THE "GLORIOUS REVOLUTION"

The revolution of 1688-89 A.D. thus struck a final blow at absolutism and divine right in England. An English king became henceforth the servant of Parliament, holding office only on good behavior. An act of Parliament had made him and an act of Parliament might depose him. It is well to remember, however, that the revolution was not a popular movement. It was a successful struggle for parliamentary supremacy on the part of the upper and middle classes—the nobles, squires, merchants, and clergy. England now had a "limited" or "constitutional" monarchy controlled by the aristocracy. Not till the nineteenth century did the common people succeed in establishing a really democratic government in England.

249. ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

SOCIAL ENGLAND

The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded five millions, of whom at least two-thirds lived in the country. Except for London there were only four towns of more than ten thousand inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and chocolate competed with wine, ale, and beer as beverages; the first newspapers appeared, generally in weekly editions; amusements multiplied; and passenger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers. The traveler found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and the absence of canals. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive, and in remote country districts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the metropolis.



ECONOMIC ENGLAND

As the population of England increased, old industries developed and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk flourished after the influx of Huguenots which followed the revocation [29] of the Edict of Nantes. The absence of large textile mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives. The vast mineral deposits, which in later times became the main source of England's prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep and cattle still remained the principal occupations. But agriculture was retarded by the old system of common tillage and open fields, just as industry was fettered by the trade monopoly of the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared.



SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance in science. At this time Harvey revealed the circulation of the blood. [30] Napier, a Scotchman, invented logarithms, which lie at the basis of the higher mathematics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the "father of modern chemistry," so many were his researches in that field of knowledge. Far greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation and the differential calculus. During the Civil War a group of students interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Society. It still exists and enrolls among its members the most distinguished scientists of England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration. Altogether much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature.



PROGRESS OF ART

Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were welcomed there. Among architects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building. [31] A great fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well as St. Paul's Cathedral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral bears the famous inscription: Si monumentum requieris, circumspice: "If you seek his monument, look around you."

LITERATURE

English literature in the seventeenth century covered many fields. Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief literary ornaments of the Elizabethan Age, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 A.D. appeared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King James Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The simplicity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been excelled, and it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English- speaking world. [32] The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of Paradise Lost during the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal Pilgrim's Progress, a book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a few of the eminent poets and prose writers of the age.

POSITION OF ENGLAND

Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth century formed a noteworthy period in English history. England until this time had been, on the whole, a follower rather than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check administered to the aggressive designs of Louis XIV were so many indications that England had risen to a place of first importance in European affairs. During this century, too, the American colonies of England began to lay the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New World.

STUDIES

1. Give dates for (a) Peace of Utrecht, (b) execution of Charles I, (c) the "Glorious Revolution," and (d) revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

2. For what were the following men notable: Pym; Bossuet; duke of Marlborough; Louvois; Hampden; Mazarin; William III; and Colbert?

3. Explain and illustrate the following terms: (a) balance of power; (b) budget system; (c) absolutism; (d) writ of habeas corpus; (e) militarism; (f) "ship money," and (g) Star Chamber.

4. Compare the theory of the divine right of kings with the medieval theory of the papal supremacy.

5. In what European countries do kings still rule by divine right?

6. What is the essential distinction between a "limited" or "constitutional" monarchy and an "absolute" or "autocratic" monarchy?

7. Why is it very desirable for the United States to adopt the budget system?

8. After what French king was Louisiana named?

9. Why did the French language in the seventeenth century become the language of fashion and diplomacy? Is this still the case?

10. "The age of Louis XIV in France is worthy to stand by the side of the age of Pericles in Greece and of Augustus in Italy." Does this statement appear to be justified?

11. How does the preservation of the balance of power help to explain the Great European War?

12. By reference to the map on page 699 show how far the "natural boundaries" of France were attained during the reign of Louis XIV.

13. How did the condition of Germany after 1648 A.D. facilitate the efforts of Louis XIV to extend the French frontiers to the Rhine?

14. Show that in the Peace of Utrecht nearly all the contestants profited at the expense of Spain.

15. Explain: "Rump Parliament"; "Pride's Purge"; the "New Model"; the "Ironsides"; "Cavalier"; and "Roundhead."

16. What circumstances gave rise to (a) the Petition of Right; (b) the Institute of Government; (c) the Habeas Corpus Act; and (d) the Bill of Rights?

17. Why were the reformers within the Church of England called "Puritans"?

18. Contrast the Commonwealth as a national republic with the Athenian and Roman city-states, the medieval Italian cities, the Swiss Confederation, and the United Netherlands.

19. Under what circumstances does the Constitution of the United States provide for the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus?

20. Why has the Bill of Rights been called the "third great charter of English liberty"?

21. Show that the revolution of 1688 A.D. was a "preserving" and not a "destroying" revolution.

22. How did the revolution of 1688 A.D. affect the fortunes of Louis XIV?

23. Why did it prove more difficult to establish a despotic monarchy in England than in France during the seventeenth century?

24. What is the present population of England? of "Greater London?"

FOOTNOTES

[1] Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxv, "Characters and Episodes of the Great Rebellion"; chapter xxvi, "Oliver Cromwell"; chapter xxvii, "English Life and Manners under the Restoration"; chapter xxviii, "Louis XIV and his Court."

[2] Hamlet, iv, Y,123.

[3] King Richard the Second, in, ii, 54-57.

[4] Politics as derived from the Very Words of the Holy Scriptures. This work was prepared for the use of the young son of Louis XIV, the French king.

[5] See pages 682, 684.

[6] "L'Etat, c'est moi."

[7] See page 514, 515.

[8] See page 681.

[9] See page 597, note 4.

[10] See page 601.

[11] See page 573.

[12] In America the war was known as "King William's War."

[13] In 1689 A.D. he ascended the English throne as William III. See page 720.

[14] In America the war was known as "Queen Anne's War."

[15] See page 315, note 2

[16] His great-grandson, then a child of five years. The reign of Louis XV covered the period 1715-1774 A.D.

[17] See pages 518-519, 658, 675-676.

[18] See page 507.

[19] See page 511, note 1, 676 and note 1.

[20] See page 505.

[21] See page 657, 664, note 1, 676.

[22] So called, because some of them wore closely cropped hair, in contrast to the flowing locks of the "Cavaliers."

[23] Also called Separatists, and later known as Congregationalists.

[24] See pages 511, 676.

[25] Or Noncomformists. This name is still applied to English Protestants not members of the Anglican Church.

[26] A Latin phrase meaning "You may have the body."

[27] Whig had originally been applied to rebellious Presbyterians in Scotland; Tory had designated Roman Catholic outlaws in Ireland.

[28] See page 701. William had married James's eldest daughter, Mary.

[29] See page 696.

[30] See page 609.

[31] See page 597.

[32] Many important corrections were embodied in the Revised Version, published in 1881-1885 A.D. by a committee of English scholars.



APPENDIX

TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES

Before 1000 B.C., and in some instances even later, nearly all dates must be regarded as merely approximate.

(Specially important dates are in italics)

THE ORIENT

B.C.

3400 Menes, king of Egypt 3000-2500 The pyramid kings 2000 Hammurabi, king of Babylonia 1800-1600 Rule of the Hyksos in Egypt 1292-1225 Rameses II, king of Egypt 1035-925 The undivided Hebrew monarchy Saul, 1035-1015 David, 985-955 Solomon, 955-925 925-722 Kingdom of Israel 925-586 Kingdom of Judea 722-705 Sargon II, king of Assyria 705-681 Sennacherib, king of Assyria 606 Destruction of Nineveh 604-561 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia 553-465 Persian kings Cyrus the Great, 553-529 Cambyses, 529-522 Darius I, 521-485 Xerxes I, 485-465 539 Capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Great

GREECE

B.C.

1600-1100 The Aegean Age 1100-750 Homeric Age 776 First recorded Olympiad 750-500 Period of colonial expansion 594-593 Reforms of Solon 560-527 Tyranny of Pisistratus 508-507 Reforms of Clisthenes 499-493 Ionian Revolt 490 Battle of Marathon 480 Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis 479 Battles of Plataea and Mycale 477-454 Delian League 461-429 Age of Pericles 431-404 The Peloponnesian War 404-371 Spartan supremacy 401-400 Expedition of the "Ten Thousand" 371-362 Supremacy of Thebes 371 Battle of Leuctra 362 Battle of Mantinea 359-336 Philip II, king of Macedonia 338 Battle of Chaeronea 336-323 Reign of Alexander the Great 335 Destruction of Thebes 334 Battle of the Granicus 333 Battle of Issus 332 Siege of Tyre; founding of Alexandria 331 Battle of Arbela 323 Death of Alexander

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

B.C.

753(?) Founding of Rome 753(?)-509(?) Legendary Roman kings 509(?) Establishment of the republic 449 Laws of the Twelve Tables 390(?) Battle of the Allia; capture of Rome by the Gauls 340-338 Latin War; dissolution of the Latin League 327-290 Samnite Wars 281-272 War between Rome and Tarentum; invasion of Pyrrhus 264-241 First Punic War 218-201 Second Punic War 216 Battle of Cannae 202 Battle of Zama 201 Peace between Rome and Carthage 197 Macedonia becomes a dependent ally of Rome 190 Syria becomes a dependent ally of Rome 149-146 Third Punic War 146 Destruction of Carthage and Corinth; Africa and Macedonia become Roman provinces 133 Acquisition of the province of Asia; final subjugation of Spain 133 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus 123-122 Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus 112-106 Jugurthine War 102-101 Invasion of the Germans 90-88 The Social War 88-84 War with Mithridates 83-82 Civil War between Marius and Sulla 82-79 Dictatorship of Sulla 70 Impeachment of Verres 67 Pompey and the war with the pirates 63 Conspiracy of Catiline 60-53 First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 58-50 Conquest of Gaul by Caesar 53 Defeat of Crassus by the Parthians at Carrhae 48 Battle of Pharsalus 44 Assassination of Caesar 43 Second Triumvirate: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian 42 Battles of Philippi 31 Battle of Actium

THE ROMAN EMPIRE

31 B.C.-68 A.D. The Julian and Claudian Caesars Augustus, 31 B.C.-I4 A.D. Tiberius, 14-37 Gaius (Caligula), 37-41 Claudius, 41-54 Nero 54-68 27 Octavian receives the title Augustus 4(?) Birth of Christ

A.D.

43-85 Conquest of Britain 64 The Great Fire in Rome; Nero's persecution of the Christians 68-69 The year of military revolution; Galba, Otho, and Vitellius emperors 69-96 The Flavian Caesars Vespasian, 69-79 Titus, 79-81 Domitian, 81-96 70 Capture of Jerusalem by Titus 79 Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum 96-180 The "Good Emperors" Nerva, 96-98 Trajan, 98-117 Hadrian, 117-138 Antoninus Pius, 138-161 Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 101-106 Conquest of Dacia by Trajan 180-284 The "Soldier Emperors" Commodus, 180-192 Septimius Severus, 193-211 Aurelian, 270-275 212 Edict of Caracalla 227 Rise of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire 284 Reorganization of the Roman Empire by Diocletian 284-395 The "Absolute Emperors" /Diocletian, 284-305 Maximian, 286-305 Constantine I, 306-337 (sole emperor, 324-337) Julian, 361-363 Theodosius I (East), 379-395 311 Edict of Galerius 312 Battle of the Milvian Bridge 313 Edict of Milan 325 Council of Nicaea 326 330 Removal of the capital to Constantinople 376 The Visigoths cross the Danube 378 Battle of Adrianople 395 Death of Theodosius I 410 Capture of Rome by Alaric 415-711 Visigothic kingdom in Spain (in Gaul, 415-507) 429-534 Vandal kingdom in Africa 443-534 Kingdom of the Burgundians 449 Invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons 451 Battle of Chalons 455 Sack of Rome by the Vandals 476 Deposition of Romulus Angustulus

THE MIDDLE AGES

486 Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons 493-553 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy 496 Clovis accepts Christianity 527-565 Justinian, Roman emperor in the East 529(?) Rule of St. Benedict 568-774 Lombards in Italy 590-604 Pontificate of Gregory the Great 597 Augustine's mission to the Anglo-Saxons 610-641 Heraclius, Roman emperor in the East 622 The Hegira 632-661 The "Orthodox Caliphs" 661-750 The Ommiad Caliphs 711 Arabs and Berbers invade Spain 716-717 Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs 732 Battle of Tours 750-1058 The Abbassid Caliphs 768-814 Reign of Charlemagne 800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans 829 England united under Egbert 843 Treaty of Verdun 862(?) Northmen under Ruric settle in Russia 870 Treaty of Mersen 871-901(?) Reign of Alfred the Great 911 Northmen settle in northwestern France (Normandy) 962 Otto the Great crowned Holy Roman Emperor 982 Greenland discovered 987-996 Reign of Hugh Capet 988 Christianity introduced into Russia 1000(?) Vinland discovered 1016 England conquered by Canute 1054 Final rupture of Greek and Roman churches 1066 Battle of Hastings; Norman conquest of England 1066-1087 William I, the Conqueror, king of England 1073-1085 Pontificate of Gregory VII 1077 Humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa 1090-1153 St. Bernard 1095-1291 The Crusades 1095 Council of Clermont 1099 Capture of Jerusalem 1147-1149 Second Crusade 1189-1192 Third Crusade 1202-1204 Fourth Crusade; sack of Constantinople 1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople 1291 Fall of Acre; end of the crusades 1122 Concordat of Worms 1152-1190 Reign of Frederick I, Barbarossa 1154-1189 Henry II, king of England 1180-1223 Philip II, Augustus, king of France 1181(?)-1226 St. Francis of Assisi 1198-1216 Pontificate of Innocent III 1206-1227 Mongol conquests under Jenghiz Khan 1215 Magna Carta 1226-1270 Louis IX, the Saint, king of France 1230 Union of Leon and Castile 1237-1240 Mongol conquest of Russia 1254-1273 The Interregnum 1261 Fall of Latin Empire of Constantinople 1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo 1272-1307 Edward I, king of England 1273 Rudolf of Hapsburg becomes Holy Roman Emperor 1285-1314 Philip IV, the Fair, king of France 1291 First Swiss Confederation 1295 "Model Parliament" of Edward I 1309-1377 "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy 1314 Battle of Bannockburn 1337-1453 Hundred Years' War 1346 Battle of Crecy 1356 Battle of Poitiers 1429 Joan of Arc appears 1348-1349 Black Death in Europe 1378-1417 The "Great Schism" 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England 1396 Greek first taught at Florence 1405 Death of Timur the Lame 1415 John Huss burned

TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES

1453 Constantinople captured by the Ottoman Turks 1455-1485 War of the Roses 1461-1483 Louis XI, king of France 1462-1505 Ivan III, the Great, tsar of Russia 1476 Caxton's printing press set up in England 1479 Castile and Aragon united under Ferdinand and Isabella 1485-1509 Henry VII, king of England 1488 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz 1492 America discovered by Columbus 1497 North America rediscovered by John Cabot 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India 1513 Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa 1517-1555 Reformation in Germany 1517 The Ninety-five Theses 1520 Burning of the papal bull 1521 Edict of Worms 1555 Peace of Augsburg 1519-1521 Mexico conquered by Cortes 1519-1522 Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe 1519-1556 Reign of Charles V 1531-1537 Peru conquered by Pizarro 1533-1558 Reformation in England 1534 Jesuit order founded by Loyola 1545-1563 Council of Trent 1556-1598 Reign of Philip II 1558-1603 Elizabeth, queen of England 1568-1609 Revolt of the Netherlands 1571 Battle of Lepanto 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 1579 Union of Utrecht 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 1589-1610 Henry IV, king of France 1598 Edict of Nantes 1600 English East India Company chartered 1603-1625 Reign of James I 1607 Colonization of Virginia; Jamestown founded 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War 1625-1649 Reign of Charles I 1628 The Petition of Right 1630-1640 Puritan exodus to Massachusetts 1640 Meeting of the Long Parliament 1642-1649 The Great Rebellion 1643-1715 Louis XIV, king of France 1648 Peace of Westphalia 1649 Execution of Charles I 1649-1660 The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 1651 First Navigation Act 1660 Restoration of Charles II 1688-1689 The "Glorious Revolution" 1692 Salem witchcraft persecution 1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession 1713 Peace of Utrecht 1744-1748 "King George's War" 1754-1763 "French and Indian War" 1763 Peace of Paris

THE END