. "Dew ponds" may also have existed in these camps. But these can scarcely have provided any large supply of water.]

[Footnote 51: The word is commonly supposed to represent a Celtic form Mai-dun. But this is not unquestionable.]

[Footnote 52: 'De Bello Gall.' vi. 13.]

[Footnote 53: 'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 14.]

[Footnote 54: Jerome ('Quaest. in Gen.' ii.) says that Varro, Phlegon, and all learned authors testify to the spread of Greek [at the Christian era] "from Taurus to Britain." And Solinus (A.D. 80) tells of a Greek inscription in Caledonia, "ara Graecis literis scripta"—as a proof that Ulysses (!) had wandered thither (Solinus, 'Polyhistoria,' c. 22). See p. 248.]

[Footnote 55: 'De Bell, Gall.' vi. 16.]

[Footnote 56: 'Hist.' v. 31.]

[Footnote 57: 'Celtic Britain,' p. 69.]

[Footnote 58: 'Nat. Hist.' xvi. 95.]

[Footnote 59: So Caesar, 'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 17.]

[Footnote 60: Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxiv. 62. Linnaeus has taken selago as his name for club-moss, but Pliny here compares the herb to savin, which grows to the height of several feet. Samolum is water-pimpernel in the Linnaean classification. Others identify it with the pasch-flower, which, however, is far from being a marsh plant.]

[Footnote 61: Suetonius (A.D. 110), 'De xii. Caes.' v. 25.]

[Footnote 62: Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxx. 3.]

[Footnote 63: Tacitus, 'Annals,' xiv. 30. See p. 154.]

[Footnote 64: Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxix. 12.]

[Footnote 65: See Brand, 'Popular Antiquities,' under Ovum Anguinum. He adds that Glune is the Irish for glass.]

[Footnote 66: Lampridius, in his life of Alexander Severus, tells us of a "Druid" sorceress who warned the Emperor of his approaching doom. Another such "Druidess" is said to have foretold Diocletian's rise. See Coulanges, 'Comme le Druidisme a disparu,' in the Revue Celtique, iv. 37.]

[Footnote 67: See Professor Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' p. 70. The Professor's view that the "schismatical" tonsure of the Celtic clergy, which caused such a stir during the evangelization of England, was a Druidical survival, does not, however, seem probable in face of the very pronounced antagonism between those clergy and the Druids. That tonsure was indeed ascribed by its Roman denouncers to Simon Magus [see above], but this is scarcely a sufficient foundation for the theory.]

[Footnote 68: They may very possibly have been connected with the Veneti of Venice at the other extremity of "the Gauls."]

[Footnote 69: See p. 37.]

[Footnote 70: Caesar, 'Bell. Gall.' iii. 9, 13.]

[Footnote 71: Elton, 'Origins of English Hist.,' p. 237. Though less massive, these vessels are built much as the Venetian. But it is just as probable they may really be "picts." See p. 232.]

[Footnote 72: This opening of Britain to continental influences may perhaps account for Posidonius having been able to make so thorough a survey of the islands. See p. 36.]

[Footnote 73: Elton ('Origins of English Hist.') conjectures that these tribes did not migrate to Britain till after Caesar's day. But there is no evidence for this, and my view seems better to explain the situation.]

[Footnote 74: Solinus (A.D. 80) says of Britain, "alterius orbis nomen mereretur." This passage is probably the origin of the Pope's well-known reference to St. Anselm, when Archbishop of Canterbury, as "quasi alterius orbis antistes."]

[Footnote 75: A Roman legion at this date comprised ten "cohorts," i.e. some six thousand heavy-armed infantry, besides a small light-armed contingent, and an attached squadron of three hundred cavalry. Each of Caesar's transports must thus have carried from one hundred and fifty to two hundred men, and at this rate the eighteen cavalry vessels (reckoning a horse as equivalent to five men, the usual proportion for purposes of military transport) would suffice for his two squadrons.]

[Footnote 76: An ancient ship could not sail within eight points of the wind (see Smith, 'Voyage of St. Paul'). Thus a S.W. breeze, while permitting Caesar to leave Boulogne, would effectually prevent these vessels from working out of Ambleteuse.]

[Footnote 77: Hence the name Dubris = "the rivers."]

[Footnote 78: The claims of Richborough [Ritupis] to be Caesar's actual landing-place have been advocated by Archdeacon Baddeley, Mr. G. Bowker, and others. But it is almost impossible to make this place square with Caesar's narrative.]

[Footnote 79: This was four days before the full moon, so that the tide would be high at Dover about 6 p.m.]

[Footnote 80: The "lofty promontory" rounded is specially noticed by Dio Cassius.]

[Footnote 81: The principle of the balista that of the sling, of the catapult that of the bow. Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 12) speaks of "the snowy arms" of the Celtic women dealing blows "like the stroke of a catapult."]

[Footnote 82: Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) has recorded one such act of daring on the part of a soldier named Scaeva, who with four comrades held an isolated rock against all comers till he alone was left, when he plunged into the sea and swam off, with the loss of his shield. In spite of this disgrace Caesar that evening promoted him on the field. The story has a suspicious number of variants, but off Deal there is such a patch of rocks, locally called the Malms; so that it may possibly be true ('Memorabilia,' III. 2, 23).]

[Footnote 83: Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) states that the Romans landed on a falling tide, which cannot be reconciled with Caesar's own narrative (see p. 88). The idea may have originated in the fact that it was probably the approaching turn of the tide which forced him to land at Deal. He could not have reached Richborough before the ebb began.]

[Footnote 84: Every soldier was four feet from his nearest neighbour to give scope for effective sword-play. No other troops in history have ever had the morale thus to fight at close quarters.]

[Footnote 85: See Plutarch, 'De placitis philosophorum.']

[Footnote 86: Each chariot may have carried six or seven men, like those of the Indian King Porus. See Dodge, 'Alexander,' p. 554.]

[Footnote 87: Pomponius Mela ('De Situ Orbis,' I) tells us that by his date (50 A.D.) it had come in: "Covinos vocant, quorum falcatis axibus utuntur."]

[Footnote 88: It is thus represented by Giraldus Cambrensis, who gives us the story of Caesar's campaigns from the British point of view, as it survived (of course with gross exaggerations) in the Cymric legends of his day.]

[Footnote 89: Lucan, the last champion of anti-Caesarism, sung, two generations after its overthrow, the praises and the dirge of the Oligarchy.]

[Footnote 90: See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 44.]

[Footnote 91:'Ad Treb.' Ep. VI.]

[Footnote 92: 'Ad Treb.' Ep. VII.]

[Footnote 93: Ep. 10.]

[Footnote 94: Ep. 16.]

[Footnote 95: Ep. 17.]

[Footnote 96: IV. 15.]

[Footnote 97: III. 1.]

[Footnote 98: II. 16.]

[Footnote 99: II. 15.]

[Footnote 100: III. 10.]

[Footnote 101: Wace ('Roman de Ron,' 11,567) gives 696 as the exact total.]

[Footnote 102: 'Strategemata,' viii. 23.]

[Footnote 103: This was probably not Deal, which had not proved a satisfactory station, but Richborough, where the Wantsum, then a broad arm of the sea between Kent and Thanet, provided an excellent harbour for a large fleet. It was, moreover, the regular emporium of the tin trade (see p. 36), and a British trackway thus led to it.]

[Footnote 104: Otherwise Cadwallon, which, according to Professor Rhys, signifies War King, and may possibly have been a title rather than a personal name. But it remained in use as the latter for many centuries of British history.]

[Footnote 105: Vine, 'Caesar in Kent,' p. 171. The spot is "in Bourne Park, not far from the road leading up to Bridge Hill."]

[Footnote 106: See p. 244.]

[Footnote 107: See II. G. 8. The tradition of this sentiment long survived. Hegesippus (A.D. 150) says: "Britanni ... quidesse servitus ignorabant; soli sibi nati, semper sibi liberi" ('De Bello Judiaco,' II. 9).]

[Footnote 108: Polyaenus (A.D. 180) in his 'Strategemata' (viii. 23) ascribes their panic to Caesar's elephant. See p. 107.]

[Footnote 109: At Ilerda. See Dodge, 'Caesar,' xxviii.]

[Footnote 110: Frontinus (A.D. 90), 'Strategemata II.' xiii. II.]

[Footnote 111: Coins of all three bear the words COMMI. F. (Commii Filius), but Verica alone calls himself REX. Those of Eppillus were struck at Calleva (Silchester?).]

[Footnote 112: See p. 54.]

[Footnote 113: This is the spelling adopted by Suetonius.]

[Footnote 114: The lion was already a specially British emblem. Ptolemy ('de Judiciis II.' 3) ascribes the special courage of Britons to the fact that they are astrologically influenced by Leo and Mars. It is interesting to remember that our success in the Crimean War was prognosticated from Mars being in Leo at its commencement (March 1854). Tennyson, in 'Maud,' has referred to this—"And pointed to Mars, As he hung like a ruddy shield on the Lion's breast."]

[Footnote 115: See p. 38.]

[Footnote 116: The site of this town is quite unknown. Caesar mentions the Segontiaci amongst the clans of S.E. Britain.]

[Footnote 117: In S.E. Essex, near Colchester. See p. 176.]

[Footnote 118: See pp. 109, 122.]

[Footnote 119: Aelian (A.D. 220), 'De Nat. Animal.' xv. 8.]

[Footnote 120: [Greek: Elephantina psalia, kai periauchenia, kai lingouria kai huala skeue, kai rhopos toioutos]. Strabo is commonly supposed to mean that these were the imports from Gaul. But his words are quite ambiguous, and such of the articles he mentions as are found in Britain are clearly of native manufacture. British graves are fertile (see p. 48) in the "amber and glass ornaments" (the former being small roughly-shaped fragments pierced for threading, the latter coarse blue or green beads), and produce occasional armlets of narwhal ivory. Glass beads have been found (1898) in the British village near Glastonbury, and elsewhere.]

[Footnote 121: Strabo, v. 278.]

[Footnote 122: Propertius, II. 1. 73: Esseda caelatis siste Britanna jugis.]

[Footnote 123: Ibid. II. 18. 23. See p. 47.]

[Footnote 124: Virgil, 'Georg.' III. 24.]

[Footnote 125: Virgil, 'Eccl.' I. 65; Horace, 'Od.' I. 21. 13, 35. 30, III. 5. 3; Tibullus, IV. 1. 147; Propertius, IV. 3. 7.]

[Footnote 126: Suetonius, 'De XII. Caes.' IV. 19.]

[Footnote 127: The lofty spur of the Chiltern Hills which overhangs the church of Ellsborough is traditionally the site of his tomb.]

[Footnote 128: This whole episode is from 'Dio Cassius' (lib. xxxix. Section 50).]

[Footnote 129: He places Cirencester in their territory, while both Bath and Winchester belonged to the Belgae. To secure Winchester, where they would be on the line of the tin-trade road (see p. 36), would be the first object of the Romans if they did land at Portsmouth. Their further steps would depend upon the disposition of the British armies advancing to meet them,—the final objective of the campaign being Camelodune, the capital of the sons of Cymbeline.]

[Footnote 130: This is stated by both Geoffrey of Monmouth and Matthew of Westminster.]

[Footnote 131: For three centuries this legion was quartered at Caerleon-upon-Usk, and the Twentieth at Chester. See Mommsen, 'Roman Provinces,' p. 174.]

[Footnote 132: This was the honorary title of several legions; as there are several "Royal" regiments.]

[Footnote 133: Tac, 'Hist.' III. 44.]

[Footnote 134: The Flavian family was of very humble origin.]

[Footnote 135: Bede, from Suetonius, tells us that Vespasian with his legion fought in Britain thirty-two battles and took twenty towns, besides subduing the Isle of Wight ('Sex. Aet.' A.D. 80).]

[Footnote 136: If the Romans were advancing eastward from the Dobunian territory it may have been the Loddon. Mommsen cuts the knot in true German fashion by refusing to identify the Dobuni of Ptolemy with those of Dion, and placing the latter in Kent on his own sole authority. ('Roman Provinces,' p. 175.)]

[Footnote 137: [Greek: dusdiexoda.]]

[Footnote 138: See p. 139.]

[Footnote 139: 'Orosius,' VII. 5.]

[Footnote 140: A victorious Roman general was commonly thus hailed by his troops after any signal victory. But by custom this could only be done once in the same campaign.]

[Footnote 141: Suet. v. 21.]

[Footnote 142: Dio Cassius, lx. 23. The boy, who was the child of Messalina, had previously been named Germanicus.]

[Footnote 143: Suet. v. 28.]

[Footnote 144: Suet. v. 21.]

[Footnote 145: Tac., 'Ann.' xii. 56.]

[Footnote 146: Dio Cassius, lx. 30.]

[Footnote 147: Suet. v. 24.]

[Footnote 148: Dio Cassius, lx. 30.]

[Footnote 149: Eutropius, vii. 13.]

[Footnote 150: Muratori, Thes. mcii. 6.]

[Footnote 151: 'De XII. Caesaribus,' v. 28.]

[Footnote 152: Dio Cassius, lx. 23.]

[Footnote 153: See Haverfield in 'Authority and Archaeology,' p. 319]

[Footnote 154: 'Laus Claudii' (Burmann, 'Anthol.' ii. 8).]

[Footnote 155: See p. 152.]

[Footnote 156: The inscription runs thus:

NEPTVNO. ET. MINERVAE TEMPLVM pro SALVTE. DO mus DIVINAE ex AVCTORITATE. Ti. CLAVD Co GIDVBNI. R. LEGATI. AVG. IN. BRIT. Colle GIVM. FABRO. ET. QVI. IN. E. . . . . . D.S.D. DONANTE. AREAM. Pud ENTE. PVDENTINI. FILiae

(The italics are almost certain restoration of illegible letters.)]

[Footnote 157: See p. 256.]

[Footnote 158: Claudia, the British Princess mentioned by Martial as making a distinguished Roman marriage, may very probably be his daughter.]

[Footnote 159: See p. 130.]

[Footnote 160: Thus in St. Luke ii. we find Cyrenius Pro-praetor ([Greek: hegemon]) of Syria, but in Acts xviii. Gallio Pro-consul ([Greek: hanthupatos]) of Achaia.]

[Footnote 161: See p. 131.]

[Footnote 162: See p. 170.]

[Footnote 163: His reputation for strength, skill, and daring cost him his life a few years later, under Nero (Tac, 'Ann.' xvi. 15).]

[Footnote 164: Pigs of lead have been found in Denbighshire stamped CANGI or DECANGI. Mr. Elton, however, locates the tribe in Somerset. Coins testify to Antedrigus, the Icenian, being somehow connected with this tribe.]

[Footnote 165: A Roman "Colony" was a town peopled by citizens of Rome (old soldiers being preferred) sent out in the first instance to dominate the subject population amid whom they were settled. Such was Philippi.]

[Footnote 166: Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 38.]

[Footnote 167: The distinction of an actual triumph was reserved for Emperors alone.]

[Footnote 168: Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 39.]

[Footnote 169: See p. 239. Uriconium alone has as yet furnished inscriptions of the famous Fourteenth Legion, "Victores Britannici." (See p. 160.)]

[Footnote 170: 'Ep. ad Atticum,' vi. 1.]

[Footnote 171: See Dio Cassius, xii. 2.]

[Footnote 172: The Procurator of a Province was the Imperial Finance Administrator. (See Haverfield, 'Authority and Archaeology,' p. 310.)]

[Footnote 173: An inscription calls the place Colonia Victricensis.]

[Footnote 174: Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiv. 32.]

[Footnote 175: Demeter and Kore. M. Martin ('Hist. France,' i. 63) thinks there is here a confusion between the Greek Kore (Proserpine) and Koridwen, the White Fairy, the Celtic Goddess of the Moon and also (as amongst the Greeks) of maidenhood. But this is not proven.]

[Footnote 176: The former is Strabo's variant of the name (which may possibly be connected with [Greek: semnos]), the latter that of Dionysius Periegetes ('De Orbe,' 57). In Caesar we find a third form Namnitae, which Professor Rhys connects with the modern Nantes.]

[Footnote 177: See p. 127.]

[Footnote 178: As Agricola, his father-in-law, was actually with Suetonius, Tacitus had exceptional opportunities for knowing the truth.]

[Footnote 179: Suetonius probably retreated southward when he left London, and reoccupied its ruins when the Britons, instead of following him, turned northwards to Verulam.]

[Footnote 180: The Roman pilum was a casting spear with a heavy steel head, nine inches long.]

[Footnote 181: Tac., 'Agricola,' c. 12.]

[Footnote 182: That the well-known coins commemorating these victories and bearing the legend IVDAEA CAPTA are not infrequently found in Britain, indicates the special connection between Vespasian and our island. The great argument used by Titus and Agrippa to convince the Jews that even the walls of Jerusalem would fail to resist the onset of Romans was that no earthly rampart could compare with the ocean wall of Britain (Josephus, D.B.J., II. 16, vi, 6).]

[Footnote 183: The spread of Latin oratory and literature in Britain is spoken of at this date by Juvenal (Sat. xv. 112), and Martial (Epig. xi. 3), who mentions that his own works were current here: "Dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus."]

[Footnote 184: Mr. Haverfield suggests that Silchester may also be an Agricolan city (see p. 184).]

[Footnote 185: Juvenal mentions these designs (II. 159):

"—Arma quidem ultra Litora Juvernae promovimus, et modo captas Orcadas, et minima contentos nocte Britannos" (i.e. those furthest north).]

[Footnote 186: According to Dio Cassius this voyage of discovery was first made by some deserters ('Hist. Rom.' lxix. 20).]

[Footnote 187: The little that is known of this rampart will be found in the next chapter (see p. 198).]

[Footnote 188: Sallustius Lucullus, who succeeded Agricola as Pro-praetor, was slain by Domitian only for the invention of an improved lance, known by his name (as rifles now are called Mausers, etc.).]

[Footnote 189: See p. 117.]

[Footnote 190: All highways were made Royal Roads before the end of the 12th century, so that the course of the original four became matter of purely antiquarian interest.]

[Footnote 191: Where it struck that sea is disputed, but Henry of Huntingdon's assertion that it ran straight from London to Chester seems the most probable.]

[Footnote 192: The lines of these roads, if produced, strike the Thames not at London Bridge, but at the old "Horse Ferry" to Lambeth. This may point to an alternative (perhaps the very earliest) route.]

[Footnote 193: Guest ('Origines Celticae') derives "Ermine" from A.S. eorm=fen, and "Watling" from the Welsh Gwyddel=Goidhel=Irish. The Ermine Street, however, nowhere touches the fenland; nor did any Gaelic population, so far as is known, abut upon the Watling Street, at any rate after the English Conquest. Verulam was sometimes called Watling-chester, probably as the first town on the road.]

[Footnote 194: The distinction between "Street" and "Way" must not, however, be pressed, as is done by some writers. The Fosse Way is never called a Street, though its name [fossa] shows it to have been constructed as such; and the Icknield Way is frequently so called, though it was certainly a mere track—often a series of parallel tracks (e.g. at Kemble-in-the-Street in Oxfordshire)—as it mostly remains to this day.]

[Footnote 195: This may still be seen in places; e.g. on the "Hardway" in Somerset and the "Maiden Way" in Cumberland. See Codrington, 'Roman Roads in Britain.']

[Footnote 196: Camden, however, speaks of a Saxon charter so designating it near Stilton ('Britannia,' II. 249).]

[Footnote 197: The whole evidence on this confused subject is well set out by Mr. Codrington ('Roman Roads in Britain').]

[Footnote 198: It is, however, possible that the latter is named from Ake-manchester, which is found as A.S. for Bath, to which it must have formed the chief route from the N. East.]

[Footnote 199: See p. 144. Bradley, however, controverts this, pointing out that the pre-Norman authorities for the name only refer to Berkshire.]

[Footnote 200: Thus Iter V. takes the traveller from London to Lincoln via Colchester, Cambridge, and Huntingdon, though the Ermine Street runs direct between the two. The 'Itinerary' is a Roadbook of the Empire, giving the stages on each route set forth, assigned by commentators to widely differing dates, from the 2nd century to the 5th. In my own view Caracalla is probably the Antoninus from whom it is called. But after Antoninus Pius (138 A.D.) the name was borne (or assumed) by almost every Emperor for a century and more.]

[Footnote 201: See p. 237.]

[Footnote 202: Ptolemy also marks, in his map of Britain, some fifty capes, rivers, etc., and the Ravenna list names over forty.]

[Footnote 203: The longitude is reckoned from the "Fortunate Isles," the most western land known to Ptolemy, now the Canary Islands. Ferro, the westernmost of these, is still sometimes found as the Prime Meridian in German maps.]

[Footnote 204: Thus the north supplies not only inscriptions relating to its own legion (the Sixth), but no fewer than 32 of the Second, and 22 of the Twentieth; while at London and Bath indications of all three are found.]

[Footnote 205: The Latin word castra, originally meaning "camp," came (in Britain) to signify a fortified town, and was adopted into the various dialects of English as caster, Chester, or cester; the first being the distinctively N. Eastern, the last the S. Western form.]

[Footnote 206: Amongst these, however, must be named the high authority of Professor Skeat. See 'Cambs. Place-Names.']

[Footnote 207: Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England' gives a complete list of these.]

[Footnote 208: This industry flourished throughout the last half of the 19th century. The "coprolites" were phosphatic nodules found in the greensand and dug for use as manure.]

[Footnote 209: These are of bronze, with closed ends, pitted for the needle as now, but of size for wearing upon the thumb.]

[Footnote 210: There seems no valid reason for doubting that the horseshoes found associated with Roman pottery, etc., in the ashpits of the Cam valley, Dorchester, etc., are actually of Romano-British date. Gesner maintains that our method of shoeing horses was introduced by Vegetius under Valentinian II. The earlier shoes seem to have been rather such slippers as are now used by horses drawing mowing-machines on college lawns. They were sometimes of rope: Solea sparta pes bovis induitur (Columella), sometimes of iron: Et supinam animam gravido derelinquere caeno Ferream ut solam tenaci in voragine mula (Catullus, xvii. 25). Even gold was used: Poppaea jumentis suis soleas ex auro induebat (Suet., 'Nero,' xxx.). The Romano-British horseshoes are thin broad bands of iron, fastened on by three nails, and without heels. See also Beckmann's 'History of Inventions' (ed. Bohn).]

[Footnote 211: This is true of the whole of Britain, even along the Wall, as a glance at the cases in the British Museum will show. There may be seen the most interesting relic of this class yet discovered, a bronze shield-boss, dredged out of the Tyne in 1893 [see 'Lapid. Sept.' p. 58], bearing the name of the owner, Junius Dubitatus, and his Centurion, Julius Magnus, of the Ninth Legion.]

[Footnote 212: The wall of London is demonstrably later than the town, old material being found built into it. So is that of Silchester.]

[Footnote 213: York was not three miles in circumference, Uriconium the same, Cirencester and Lincoln about two, Silchester and Bath somewhat smaller.]

[Footnote 214: Roman milestones have been found in various places, amongst the latest and most interesting being one of Carausius discovered in 1895, at Carlisle. It had been reversed to substitute the name of Constantius (see p. 222.). It may be noted that the earliest of post-Roman date are those still existing on the road between Cambridge and London, set up in 1729.]

[Footnote 215: See p. 117. When the existing bridge was built, Roman remains were found in the river-bed.]

[Footnote 216: The Thames to the south, the Fleet to the west, and the Wall Brook to the east and north.]

[Footnote 217: See p. 233. The city wall may well be due to him.]

[Footnote 218: See p. 233.]

[Footnote 219: On this functionary, see article by Domaszewski in the 'Rheinisches Review,' 1891. His appointment was part of the pacificatory system promoted by Agricola.]

[Footnote 220: An archigubernus (master pilot) of this fleet left his property to one of his subordinates in trust for his infant son. The son died before coming of age, whereupon the estate was claimed by the next of kin, while the trustee contended that it had now passed to him absolutely. He was upheld by the Court. Another York decision established the principle that any money made by a slave belonged to his bona fide owner. And another settled that a Decurio (a functionary answering to a village Mayor in France) was responsible only for his own Curia.]

[Footnote 221: Inscriptions of the Twentieth have been found here.]

[Footnote 222: Legra-ceaster, the earliest known form of the name, signifies Camp-chester (Legra = Laager). In Anglo-Saxon writings the name is often applied to Chester. This, however, was the Chester, par excellence, as having remained so long unoccupied. In the days of Alfred it is still a "waste Chester" in the A.S. Chronicle. The word Chester is only associated with Roman fortifications in Southern Britain. But north of the wall, as Mr. Haverfield points out, we find it applied to earthworks which cannot possibly have ever been Roman. (See 'Antiquary' for 1895, p. 37.)]

[Footnote 223: Bath was frequented by Romano-British society for its medicinal waters, as it has been since. The name Aquae (like the various Aix in Western Europe) records this fact. Bath was differentiated as Aquae Solis; the last word having less reference to Apollo the Healer, than to a local deity Sul or Sulis. Traces of an elaborate pump-room system, including baths and cisterns still retaining their leaden lining, have here been discovered; and even the stock-in-trade of one of the small shops, where, as now at such resorts, trinkets were sold to the visitors.(See 'Antiquary,' 1895, p. 201.)]

[Footnote 224: Similar excavations are in progress at Caergwent, but, as yet, with less interesting results. Amongst the objects found is a money-box of pottery, with a slit for the coins. A theatre [?] is now (1903) being uncovered.]

[Footnote 225: See II. F. 4; also Mr. Haverfield's articles in the 'Athenaeum' (115, Dec. 1894), and in the 'Antiquary' (1899, p. 71).]

[Footnote 226: Mr. Haverfield notes ('Antiquary,' 1898, p. 235) that British basilicas are larger than those on the Continent, probably because more protection from weather was here necessary. Almost as large as this basilica must have been that at Lincoln, where sections of the curious multiple pillars (which perhaps suggested to St. Hugh the development from Norman to Gothic in English architecture) may be seen studding the concrete pavement of Ball Gate.]

[Footnote 227: A plan of this "church" is given by Mr. Haverfield in the 'English Hist. Review,' July 1896.]

[Footnote 228: An inspection of the Ordnance Map (1 in.) shows this clearly. It is the road called (near Andover) the Port Way.]

[Footnote 229: See p. 46.]

[Footnote 230: The water supply of Silchester seems to have been wholly derived from these wells, which are from 25 to 30 feet in depth, and were usually lined with wood. In one of them there were found (in 1900) stones of various fruit trees (cherry, plum, etc.), the introduction of which into Britain has long been attributed to the Romans, (See Earle, 'English Plant Names.') But this find is not beyond suspicion of being merely a mouse's hoard of recent date.]

[Footnote 231: Roman refineries for extracting silver existed in the lead-mining districts both of the Mendips and of Derbyshire, which were worked continuously throughout the occupation. But the Silchester plant was adapted for dealing with far more refractory ores; for what purpose we cannot tell.]

[Footnote 232: See paper by W. Gowland in Silchester Report (Society of Antiquaries) for 1899.]

[Footnote 233: A glance at the maps issued by the Society of Antiquaries will show this. The massive rampart, forming an irregular hexagon, cuts off the corners of various blocks in the ground plan.]

[Footnote 234: The well-known Cambridge jug of Messrs. Hattersley is a typical example.]

[Footnote 235: "Samian" factories existed in Gaul.]

[Footnote 236: See p. 43.]

[Footnote 237: TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P.M. TRIB. P. VIIII. IMP, XVI. DE BRITAN. This was found at Wokey Hole, near Wells.]

[Footnote 238: Haverfield, 'Ant.' p. 147.]

[Footnote 239: See 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' Vol. VII.]

[Footnote 240: A specially interesting touch of this old country house life is to be seen in the Corinium Museum at Cirencester—a mural painting whereon has been scratched a squared word (the only known classical example of this amusement):

ROTAS OPERA TENET AREPO SATOR]

[Footnote 241: The word mansio, however, at this period signified merely a posting-station on one or other of the great roads.]

[Footnote 242: Selwood, Sherwood, Needwood, Charnwood, and Epping Forest are all shrunken relics of these wide-stretching woodlands, with which most of the hill ranges seem to have been clothed. See Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England.']

[Footnote 243: Classical authorities only speak of bears in Scotland. See P. 236.]

[Footnote 244: Cyneget., I. 468.]

[Footnote 245: Ibid. 69.]

[Footnote 246: In II. Cons. Stilicho, III. 299: Magnaque taurorum fracturae colla Britannae.]

[Footnote 247: 'Origins of English History,' p. 294.]

[Footnote 248: A brooch found at Silchester also represents this dog.]

[Footnote 249: Symmachus (A.D. 390) represents them as so fierce as to require iron kennels (Ep. II. 77).]

[Footnote 250: Prudentius (contra Sab. 39): Semifer, et Scoto sentit cane milite pejor.]

[Footnote 251: Proleg. to Jeremiah, lib. III.]

[Footnote 252: Flavius Vopiscus (A.D. 300) tells us that vine-growing was also attempted, by special permission of the Emperor Probus.]

[Footnote 253: The Lex Julia forbade the carrying of arms by civilians.]

[Footnote 254: See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 347.]

[Footnote 255: Proem, v.]

[Footnote 256: See Fronto,'De Bello Parthico', I. 217. The latest known inscription relating to this Legion is of A.D. 109 [C.I.L. vii. 241].]

[Footnote 257: Spartianus (A.D. 300), 'Hist. Rom.']

[Footnote 258: About a fifth of the known legionary inscriptions of Britain have been found in Scotland.]

[Footnote 259: See p. 233.]

[Footnote 260: At the Battle of the Standard, 1138.]

[Footnote 261: That Hadrian and not Severus (by whose name it is often called) was the builder of the Wall as well as of the adjoining fortresses is proved by his inscriptions being found not only in them, but in the "mile-castles" [see C.I.L. vii. 660-663]. Out of the 14 known British inscriptions of this Emperor, 8 are on the Wall; out of the 57 of Severus, 3 only.]

[Footnote 262: Hadrian divided the Province of Britain [see p. 142] into "Upper" and "Lower"; but by what boundary is wholly conjectural. All we know is that Dion Cassius [Xiph. lv.] places Chester and Caerleon in the former and York in the latter. The boundary may thus have been the line from Mersey to Humber; "Upper" meaning "nearer to Rome."]

[Footnote 263: Neilson, 'Per Lineam Valli,' p.I.]

[Footnote 264: See further pp. 203-212.]

[Footnote 265: The figure has been supposed to represent Rome seated on Britain. But the shield is not the oblong buckler of the Romans, but a round barbaric target.]

[Footnote 266: So Tacitus speaks of "Submotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus" by Agricola's rampart. And Pliny says, "Alpes Gcrmaniam ab Italia submovent."]

[Footnote 267: Corpus Inscript. Lat, vii. 1125.]

[Footnote 268: Dio Cassius, lxxii. 8.]

[Footnote 269: Aelius Lampridius, 'De Commodo,' c. 8.]

[Footnote 270: Inscriptions in the Newcastle Museum show that bargemen from the Tigris were quartered on the Tyne.]

[Footnote 271: Dio Cassius, lxxii. 9.]

[Footnote 272: Julius Capitolinus, 'Pertinax,' c. 3.]

[Footnote 273: Orosius, 'Hist' 17.]

[Footnote 274: Herodian, 'Hist.' iii. 20.]

[Footnote 275: Lucius Septimus Severus.]

[Footnote 276: Herodian, 'Hist. III.' 46. He is a contemporary authority.]

[Footnote 277: Also called Bassianus. His throne name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius.]

[Footnote 278: Publius Septimus Geta Antoninus Pius.]

[Footnote 279: Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 23.]

[Footnote 280: Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.]

[Footnote 281: Severus gave as a mot d'ordre to his soldiers the "No quarter" proclamation of Agamemnon. ('Iliad,' vi. 57): [Greek: ton metis hupekphugoi aipun olethron].]

[Footnote 282: Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.]

[Footnote 283: See p. 195.]

[Footnote 284: Aurelius Victor (20) makes him (as Mommsen and others think) restore Antonine's rampart: "vallum per xxxii. passuum millia a mari ad mare." But more probably xxxii. is a misreading for lxxii.]

[Footnote 285: The very latest spade-work on the Wall (undertaken by Messrs. Haverfield and Bosanquet in 1901) shows that the original wall and ditch ran through the midst of the great fortresses of Chesters and Birdoswald, which are now astride, so to speak, of the Wall; pointing to the conclusion that Severus rebuilt and enlarged them. In various places along the Wall itself the stones bear traces of mortar on their exterior face, showing that they have been used in some earlier work.]

[Footnote 286: This is the number per lineam valli given in the 'Notitia.' Only twelve have been certainly identified. They are commonly known as "stations."]

[Footnote 287: Antiquaries have given these structures the name of "mile-castles." They are usually some fifty feet square.]

[Footnote 288: The familiar name of "Wallsend" coals reminds us of this connection between the Tynemouth colliery district and the Wall's end.]

[Footnote 289: So puzzling is the situation that high authorities on the subject are found to contend that the work was perfunctorily thrown up, in obedience to mistaken orders issued by the departmental stupidity of the Roman War Office, that in reality it was never either needed or used, and was obsolete from the very outset. But this suggestion can scarcely be taken as more than an elaborate confession of inability to solve the nodus.]

[Footnote 290: It should be noted that the "Vallum" is no regular Roman muris caespitius like the Rampart of Antoninus, though traces have been found here and there along the line of some intention to construct such a work (see 'Antiquary,' 1899, p. 71).]

[Footnote 291: In more than one place the line of fortification swerves from its course to sweep round a station.]

[Footnote 292: Near Cilurnum the fosse was used as a receptacle for shooting the rubbish of the station, and contains Roman pottery of quite early date.]

[Footnote 293: See p. 233.]

[Footnote 294: See p. 232.]

[Footnote 295: The existing military road along the line of the Wall does not follow the track of its Roman predecessor. It was constructed after the rebellion of 1745, when the Scots were able to invade England by Carlisle before our very superior forces at Newcastle could get across the pathless waste between to intercept them.]

[Footnote 296: Mithraism is first heard of in the 2nd century A.D., as an eccentric cult having many of the features of Christianity, especially the sense of Sin and the doctrine that the vicarious blood-shedding essential to remission must be connected with a New Baptismal Birth unto Righteousness. The Mithraists carried out this idea by the highly realistic ceremonies of the Taurobolium; the penitent neophyte standing beneath a grating on which the victim was slain, and thus being literally bathed in the atoning blood, afterwards being considered as born again [renatus]. It thus evolved a real and heartfelt devotion to the Supreme Being, whom, however (unlike Christianity), it was willing to worship under the names of the old Pagan Deities; frequently combining their various attributes in joint Personalities of unlimited complexity. One figure has the head of Jupiter, the rays of Phoebus, and the trident of Neptune; another is furnished with the wings of Cupid, the wand of Mercury, the club of Hercules, and the spear of Mars; and so forth. Mithraism thus escaped the persecution which the essential exclusiveness of their Faith drew down upon Christians; gradually transforming by its deeper spirituality the more frigid cults of earlier Paganism, and making them its own. The little band of truly noble men and women who in the latter half of the 4th century made the last stand against the triumph of Christianity over the Roman world were almost all Mithraists. For a good sketch of this interesting development see Dill, 'Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire.']

[Footnote 297: Of the 1200 in the 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' (vol. vii.), 500 are in the section Per Lineam Valli.]

[Footnote 298: 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' vol. vii., No. 759.]

[Footnote 299: Some authorities consider him to have been her own son.]

[Footnote 300: See p. 126.]

[Footnote 301: The Gelt is a small tributary joining the Irthing shortly before the latter falls into the Eden.]

[Footnote 302: Polybius (vi. 24) tells us that in the Roman army of his day a vexillum or manipulum consisted of 200 men under two centurions, each of whom had his optio. Vegetius (II. 1) confines the word vexillatio to the cavalry, but gives no clue as to its strength.]

[Footnote 303: On this inscription see Huebner, C.I.L. vii. 1. A drawing will be found in Bruce's 'Handbook to the Wall' (ed. 1895), p. 23.]

[Footnote 304: The name Cilurnum may be connected with this wealth of water. In modern Welsh celurn = caldron.]

[Footnote 305: "All hast thou won, all hast thou been. Now be God the winner." (These final words are equivocal, in both Latin and English. They might signify, "Now let God be your conqueror," and "Now, thou conqueror, be God," i. e. "die"; for a Roman Emperor was deified at his decease.) Spartianus, 'De Severo,' 22.]

[Footnote 306: Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 22.]

[Footnote 307: See p. 46.]

[Footnote 308: Dio Cassius, lxxvi. 16.]

[Footnote 309: Ibid. lxxvii. I.]

[Footnote 310: In 369. See p. 230.]

[Footnote 311: Constans in 343. See p. 230.]

[Footnote 312: See Bruce, 'Handbook to Wall' (ed. 1895), p. 267.]

[Footnote 313: Such tablets, called tabulae honestae missionis ("certificates of honourable discharge"), were given to every enfranchised veteran, and were small enough to be carried easily on the person. Four others, besides that at Cilurnum, have been found in Britain.]

[Footnote 314: None of the above-mentioned tabulae found are later than A.D. 146, which, so far as it goes, supports the contention that Marcus Aurelius was the real extender of the citizenship; Caracalla merely insisting on the liabilities which every Roman subject had incurred by his rise to this status.]

[Footnote 315: See pp. 175, 176. Only those fairly identifiable are given; the certain in capitals, the highly probable in ordinary type, and the reasonably probable in italics. For a full list of Romano-British place-names, see Pearson, 'Historical Maps of England.']

[Footnote 316: Probus was fond of thus dealing with his captives. He settled certain Franks on the Black Sea, where they seized shipping and sailed triumphantly back to the Rhine, raiding on their way the shores of Asia Minor, Greece, and Africa, and even storming Syracuse. They ultimately took service under Carausius. [See Eumenius, Panegyric on Constantius.] The Vandals he had captured on the Rhine, after their great defeat by Aurelius on the Danube.]

[Footnote 317: This name may also echo some tradition of barbarians from afar having camped there.]

[Footnote 318: Eutropius (A.D. 360), 'Breviarium,' x. 21.]

[Footnote 319: By the analogy of Saxon and of Lombard (Lango-bardi = "Long-spears"), this seems the most probable original derivation of the name. In later ages it was, doubtless, supposed to have to do with frank = free. The franca is described by Procopius ('De Bell. Goth.' ii. 25.), and figures in the Song of Maldon.]

[Footnote 320: See Florence of Worcester (A.D. 1138); also the Song of Beowulf.]

[Footnote 321: Eutropius, ix. 21.]

[Footnote 322: The Franks of Carausius had already swept that sea (see p. 219).]

[Footnote 323: Mamertinus, 'Paneg. in Maximian.']

[Footnote 324: Caesar, originally a mere family name, was adapted first as an Imperial title by the Flavian Emperors.]

[Footnote 325: Henry of Huntingdon makes her the daughter of Coel, King of Colchester; the "old King Cole" of our nursery rhyme, and as mythical as other eponymous heroes. Bede calls her a concubine, a slur derived from Eutropius (A.D. 360), who calls the connection obscurius matrimonium (Brev. x. 1).]

[Footnote 326: Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantine,' c. 8.]

[Footnote 327: Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantius,' c. 6.]

[Footnote 328: Salisbury Plain has been suggested as the field.]

[Footnote 329: The historian Victor, writing about 360 A.D., ascribes the recovery of Britain to this officer rather than to the personal efforts of Constantius. The suggestion in the text is an endeavour to reconcile his statement with the earlier panegyrics of Eumenius.]

[Footnote 330: See p. 59. An inscription found near Cirencester proves that place to have been in Britannia Prima. It is figured by Haverfield ('Eng. Hist. Rev.' July 1896), and runs as follows: Septimius renovat Primae Provinciae Rector Signum et erectam prisca religione columnam. This is meant for two hexameter lines, and refers to Julian's revival of Paganism (see p. 233).]

[Footnote 331: Specimens of these are given by Harnack in the 'Theologische Literaturzeitung' of January 20 and March 17, 1894.]

[Footnote 332: See Sozomen, 'Hist. Eccl.' I, 6.]

[Footnote 333: See p. 123.]

[Footnote 334: The name commonly given to the really unknown author of the 'History of the Britons.' He states that the tombstone of Constantius was still to be seen in his day, and gives Mirmantum or Miniamantum as an alternative name for Segontium. Bangor and Silchester are rival claimants for the name, and one 13th-century MS. declares York to be signified.]

[Footnote 335: The Sacred Monogram known as Labarum. Both name and emblem were very possibly adapted from the primitive cult of the Labrys, or Double Axe, filtered through Mithraism. The figure is never found as a Christian emblem before Constantine, though it appears as a Heathen symbol upon the coinage of Decius (A.D. 250). See Parsons, 'Non-Christian Cross,' p. 148.]

[Footnote 336: Hilary (A.D. 358), 'De Synodis,' Sec. 2.]

[Footnote 337: Ammianus Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XX. I.]

[Footnote 338: Jerome calls her "fertilis tyrannorum provincia." ['Ad Ctesiph.' xliii.] It is noteworthy that in all ecclesiastical notices of this period Britain is always spoken of as a single province, in spite of Diocletian's reforms.]

[Footnote 339: See p. 202.]

[Footnote 340: These Scotch pirate craft (as it would seem) are described by Vegetius (A.D. 380) as skiffs (scaphae), which, the better to escape observation, were painted a neutral tint all over, ropes and all, and were thus known as Picts. The crews were dressed in the same colour—like our present khaki. These vessels were large open boats rowing twenty oars a side, and also used sails. The very scientifically constructed vessels which have been found in the silt of the Clyde estuary may have been Picts. See p. 80.]

[Footnote 341: Henry of Huntingdon, 'History of the English,' ii. I.]

[Footnote 342: Murat, CCLXIII. 4.]

[Footnote 343: See p. 225.]

[Footnote 344: Jerome, in his treatise against Jovian, declares that he could bear personal testimony to this.]

[Footnote 345: See p. 194.]

[Footnote 346: Marcellinus dwells upon the chopping seas which usually prevailed in the Straits; and of the rapid tide, which is also referred to by Ausonius (380), "Quum virides algas et rubra corallia nudat Aestus," etc.]

[Footnote 347: To him is probably due the reconstruction of the "Vallum" as a defence against attacks from the south, such as the Scots were now able to deliver. See p. 207.]

[Footnote 348: Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XXVIII. 3. See p. 202.]

[Footnote 349: 'De Quarto Consulatu Honorii,' I. 31.]

[Footnote 350: Theodosius married Galla, daughter of Valentinian I.]

[Footnote 351: For the later migrations to Brittany see Elton's 'Origins,' p. 350. Samson, Archbishop of York, is said to have fled thither in 500, and settled at Dol. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of Britons settled by the Loire.]

[Footnote 352: 'In Primum Consulatum Stilichonis,' II. 247.]

[Footnote 353: Alone amongst the legions it is not mentioned in the 'Notitia' as attached to any province.]

[Footnote 354: 'Epithalamium Paladii,' 85.]

[Footnote 355: The first printed edition was published 1552.]

[Footnote 356: See p. 90.]

[Footnote 357: Portus Adurni. Some authorities, however, hold this to be Shoreham, others Portsmouth, others Aldrington. The remaining posts are less disputed. They were Branodunum (Brancaster), Garianonum (Yarmouth), Othona (Althorne[?] in Essex), Regulbium (Reculver), Rutupiae (Richborough), Lemanni (Lyminge), Dubris (Dover), and Anderida.]

[Footnote 358: There were six "Counts" altogether in the Western Empire, and twelve "Dukes." Both Counts and Dukes were of "Respectable" rank, the second in the Diocletian hierarchy.]

[Footnote 359: See p. 237.]

[Footnote 360: This word, however, may perhaps signify Imperial rather than London.]

[Footnote 361: Olympiodorus (A.D. 425).]

[Footnote 362: 'Hist. Nov.' vi. 10. He is a contemporary authority.]

[Footnote 363: Tennyson, 'Guinevere,' 594. The dragon standard first came into use amongst the Imperial insignia under Augustus, and the red dragon is mentioned by Nennius as already the emblem of Briton as opposed to Saxon. The mediaeval Welsh poems speak of the legendary Uther, father of Arthur, as "Pendragon," equivalent to Head-Prince, of Britain.]

[Footnote 364: See Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' pp. 116, 136.]

[Footnote 365: Gildas (xxiii,) so calls him.]

[Footnote 366: "The groans of the Britons" are said by Bede to have been forwarded to Aetius "thrice Consul," i.e. in 446, on the eve of the great struggle with Attila.]

[Footnote 367: Nennius (xxviii.) so calls them, and they are commonly supposed to have been clinker-built like the later Viking ships. But Sidonius Apollinaris (455) speaks of them as a kind of coracle. See p. 37.

"Quin et Armorici piratam Saxona tractus Sperabant, cui pelle salum sulcare Britannum Ludus, et assuto glaucum mare findere lembo."

('Carm.' vii. 86.)]

[Footnote 368: See Elton, 'Origins,' ch. xii.]

[Footnote 369: Henry of Huntingdon, 'Hist. of the English,' ii. 1.]

[Footnote 370: Nennius, xlix. This is the reading of the oldest MSS.; others are Nimader sexa and Enimith saxas. The regular form would be Nimap eowre seaxas.]

[Footnote 371: A coin of Valentinian was discovered in the Cam valley in 1890. On the reverse is a Latin Cross surrounded by a laurel wreath.]

[Footnote 372: Cymry signifies confederate, and was the name (quite probably an older racial appellation revived) adopted by the Western Britons in their resistance to the Saxon advance.]

[Footnote 373: Arthur is first mentioned (in Nennius and the 'Life of Gildas') as a Damnonian "tyrant" (i.e. a popular leader with no constitutional status), fighting against "the kings of Kent." This notice must be very early—before the West Saxons came in between Devon and the Kentish Jutes. His early date is confirmed by his mythical exploits being located in every Cymric region—Cornwall, Wales, Strathclyde, and even Brittany.]

[Footnote 374: The ambition of Henry V. for Continental dominion was undoubtedly thus quickened.]

[Footnote 375: Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' iv. 20.]

[Footnote 376: These presumably represent the Saxons, who were next-door neighbours to the Frisians of Holland. But Mr. Haverfield's latest (1902) map makes Frisians by name occupy Lothian.]

[Footnote 377: Ptolemy's map shows how this error arose; Scotland, by some extraordinary blunder, being therein represented as an eastward extension at right angles to England, with the Mull of Galloway as its northernmost point.]

[Footnote 378: This fable probably arose from the mythical visit of Ulysses (see p. 64 n.), who, as Claudian ('In Rut.' i. 123) tells, here found the Mouth of Hades.]

[Footnote 379: Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' ii. 6.]

[Footnote 380: See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 6.]

[Footnote 381: See p. 175.]

[Footnote 382: See p. 168.]

[Footnote 383: 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,' A. 491: "This year Ella and Cissa stormed Anderida and slew all that dwelt therein, so that not one Briton was there left."]

[Footnote 384: Chester itself, one of the last cities to fall, is called "a waste chester" as late as the days of Alfred ('A.-S. Chron.,' A. 894).]

[Footnote 385: In the districts conquered after the Conversion of the English there was no such extermination, the vanquished Britons being fellow-Christians.]

[Footnote 386: For the British survival in the Fenland see my 'History of Cambs.,' III., Sec. 11.]

[Footnote 387: Romano-British relics have been found in the Victoria Cave, Settle.]

[Footnote 388: 'Comm. on Ps. CXVI.' written about 420 A.D.]

[Footnote 389: 'Epist. ad. Corinth.' 5.]

[Footnote 390: Catullus, in the Augustan Age, refers to Britain as the "extremam Occidentis," and Aristides (A.D. 160) speaks of it as "that great island opposite Iberia."]

[Footnote 391: 'Menol. Graec.,' June 29. A suspiciously similar passage (on March 15) speaks of British ordinations by Aristobulus, the disciple of St. Paul.]

[Footnote 392: Nero. This would be A.D. 66.]

[Footnote 393: It is less generally known than it should be that the head of St. Paul as well as of St. Peter has always figured on the leaden seal attached to a Papal Bull.]

[Footnote 394: Tennyson, 'Holy Grail,' 53. This thorn, a patriarchal tree of vast dimensions, was destroyed during the Reformation. But many of its descendants exist about England (propagated from cuttings brought by pilgrims), and still retain its unique season for flowering. In all other respects they are indistinguishable from common thorns.]

[Footnote 395: See also William of Malmesbury, 'Hist. Regum,' Sec. 20.]

[Footnote 396: See p. 62.]

[Footnote 397: See Introduction to Tennyson's 'Holy Grail' (G.C. Macaulay), p. xxix.]

[Footnote 398: See Bp. Browne, 'Church before Augustine,' p. 46.]

[Footnote 399: Chaucer, 'Sumpnour's Tale.']

[Footnote 400: Epig. xi. 54: "Claudia coeruleis ... Rufina Britannis Edita."]

[Footnote 401: See p. 141.]

[Footnote 402: Epig. v. 13.]

[Footnote 403: Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiii. 32.]

[Footnote 404: See p. 69.]

[Footnote 405: Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 110. The house was bought by Pudens from Aquila and Priscilla, and made a titular church by Pius I.]

[Footnote 406: Homily 4 on Ezechiel, 6 on St. Luke.]

[Footnote 407: 'Adversus Judaeos,' c. 7.]

[Footnote 408: 'Eccl. Hist.' iv.]

[Footnote 409: Pope from 177-191.]

[Footnote 410: Haddan and Stubbs, i. 25. The 'Catalogus' was composed early in the 4th century, but the incident is a later insertion.]

[Footnote 411: See p. 225.]

[Footnote 412: He is mentioned by Gildas, along with Julius and Aaron of Caerleon. These last were already locally canonized in the 9th century, as the 'Liber Landavensis' testifies; and the sites of their respective churches could still be traced, according to Bishop Godwin, in the 17th century.]

[Footnote 413: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelfius of "Colonia Londinensium." The last word is an obvious misreading. Haddan and Stubbs ('Concilia,' p. 7) suggest Legionensium, i.e. Caerleon.]

[Footnote 414: It is more reasonable to assume this than to imagine, with Mr. French, that these three formed the entire British episcopate. And there is reason to suppose that York, London, and Caerleon were metropolitan sees.]

[Footnote 415: Canon x.: De his qui conjuges suas in adulterio deprehendunt, et iidem sunt fideles, et prohibentur nubere; Placuit ... ne viventibus uxoribus suis, licet adulteris, alias accipiant. [Haddan, 'Concilia,' p. 7.]]

[Footnote 416: 'Ad Jovian' (A.D. 363).]

[Footnote 417: 'Contra Judaeos' (A.D. 387).]

[Footnote 418: 'Serm. de Util. Lect. Script.']

[Footnote 419: Hom. xxviii., in II. Corinth.]

[Footnote 420: This text seems from very early days to have been a sort of Christian watchword (being, as it were, an epitome of the Faith). The Coronation Oath of our English Kings is still, by ancient precedent, administered on this passage, i.e. the Book is opened for the King's kiss at this point. In mediaeval romance we find the words considered a charm against ghostly foes; and to this day the text is in use as a phylactery amongst the peasantry of Ireland.]

[Footnote 421: Ep. xlix. ad Paulinum. These pilgrimages are also mentioned by Palladius (420) and Theodoret (423).]

[Footnote 422: Ep. lxxxiv. ad Oceanum.]

[Footnote 423: Ep. ci. ad Evang.]

[Footnote 424: Whithern (in Latin Casa Candida) probably derived its name from the white rough-casting with which the dark stone walls of this church were covered, a strange sight to Pictish eyes, accustomed only to wooden buildings.]

[Footnote 425: The practice, now so general, of dedicating a church to a saint unconnected with the locality, was already current at Rome. But hitherto Britain had retained the more primitive habit, by which (if a church was associated with any particular name) it was called after the saint who first built or used it, or, like St. Alban's, the martyr who suffered on the spot. Besides Whithern, the church of Canterbury was dedicated about this time to St. Martin, showing the close ecclesiastical sympathy between Gaul and Britain.]

[Footnote 426: The cave is on the northern shore of the Thuner-See, near Sundlauenen. Beatus is said to have introduced sailing into the Oberland by spreading his mantle to the steady breeze which blows down the lake by night and up it during the day. The name of Justus is preserved in the Justis-thal near Merlingen.]

[Footnote 427: This name is merely the familiar Welsh Morgan, which signifies sea-born, done into Greek.]

[Footnote 428: See Orosius, 'De Arbit. Lib.,' and other authorities in Haddan and Stubbs.]

[Footnote 429: Sidonius, Ep. ix. 3.]

[Footnote 430: Constantius, the biographer of Germanus, says they were sent by a Council of Gallican Bishops; but Prosper of Aquitaine (who was in Rome at the time) declares they were commissioned by Pope Celestine. Both statements are probably true.]

[Footnote 431: The lives of Germanus, Patrick, and Ninias will be found in a trustworthy and well-told form in Miss Arnold-Foster's 'Studies in Church Dedication.']

[Footnote 432: See p. 185.]

[Footnote 433: Bede, 'Eccl. Hist.' I. xxvi.]

[Footnote 434: Many existing churches are more or less built of Roman material. The tower of St. Albans is a notable example, and that of Stoke-by-Nayland, near Colchester. At Lyminge, near Folkestone, so much of the church is thus constructed that many antiquaries have believed it to be a veritable Roman edifice.]

[Footnote 435: See Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 115.]

[Footnote 436: At Frampton, near Dorchester, and Chedworth, near Cirencester, stones bearing the Sacred Monogram have been found amongst the ruins of Roman "villas."]

[Footnote 437: The British rite was founded chiefly on the Gallican, and differed from the Roman in the mode of administering baptism, in certain minutiae of the Mass, in making Wednesday as well as Friday a weekly fast, in the shape of the sacerdotal tonsure, in the Kalendar (especially with regard to the calculation of Easter), and in the recitation of the Psalter. From Canon XVI. of the Council of Cloveshoo (749) it appears that the observance of the Rogation Days constituted another difference.]

[Footnote 438: The Mission of St. Columba the Irishman to Britain was a direct result of the Mission of St. Patrick the Briton to Ireland.]

[Footnote 439: Magna Charta opens with the words Ecclesia Anglicana libera sit; and the Barons who won it called themselves "The Army of the Church."]

THE END