Having staked these guiding points of the drains, it is advisable to remove all of the 50-foot stakes, as these are of no further use, and would only cause confusion. It will now be easy to set the remaining stakes,—placing one at every 50 feet of the laterals, and at the intersections of all the lines.

A system for marking the stakes is indicated on the map, (in the C series of drains,) which, to avoid the confusion which would result from too much detail on such a small scale, has been carried only to the extent necessary for illustration. The stakes of the line C are marked C1, C2, C3, etc. The stakes of the sub-main C7, are marked C7a, C7b, C7c, etc. The stakes of the lateral which enters this drain at C7a, are marked C7a/1, C7a/2, C7a/3, etc. etc. This system, which connects the lettering of each lateral with its own sub-main and main, is perfectly simple, and avoids the possibility of confusion. The position of the stakes should all be lettered on the map, at the original drawing, and the same designating marks put on the stakes in the field, as soon as set.

Grade Stakes, (pegs about 8 or 10 inches long,) should be placed close at the sides of the marked stakes, and driven nearly their full length into the ground. The tops of these stakes furnish fixed points of elevation from which to take the measurements, and to make the computations necessary to fix the depth of the drain at each stake. If the measurements were taken from the surface of the ground, a slight change of position in placing the instrument, would often make a difference of some inches in the depth of the drain.

*Taking the Levels.*—For accurate work, it is necessary to ascertain the comparative levels of the tops of all of the grade stakes; or the distance of each one of them below an imaginary horizontal plane. This plane, (in which we use only such lines as are directly above the drains,) may be called the "Datum Line." Its elevation should be such that it will be above the highest part of the land, and, for convenience, it is fixed at the elevation of the levelling instrument when it is so placed as to look over the highest part of the field.

Levelling Instruments are of various kinds. The best for the work in hand, is the common railroad level, which is shown in Fig. 6. This is supported on three legs, which bring it to about the level of the eye. Its essential parts are a telescope, which has two cross-hairs intersecting each other in the line of sight, and which may be turned on its pivot toward any point of the horizon; a bubble glass placed exactly parallel to the line of sight, and firmly secured in its position so as to turn with the telescope; and an apparatus for raising or depressing any side of the instrument by means of set-screws. The instrument is firmly screwed to the tripod, and placed at a point convenient for looking over a considerable part of the highest land. By the use of the set-screws, the plane in which the instrument revolves is brought to a level, so that in whatever direction the instrument is pointed, the bubble will be in the center of the glass. The line of sight, whichever way it is turned, is now in our imaginary plane. A convenient position for the instrument in the field under consideration, would be at the point, east of the center, marked K, which is about 3 feet below the level of the highest part of the ground. The telescope should stand about 5 feet above the surface of the ground directly under it.

The Levelling-Rod, (See Fig. 7,) is usually 12 feet long, is divided into feet and hundredths of a foot, and has a movable target which may be placed at any part of its entire length. This is carried by an attendant, who holds it perpendicularly on the top of the grade-stake, while the operator, looking through the telescope, directs him to move the target up and down until its center is exactly in the line of sight. The attendant then reads the elevation, and the operator records it as the distance below the datum-line of the top of the grade-stake. For convenience, the letterings of the stakes should be systematically entered in a small field book, before the work commences, and this should be accompanied by such a sketch of the plan as will serve as a guide to the location of the lines on the ground.

The following is the form of the field book for the main drain C, with the levels recorded:

LETTERING OF THE STAKE. DEPTH FROM DATUM LINE. Silt Basin 18.20 C 1 15.44 C 2 14.36 C 3 12.85 C 4 12.18 C 5 11.79 C 6 11.69 C 7 11.55 C 8 11.37 C 9 11.06 C 10 8.94 C 11 8.52 C 12 7.86 C 13 7.70 C 14 7.39 C 15 7.06 C 16 6.73

The levelling should be continued in this manner, until the grades of all the points are recorded in the field book.



Fig. 21 - PROFILE OF DRAIN C.

Horizontal Scale, 66 ft. to the inch. Vertical Scale, 15 ft. to the inch.

1 to 17. Numbers of Stakes. (82) etc. Distances between Stakes. 18.20 etc. Depths from datum-line to surface. 2.50 etc. Depths of ditch. 20.70 etc. Depths from datum-line to drain.

If, from too great depression of the lower parts of the field, or too great distances for observation, it becomes necessary to take up a new position with the instrument, the new level should be connected, by measurement, with the old one, and the new observations should be computed to the original plane.

It is not necessary that these levels should be noted on the map,—they are needed only for computing the depth of cutting, and if entered on the map, might be mistaken for the figures indicating the depth, which it is more important to have recorded in their proper positions, for convenience of reference during the work.

*The Depth and Grade of the Drains.*—Having now staked out the lines upon the land, and ascertained and recorded the elevations at the different stakes, it becomes necessary to determine at what depth the tile shall be placed at each point, so as to give the proper fall to each line, and to bring all of the lines of the system into accord. As the simplest means of illustrating the principle on which this work should be done, it will be convenient to go through with the process with reference to the main drain C, of the plan under consideration. A profile of this line is shown in Fig. 21, where the line is broken at stake No. 7, and continued in the lower section of the diagram. The topmost line, from "Silt Basin" to "17," is the horizontal datum-line. The numbers above the vertical lines indicate the stakes; the figures in brackets between these, the number of feet between the stakes; and the heavy figures at the left of the vertical lines, the recorded measurements of depth from the datum-line to the surface of the ground, which is indicated by the irregular line next below the datum-line. The vertical measurements are, of course, very much exaggerated, to make the profile more marked, but they are in the proper relation to each other.

The depth at the silt-basin is fixed at 2-1/2 feet (2.50.) The rise is rapid to stake 3, very slight from there to stake 7, very rapid from there to stake 10, a little less rapid from there to stake 11, and still less rapid from there to stake 17.

To establish the grade by the profile alone, the proper course would be to fix the depth at the stakes at which the inclination is to be changed, to draw straight lines between the points thus found, and then to measure the vertical distance from these lines to the line indicating the surface of the ground at the different stakes; thus, fixing the depth at stake 3, at 4 feet and 13 hundredths,(15) the line drawn from that point to the depth of 2.50, at the silt-basin, will be 3 feet and 62 hundredths (3.62) below stake 1, and 3 feet and 92 hundredths (3.92) below stake 2. At stake 7 it is necessary to go sufficiently deep to pass from 7 to 10, without coming too near the surface at 9, which is at the foot of a steep ascent. A line drawn straight from 4.59 feet below stake 10 to 4.17 feet at stake 17, would be unnecessarily deep at 11, 12, 13, and 14; and, consequently it is better to rise to 4.19 feet at 11. So far as this part of the drain is concerned, it would be well to continue the same rise to 12, but, in doing so, we would come too near the surface at 13, 14, and 15; or must considerably depress the line at 16, which would either make a bad break in the fall at that point, or carry the drain too deep at 17.

By the arrangement adopted, the grade is broken at 3, 7, 10, and 11. Between these points, it is a straight line, with the rate of fall indicated in the following table, which commences at the upper end of the drain and proceeds toward its outlet:

FROM STAKE, TO STAKE, DISTANCE. TOTAL FALL. RATE OF DEPTH. DEPTH. FALL. PER 100 FT. No. No. 246 ft. 2.46 ft. 1.09 ft. 17...4.17 11...4.19 ft. ft. No. No. 41 ft. 82 ft. 2.00 ft. 11...4.19 10...4.59 ft. ft. No. No. 91 ft. 2.49 ft. 2.83 ft. 10...4.59 7...4.47 ft. ft. No. No. 173 ft. 96 ft. 56 ft. 7...4.47 3...4.13 ft. ft. No. S. Basin 186 ft. 3.47 ft. 1.87 ft. 3...4.13 2.25 ft. ft.

It will be seen that the fall becomes more rapid as we ascend from stake 7, but below this point it is very much reduced, so much as to make it very likely that silt will be deposited, (see page 91), and the drain, thereby, obstructed. To provide against this, a silt-basin must be placed at this point which will collect the silt and prevent its entrance into the more nearly level tile below. The construction of this silt-basin is more particularly described in the next chapter. From stake 7 to the main silt-basin the fall is such that the drain will clear itself.

The drawing of regular profiles, for the more important drains, will be useful for the purpose of making the beginner familiar with the method of grading, and with the principles on which the grade and depth are computed; and sometimes, in passing over very irregular surfaces, this method will enable even a skilled drainer to hit upon the best adjustment in less time than by computation. Ordinarily, however, the form of computation given in the following table, which refers to the same drain, (C,) will be more expeditious, and its results are mathematically more correct.(16)

Fall. Depth Feet and from Decimals. Datum Line. No. of Distance Per 100 Between To To Depth of Remarks. Stake. Between Feet. Stakes. Drain. Surface. Drain. Stakes. Silt 20.70 18.20 2.50 ft Basin. ft. ft. C. 1. 82 ft. 2 ft. 1.64 ft. 19.06 " 15.44 " 3.48 ft C. 2. 39 ft. do. .78 ft. 18.28 " 14.36 " 3.83 ft C. 3. 65 ft. do. 1.30 16.98 " 12.85 " 4.13 ft ft. C. 4. 51 ft. .56 .28 ft. 16.70 " 12.18 " 4.52 ft C. 5. 43 ft. do. .24 ft. 16.46 " 11.79 " 4.67 ft C. 6. 47 ft. do. .26 ft. 16.20 " 11.69 " 4.51 ft C. 7. 32 ft. do. .18 ft. 16.02 " 11.55 " 4.47 ft Silt-Basin here. Made deep at Nos. 7 and 10 to pass a depression of the surface at No. 9. C. 8. 41 ft. 2.83 1.16 14.86 " 11.37 " 3.49 ft ft. C. 9. 12 ft. do. .34 ft. 14.52 " 11.06 " 3.46 ft C.10. 38 ft. do. .99 ft. 13.53 " 8.94 " 4.59 ft C.11. 41 ft. 2.00 .82 ft. 12.61 " 8.52 " 4.19 ft C.12. 41 ft. 1.09 .44 ft. 12.27 " 7.86 " 4.41 ft C.13. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 11.83 " 7.70 " 4.13 ft C.14. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 11.39 " 7.39 " 4.00 ft C.15. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.95 " 7.06 " 3.89 ft C.16. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.51 " 6.73 " 3.88 ft C.17. 41 ft. do. .44 ft. 10.07 " 5.90 " 4.17 ft

NOTE.—The method of making the foregoing computation is this:

1st. Enter the lettering of the stakes in the first column, commencing at the lower end of the drain.

2d. Enter the distances between each two stakes in the second column, placing the measurement on the line with the number of the upper stake of the two.

3d. In the next to the last column enter, on the line with each stake, its depth below the datum-line, as recorded in the field book of levels, (See page 105.)

4th. On the first line of the last column, place the depth of the lower end of the drain, (this is established by the grade of the main or other outlet at which it discharges.)

5th. Add this depth to the first number of the line next preceding it, and enter the sum obtained on the first line of the fifth column, as the depth of the drain below the datum-line.

6th. Having reference to the grade of the surface, (as shown by the figures in the sixth column,) as well as to any necessity for placing the drain at certain depths at certain places, enter the desired depth, in pencil, in the last column, opposite the stakes marking those places. Then add together this depth and the corresponding surface measurement in the column next preceding, and enter the sum, in pencil, in the fifth column, as the depth from the datum-line to the desired position of the drain. (In the example in hand, these points are at Nos. 3, 7, 10, 11, and 17.)

7th. Subtract the second amount in the fifth column from the first amount for the total fall between the two points—in the example, "3" from "Silt-Basin." Divide this total fall, (in feet and hundredths,) by one hundredth of the total number of feet between them. The result will be the rate of fall per 100 feet, and this should be entered, in the third column, opposite each of the intermediate distances between the points.

Example:

Depth of the Drain at 20.45 feet. the Silt-Basin Depth of the Drain at 16.98 feet. the Stake No. 3 —— Difference 3.47 feet. Distance between the 186.— feet. two

1.86)3.47(1.865 or 1.87

1 86 —— 1 610 1 488 —— 1 220 1 116 —— 1 040 930 —— 110

8th. Multiply the numbers of the second column by those of the third and divide the product by 100. The result will be the amount of fall between the stakes, (fourth column.)—Example: 1.87x82=153/100=1.53.

9th. Subtract the first number of the fourth column from the first number of the fifth column, (on the line above it,) and place the remainder on the next line of the fifth column.—Example: 20.70-1.64= 19.06.

Then, from this new amount, subtract the second number of the fourth column, for the next number of the fifth, and so on, until, in place of the entry in pencil, (Stake 3,) we place the exact result of the computation.

Proceed in like manner with the next interval,—3 to 7.

10th. Subtract the numbers in the sixth column from those in the fifth, and the remainders will be the depths to be entered in the last.

Under the head of "Remarks," note any peculiarity of the drain which may require attention in the field.

The main lines A, D, and E, and the drain B, should next be graded on the plan set forth for C, and their laterals, all of which have considerable fall, and being all so steep as not to require silt-basins at any point,—can, by a very simple application of the foregoing principles, be adjusted at the proper depths. In grading the stone and tile drain, (H, I,) it is only necessary to adopt the depth of the last stakes of the laterals, with which it is connected, as it is immaterial in which direction the water flows. The ends of this drain,—from H to the head of the drain C10, and from I to the head of C17,—should, of course, have a decided fall toward the drains.

The laterals which are placed at intervals of 20 feet, over the underground rock on the east side of the field, should be continued at a depth of about 3 feet for nearly their whole length, dropping in a distance of 8 or 10 feet at their lower ends to the top of the tile of the main. The intervals between the lower ends of C7c, C7d, and C7e, being considerably more than 20 feet, the drains may be gradually deepened, throughout their whole length from 3 feet at the upper ends to the depth of the top of the main at the lower ends.

The main drains F and G, being laid in flat land, their outlets being fixed at a depth of 3.50, (the floor of the main outlet,) and it being necessary to have them as deep as possible throughout their entire length, should be graded with great care on the least admissible fall. This, in ordinary agricultural drainage, may be fixed at .25, or 3 inches, per 100 feet. Their laterals should commence with the top of their 1/4 tile even with the top of the 2-1/2 collar of the main,—or .15 higher than the grade of the main,—and rise, at a uniform inclination of .25, to the upper end.

Having now computed the depth at which the tile is to lie, at each stake, and entered it on the map, we are ready to mark these depths on their respective stakes in the field, when the preliminary engineering of the work will be completed.

It has been deemed advisable in this chapter to consider the smallest details of the work of the draining engineer. Those who intend to drain in the best manner will find such details important. Those who propose to do their work less thoroughly, may still be guided by the principles on which they are based. Any person who will take the pains to mature the plans of his work as closely as has been here recommended, will as a consequence commence his operations in the field much more understandingly. The advantage of having everything decided beforehand,—so that the workmen need not be delayed for want of sufficient directions, and of making, on the map, such alterations as would have appeared necessary in the field, thus saving the cost of cutting ditches in the wrong places, will well repay the work of the evenings of a whole winter.



CHAPTER IV. - HOW TO MAKE THE DRAINS.

Knowing, now, precisely what is to be done; having the lines all staked out, and the stakes so marked as to be clearly designated; knowing the precise depth at which the drain is to be laid, at every point; having the requisite tiles on the ground, and thoroughly inspected, the operator is prepared to commence actual work.

He should determine how many men he will employ, and what tools they will require to work to advantage. It may be best that the work be done by two or three men, or it may be advisable to employ as many as can work without interfering with each other. In most cases,—especially where there is much water to contend with,—the latter course will be the most economical, as the ditches will not be so liable to be injured by the softening of their bottoms, and the caving in of their sides.

*The Tools Required* are a subsoil plow, two garden lines, spades, shovels, and picks; narrow finishing spades, a finishing scoop, a tile pick, a scraper for filling the ditches, a heavy wooden maul for compacting the bottom filling, half a dozen boning-rods, a measuring rod, and a plumb rod. These should all be on hand at the outset, so that no delay in the work may result from the want of them.



Fig. 22 - SET OF TOOLS.

Flat Spades of various lengths and widths, Bill-necked Scoop (A); Tile-layer (B); Pick-axe (C); and Scoop Spades, and Shovel.

Writers on drainage, almost without exception, recommend the use of elaborate sets of tools which are intended for cutting very narrow ditches,—only wide enough at the bottom to admit the tile, and not allowing the workmen to stand in the bottom of the ditch. A set of these tools is shown in Fig. 22.

Possibly there may be soils in which these implements, in the hands of men skilled in their use, could be employed with economy, but they are very rare, and it is not believed to be possible, under any circumstances, to regulate the bottom of the ditch so accurately as is advisable, unless the workman can stand directly upon it, cutting it more smoothly than he could if the point of his tool were a foot or more below the level on which he stands.

On this subject, Mr. J. Bailey Denton, one of the first draining engineers of Great Britain, in a letter to Judge French, says:

"As to tools, it is the same with them as it is with the art of draining itself,—too much rule and too much drawing upon paper; all very right to begin with, but very prejudicial to progress. I employ, as engineer to the General Land Drainage Company, and on my private account, during the drainage season, as many as 2,000 men, and it is an actual fact, that not one of them uses the set of tools figured in print. I have frequently purchased a number of sets of the Birmingham tools, and sent them down on extensive works. The laborers would purchase a few of the smaller tools, such as Nos. 290, 291, and 301, figured in Morton's excellent Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, and would try them, and then order others of the country blacksmith, differing in several respects; less weighty and much less costly, and moreover, much better as working tools. All I require of the cutters, is, that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut, to fit the size of the pipe. The rest of the work takes care of itself; for a good workman will economize his labor for his own sake, by moving as little earth as practicable; thus, for instance, a first-class cutter, in clays, will get down 4 feet with a 12-inch opening, ordinarily; if he wishes to show off, he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance, and will do it with a 10-inch opening."

In the Central Park work, sets of these tools were procured, at considerable expense, and every effort was made to compel the men to use them, but it was soon found that, even in the easiest digging, there was a real economy in using, for the first 3 feet of the ditch, the common spade, pick, and shovel,—finishing the bottoms with the narrow spade and scoop hereafter described, and it is probable that the experience of that work will be sustained by that of the country at large.

*Marking the Lines.*—To lay a drain directly under the position of its stakes, would require that enough earth be left at each point to hold the stake, and that the ditch be tunneled under it. This is expensive and unnecessary. It is better to dig the ditches at one side of the lines of stakes, far enough away for the earth to hold them firmly in their places, but near enough to allow measurements to be taken from the grade pegs. If the ditch be placed always to the right, or always to the left, of the line, and at a uniform distance, the general plan will remain the same, and the lines will be near enough to those marked on the map to be easily found at any future time. In fact, if it be known that the line of tiles is two feet to the right of the position indicated, it will only be necessary, at any time, should it be desired to open an old drain, to measure two feet to the right of the surveyed position to strike the line at once.

In soils of ordinary tenacity, ditches 4 feet deep need not be more than twenty (20) inches wide at the surface, and four (4) inches wide at the bottom. This will allow, in each side, a slope of eight (8) inches, which is sufficient except in very loose soils, and even these may be braced up, if inclined to cave in. There are cases where the soil contains so much running sand, and is so saturated with water, that no precautions will avail to keep up the banks. Ditches in such ground will sometimes fall in, until the excavation reaches a width of 8 or 10 feet. Such instances, however, are very rare, and must be treated as the occasion suggests.

One of the garden lines should be set at a distance of about 6 inches from the row of stakes, and the other at a further distance of 20 inches. If the land is in grass, the position of these lines may be marked with a spade, and they may be removed at once; but, if it is arable land, it will be best to leave the lines in position until the ditch is excavated to a sufficient depth to mark it clearly. Indeed, it will be well to at once remove all of the sod and surface soil, say to a depth of 6 inches, (throwing this on the same side with the stakes, and back of them.) The whole force can be profitably employed in this work, until all of the ditches to be dug are scored to this depth over the entire tract to be drained, except in swamps which are still too wet for this work.

*Water Courses.*—The brooks which carry the water from the springs should be "jumped" in marking out the lines, as it is desirable that their water be kept in separate channels, so far as possible, until the tiles are ready to receive it, as, if allowed to run in the open ditches, it would undermine the banks and keep the bottom too soft for sound work.

With this object, commence at the southern boundary of our example tract, 10 or 15 feet east of the point of outlet, and drive a straight, temporary, shallow ditch to a point a little west of the intersection of the main line D with its first lateral; then carry it in a northwesterly direction, crossing C midway between the silt-basin and stake C 1, and thence into the present line of the brook, turning all of the water into the ditch. A branch of this ditch may be run up between the lines F and G to receive the water from the spring which lies in that direction. This arrangement will keep the water out of the way until the drains are ready to take it.

*The Outlet.*—The water being all discharged through the new temporary ditch, the old brook, beyond the boundary, should be cleared out to the final level (3.75,) and an excavation made, just within the boundary, sufficient to receive the masonry which is to protect the outlet. A good form of outlet is shown in Fig. 23. It may be cheaply made by any farmer, especially if he have good stone at hand;—if not, brick may be used, laid on a solid foundation of stout planks, which, (being protected from the air and always saturated with water,) will last a very long time.



Fig. 23 - OUTLET, SECURED WITH MASONRY AND GRATING.

If made of stone, a solid floor, at least 2 feet square, should be placed at, or below, the level of the brook. If this consist of a single stone, it will be better than if of several smaller pieces. On this, place another layer extending the whole width of the first, but reaching only from its inner edge to its center line, so as to leave a foot in width of the bottom stone to receive the fall of the water. This second layer should reach exactly the grade of the outlet (3.50) or a height of 3 inches from the brook level. On the floor thus made, there should be laid the tiles which are to constitute the outlets of the several drains; i.e., one 3-1/2-inch tile for the line from the silt-basin, two 1-1/4-inch for the lines F and G, and one 2-1/4-inch for the main line E. These tiles should lie close to each other and be firmly cemented together, so that no water can pass outside of them, and a rubble-work of stone may with advantage be carried up a foot above them. Stone work, which may be rough and uncemented, but should always be solid, may then be built up at the sides, and covered with a secure coping of stone. A floor and sloping sides of stone work, jointed with the previously described work, and well cemented, or laid in strong clay or mortar, may, with benefit, be carried a few feet beyond the outlet. This will effectually prevent the undermining of the structure. After the entire drainage of the field is finished, the earth above these sloping sides, and that back of the coping, should be neatly sloped, and protected by sods. An iron grating, fine enough to prevent the entrance of vermin, placed in front of the tile, at a little distance from them,—and secured by a flat stone set on edge and hollowed out, so as merely to allow the water to flow freely from the drains,—the stone being cemented in its place so as to allow no water to pass under it,—will give a substantial and permanent finish to the structure.

An outlet finished in this way, at an extra cost of a few dollars, will be most satisfactory, as a lasting means of securing the weakest and most important part of the system of drains. When no precaution of this sort is taken, the water frequently forces a passage under the tile for some distance up the drains, undermining and displacing them, and so softening the bottom that it will be difficult, in making repairs, to secure a solid foundation for the work. Usually, repairs of this sort, aside from the annoyance attending them, will cost more than the amount required to make the permanent outlet described above. As well constructed outlets are necessarily rather expensive, as much of the land as possible should be drained to each one that it is necessary to make, by laying main lines which will collect all of the water which can be brought to it.

*The Main Silt-Basin.*—The silt-basin, at which the drains are collected, may best be built before any drains are brought to it, and the work may proceed simultaneously with that at the outlet. It should be so placed that its center will lie exactly under the stake which marks its position, because it will constitute one of the leading landmarks for the survey of the drains.(17)

Before removing the stake and grade stake, mark their position by four stakes, set at a distance from it of 4 or 5 feet, in such positions that two lines, drawn from those which are opposite to each other, will intersect at the point indicated; and place near one of them a grade stake, driven to the exact level of the one to be removed. This being done, dig a well, 4 feet in diameter, to a depth of 2-1/2 feet below the grade of the outlet drain, (in the example under consideration this would be 5 feet below the grade stake.) If much water collects in the hole, widen it, in the direction of the outlet drain, sufficiently to give room for baling out the water. Now build, in this well, a structure 2 feet in interior diameter, such as is shown in Fig. 24, having its bottom 2 feet, in the clear, below the grade of the outlet, and carry its wall a little higher than the general surface of the ground. At the proper height insert, in the brick work, the necessary for tiles all incoming and outgoing drains; in this case, a 3-1/2-inch tile for the outlet, 2-1/4-inch for the mains A and C, and 1-1/4-inch for B and D.



Fig. 24 - SILT-BASIN, BUILT TO THE SURFACE.

This basin being finished and covered with a flat stone or other suitable material, connect it with the outlet by an open ditch, unless the bottom of the ditch, when laid open to the proper depth, be found to be of muck or quicksand. In such case, it will be best to lay the tile at once, and cover it in for the whole distance, as, on a soft bottom, it would be difficult to lay it well when the full drainage of the field is flowing through the ditch. The tiles should be laid with all care, on a perfectly regulated fall,—using strips of board under them if the bottom is shaky or soft,—as on this line depends the success of all the drains above it, which might be rendered useless by a single badly laid tile at this point, or by any other cause of obstruction to the flow.

While the work is progressing in the field above, there will be a great deal of muddy water and some sticks, grass, and other rubbish, running from the ditches above the basin, and care must be taken to prevent this drain from becoming choked. A piece of wire cloth, or basket work, placed over the outlet in the basin, will keep out the coarser matters, and the mud which would accumulate in the tile may be removed by occasional flushing. This is done by crowding a tuft of grass,—or a bit of sod,—into the lower end of the tile (at the outlet,) securing it there until the water rises in the basin, and then removing it. The rush of water will be sufficient to wash the tile clean.

This plan is not without objections, and, as a rule, it is never well to lay any tiles at the lower end of a drain until all above it is finished; but when a considerable outlet must be secured through soft land, which is inclined to cave in, and to get soft at the bottom, it will save labor to secure the tile in place before much water reaches it, even though it require a daily flushing to keep it clean.

*Opening the Ditches.*—Thus far it has been sought to secure a permanent outlet, and to connect it by a secure channel, with the silt-basin, which is to collect the water of the different series of drains. The next step is to lay open the ditches for these. It will be best to commence with the main line A and its laterals, as they will take most of the water which now flows through the open brook, and prevent its interference with the rest of the work.

The first work is the opening of the ditches to a depth of about 3 feet, which may be best done with the common spade, pick, and shovel, except that in ground which is tolerably free from stones, a subsoil plow will often take the place of the pick, with much saving of labor. It may be drawn by oxen working in a long yoke, which will allow them to walk one on each side of the ditch, but this is dangerous, as they are liable to disturb the stakes, (especially the grade stakes,) and to break down the edges of the ditches. The best plan is to use a small subsoil plow, drawn by a single horse, or strong mule, trained to walk in the ditch. The beast will soon learn to accommodate himself to his narrow quarters, and will work easily in a ditch 2-1/2 feet deep, having a width of less than afoot at the bottom; of course there must be a way provided for him to come out at each end. Deeper than this there is no economy in using horse power, and even for this depth it will be necessary to use a plow having only one stilt.



Fig. 25 - FINISHING SPADE.

Before the main line is cut into the open brook, this should be furnished with a wooden trough, which will carry the water across it, so that the ditch shall receive only the filtration from the ground. Those laterals west of the main line, which are crossed by the brook, had better not be opened at present,—not until the water of the spring is admitted to and removed by the drain.



Fig. 26 - FINISHING SCOOP.

The other laterals and the whole of the main line, having been cut to a depth of 3 feet, take a finishing spade, (Fig. 25,) which is only 4 inches wide at its point, and dig to within 2 or 3 inches of the depth marked on the stakes, making the bottom tolerably smooth, with the aid of the finishing scoop, (Fig. 26,) and giving it as regular an inclination as can be obtained by the eye alone.



Fig. 27 - BRACING THE SIDES IN SOFT LAND.

If the ground is "rotten," and the banks of the ditches incline to cave in, as is often the case in passing wet places, the earth which is thrown out in digging must be thrown back sufficiently far from the edge to prevent its weight from increasing the tendency; and the sides of the ditch may be supported by bits of board braced apart as is shown in Fig. 27.



Fig. 28 - MEASURING STAFF.

The manner of opening the ditches, which is described above, for the main A and its laterals, will apply to the drains of the whole field and to all similar work.

*Grading the Bottoms.*—The next step in the work is to grade the bottoms of the ditches, so as to afford a bed for the tiles on the exact lines which are indicated by the figures marked on the different stakes.

The manner in which this is to be done may be illustrated by describing the work required for the line from *C10* to *C17*, (Fig. 20,) after it has been opened, as described above, to within 2 or 3 inches of the final depth.

A measuring rod, or square, such as is shown in Fig. 28,(18) is set at *C10*, so that the lower side of its arm is at the mark 4.59 on the staff, (or at a little less than 4.6 if it is divided only into feet and tenths,) and is held upright in the ditch, with its arm directly over the grade stake. The earth below it is removed, little by little, until it will touch the top of the stake and the bottom of the ditch at the same time. If the ground is soft, it should be cut out until a flat stone, a block of wood, or a piece of tile, or of brick, sunk in the bottom, will have its surface at the exact point of measurement. This point is the bottom of the ditch on which the collar of the tile is to lie at that stake. In the same manner the depth is fixed at C11 (4.19,) and C12 (4.41,) as the rate of fall changes at each of these points, and at C15 (3.89,) and C17 (4.17,) because (although the fall is uniform from C12 to C17,) the distance is too great for accurate sighting.



Fig. 29 - BONING ROD.

Having provided boning-rods, which are strips of board 7 feet long, having horizontal cross pieces at their upper ends, (see Fig. 29,) set these perpendicularly on the spots which have been found by measurement to be at the correct depth opposite stakes 10, 11, 12, 15, and 17, and fasten each in its place by wedging it between two strips of board laid across the ditch, so as to clasp it, securing these in their places by laying stones or earth upon their ends.

As these boning-rods are all exactly 7 feet long, of course, a line sighted across their tops will be exactly 7 feet higher, at all points, than the required grade of the ditch directly beneath it, and if a plumb rod, (similar to the boning-rod, but provided with a line and plummet,) be set perpendicularly on any point of the bottom of the drain, the relation of its cross piece to the line of sight across the tops of the boning-rods will show whether the bottom of the ditch at that point is too high, or too low, or just right. The manner of sighting over two boning-rods and an intermediate plumb-rod, is shown in Fig. 31.



Fig. 30 - POSITION OF WORKMAN AND USE OF FINISHING SCOOP.

Three persons are required to finish the bottom of the ditch; one to sight across the tops of the boning-rods, one to hold the plumb-rod at different points as the finishing progresses, and one in the ditch, (see Fig. 30,) provided with the finishing spade and scoop,—and, in hard ground, with a pick,—to cut down or fill up as the first man calls "too high," or, "too low." An inch or two of filling maybe beaten sufficiently hard with the back of the scoop, but if several inches should be required, it should be well rammed with the top of a pick, or other suitable instrument, as any subsequent settling would disarrange the fall.



Fig. 31 - SIGHTING BY THE BONING-RODS.

As the lateral drains are to be laid first, they should be the first graded, and as they are arranged to discharge into the tops of the mains, their water will still flow off, although the main ditches are not yet reduced to their final depth. After the laterals are laid and filled in, the main should be graded, commencing at the upper end; the tiles being laid and covered as fast as the bottom is made ready, so that it may not be disturbed by the water of which the main carries so much more than the laterals.

*Tile-Laying.*—Gisborne says: "It would be scarcely more absurd to set a common blacksmith to eye needles than to employ a common laborer to lay pipes and collars." The work comes under the head of skilled labor, and, while no very great exercise of judgment is required in its performance, the little that is required is imperatively necessary, and the details of the work should be deftly done. The whole previous outlay,—the survey and staking of the field, the purchase of the tiles, the digging and grading of the ditches—has been undertaken that we may make the conduit of earthenware pipes which is now to be laid, and the whole may be rendered useless by a want of care and completeness in the performance of this chief operation. This subject, (in connection with that of finishing the bottoms of the ditches,) is very clearly treated in Mr. Hoskyns' charming essay,(19) as follows:

"It was urged by Mr. Brunel, as a justification for more attention and expense in the laying of the rails of the Great Western, than had been ever thought of upon previously constructed lines, that all the embankments and cuttings, and earthworks and stations, and law and parliamentary expenses—in fact, the whole of the outlay encountered in the formation of a railway, had for its main and ultimate object a perfectly smooth and level line of rail; that to turn stingy at this point, just when you had arrived at the great ultimatum of the whole proceedings, viz: the iron wheel-track, was a sort of saving which evinced a want of true preception of the great object of all the labor that had preceded it. It may seem curious to our experiences, in these days, that such a doctrine could ever have needed to be enforced by argument; yet no one will deem it wonderful who has personally witnessed the unaccountable and ever new difficulty of getting proper attention paid to the leveling of the bottom of a drain, and the laying of the tiles in that continuous line, where one single depression or irregularity, by collecting the water at that spot, year after year, tends toward the eventual stoppage of the whole drain, through two distinct causes, the softening of the foundation underneath the sole, or tile flange, and the deposit of soil inside the tile from the water collected at the spot, and standing there after the rest had run off. Every depression, however slight, is constantly doing this mischief in every drain where the fall is but trifling; and if to the two consequences above mentioned, we may add the decomposition of the tile itself by the action of water long stagnant within it, we may deduce that every tile-drain laid with these imperfections in the finishing of the bottom, has a tendency toward obliteration, out of all reasonable proportion with that of a well-burnt tile laid on a perfectly even inclination, which, humanly speaking, may be called a permanent thing. An open ditch cut by the most skillful workman, in the summer, affords the best illustration of this underground mischief. Nothing can look smoother and more even than the bottom, until that uncompromising test of accurate levels, the water, makes its appearance: all on a sudden the whole scene is changed, the eye-accredited level vanishes as if some earthquake had taken place: here, there is a gravelly scour, along which the stream rushes in a thousand little angry-looking ripples; there, it hangs and looks as dull and heavy as if it had given up running at all, as a useless waste of energy; in another place, a few dead leaves or sticks, or a morsel of soil broken from the side, dams back the water for a considerable distance, occasioning a deposit of soil along the whole reach, greater in proportion to the quantity and the muddiness of the water detained. All this shows the paramount importance of perfect evenness in the bed on which the tiles are laid. The worst laid tile is the measure of the goodness and permanence of the whole drain, just as the weakest link of a chain is the measure of its strength."

The simple laying of the smaller sizes of pipes and collars in the lateral drains, is an easy matter. It requires care and precision in placing the collar equally under the end of each pipe, (having the joint at the middle of the collar,) in having the ends of the pipes actually touch each other within the collars, and in brushing away any loose dirt which may have fallen on the spot on which the collar is to rest. The connection of the laterals with the mains, the laying of the larger sizes of tiles so as to form a close joint, the wedging of these larger tiles firmly into their places, and the trimming which is necessary in going around sharp curves, and in putting in the shorter pieces which are needed to fill out the exact length of the drain, demand more skill and judgment than are often found in the common ditcher. Still, any clever workman, who has a careful habit, may easily be taught all that is necessary; and until he is thoroughly taught,—and not only knows how to do the work well, but, also, understands the importance of doing it well,—the proprietor should carefully watch the laying of every piece.

Never have tiles laid by the rod, but always by the day. "The more haste, the less speed," is a maxim which applies especially to tile-laying.

If the proprietor or the engineer does not overlook the laying of each tile as it is done, and probably he will not, he should carefully inspect every piece before it is covered. It is well to walk along the ditches and touch each tile with the end of a light rod, in such a way as to see whether it is firm enough in its position not to be displaced by the earth which will fall upon it in filling the ditches.

Preparatory to laying, the tiles should be placed along one side of the ditch, near enough to be easily reached by a man standing in it. When collars are to be used, one of these should be slipped over one end of each tile. The workman stands in the ditch, with his face toward its upper end. The first tile is laid with a collar on its lower end, and the collar is drawn one-half of its length forward, so as to receive the end of the next tile. The upper end of the first tile is closed with a stone, or a bit of broken tile placed firmly against it. The next tile has its nose placed into the projecting half of the collar of the first one, and its own collar is drawn forward to receive the end of the third, and thus to the end of the drain, the workman walking backward as the work progresses. By and by, when he comes to connect the lateral with the main, he may find that a short piece of tile is needed to complete the length; this should not be placed next to the tile of the main, where it is raised above the bottom of the ditch, but two or three lengths back, leaving the connection with the main to be made with a tile of full length. If the piece to be inserted is only two or three inches long, it may be omitted, and the space covered by using a whole 21/2-inch tile in place of the collar. In turning corners or sharp curves, the end of the tile may be chipped off, so as to be a little thinner on one side, which will allow it to be turned at a greater angle in the collar.

If the drain turns a right angle, it will be better to dig out the bottom of the ditch to a depth of about eight inches, and to set a 6-inch tile on end in the hole, perforating its sides, so as to admit the ends of the pipes at the proper level. This 6-inch tile, (which acts as a small silt-basin,) should stand on a board or on a flat stone, and its top should be covered with a stone or with a couple of bricks. Wood will last almost forever below the level of the drain, where it will always be saturated with water, but in the drier earth above the tile, it is much more liable to decay.



Fig. 32 - PICK FOR DRESSING AND PREFORATING TILE.

The trimming and perforating of the tile is done with a "tile-pick," (Fig. 32,) the hatchet end, tolerably sharp, being used for the trimming, and the point, for making the holes. This is done by striking lightly around the circumference of the hole until the center piece falls in, or can be easily knocked in. If the hole is irregular, and does not fit the tile nicely, the open space should be covered with bits of broken tile, to keep the earth out.

As fast as the laterals are laid and inspected, they should be filled in to the depth of at least a foot, to protect the tiles from being broken by the falling of stones or lumps of earth from the top, and from being displaced by water flowing in the ditch. Two or three feet of the lower end may be left uncovered until the connection with the main is finished.

In the main drains, when the tiles are of the size with which collars are used, the laying is done in the same manner. If it is necessary to use 3-1/2-inch tiles, or any larger size, much more care must be given to the closing of the joints. All tiles, in manufacture, dry more rapidly at the top, which is more exposed to the air, than at the bottom, and they are, therefore, contracted and made shorter at the top. This difference is most apparent in the larger sizes. The large round tiles, which can be laid on any side, can easily be made to form a close joint, and they should be secured in their proper position by stones or lumps of earth, wedged in between them and the sides of the ditch. The sole tiles must lie with the shortest sides up, and, usually, the space between two tiles, at the top, will be from one-quarter to one-half of an inch. To remedy this defect, and form a joint which may he protected against the entrance of earth, the bottom should he trimmed off, so as to allow the tops to come closer together. Any opening, of less than a quarter of an inch, can he satisfactorily covered,—more than that should not be allowed. In turning corners, or in passing around curves, with large tiles, their ends must he beveled off with the pick, so as to fit nicely in this position.

The best covering for the joints of tiles which are laid without collars, is a scrap of tin, bent so as to fit their shape,—scraps of leather, or bits of strong wood shavings, answer a very good purpose, though both of these latter require to be held in place by putting a little earth over their ends as soon as laid on the tile. Very small grass ropes drawn over the joints, (the ends being held down with stones or earth,) form a satisfactory covering, but care should be taken that they be not too thick. A small handful of wood shavings, thrown over the joints, also answers a good purpose. Care, however, should always be taken, in using any material which will decay readily, to have no more than is necessary to keep the earth out, lest, in its decay, it furnish material to be carried into the tile and obstruct the flow. This precaution becomes less necessary in the case of drains which always carry considerable streams of water, but if they are at times sluggish in their flow, too much care cannot be given to keep them free of all possible causes of obstruction. As nothing is gained by increasing the quantity of loose covering beyond what is needed to close the joints, and as such covering is only procured with some trouble, there is no reason for its extravagant use.

There seems to remain in the minds of many writers on drainage a glimmering of the old fallacy that underdrains, like open drains, receive their water from above, and it is too commonly recommended that porous substances be placed above the tile. If, as is universally conceded, the water rises into the tile from below, this is unnecessary. The practice of covering the joints, and even covering the whole tile, (often to the depth of a foot,) with tan-bark, turf, coarse gravel, etc., is in no wise to be commended; and, while the objections to it are not necessarily very grave in all cases, it always introduces an element of insecurity, and it is a waste of money, if nothing worse.

The tile layer need not concern himself with the question, of affording entrance room for the water. Let him, so far as the rude materials at hand will allow, make the joints perfectly tight, and when the water comes, it will find ample flaws in his work, and he will have been a good workman if it do not find room to flow in a current, carrying particles of dirt with it.

In ditches in which water is running at the time of laying the tiles, the process should follow closely after the grading, and the stream may even be dammed back, section after section, (a plugged tile being placed under the dam, to be afterwards replaced by a free one,) and graded, laid and covered before the water breaks in. There is one satisfaction in this kind of work,—that, while it is difficult to lay the drain so thoroughly well as in a dry ditch, the amount of water is sufficient to overcome any slight tendency to obstruction.

*Connections.*—As has been before stated, lateral drains should always enter at the top of the main. Even in the most shallow work, the slightly decreased depth of the lateral, which this arrangement requires, is well compensated for by the free outlet which it secures.

After the tile of the main, which is to receive a side drain, has been fitted to its place, and the point of junction marked, it should be taken up and perforated; then the end of the tile of the lateral should be so trimmed as to fit the hole as accurately as may be, the large tile replaced in its position, and the small one laid on it,—reaching over to the floor of the lateral ditch. Then connect it with the lateral as previously laid, fill up solidly the space under the tile which reaches over to the top of the main, (so that it cannot become disturbed in filling,) and lay bits of tile, or other suitable covering, around the connecting joint.(20)



Fig. 33 - LATERAL DRAIN ENTERING AT TOP.

When the main drain is laid with collars, it should be so arranged that, by substituting a full tile in the place of the collar,—leaving, within it, a space between the smaller pipes,—a connection can be made with this larger tile, as is represented in Figures 33 and 34.



Fig. 34 - SECTIONAL VIEW OF JOINT.

*Silt-Basins* should be used at all points where a drain, after running for any considerable distance at a certain rate of fall, changes to a less rapid fall,—unless, indeed, the diminished fall be still sufficiently great for the removal of silty matters, (say two feet or more in a hundred). They may be made in any manner which will secure a stoppage of the direct current, and afford room below the floor of the tile for the deposit of the silt which the water has carried in suspension; and they may be of any suitable material;—even a sound flour barrel will serve a pretty good purpose for many years. The most complete form of basin is that represented in Figure 24.



Fig. 35 - SQUARE BRICK SILT-BASIN.

When the object is only to afford room for the collection of the silt of a considerable length of drain, and it is not thought worth while to keep open a communication with the surface, for purposes of inspection, a square box of brick work, (Fig. 35,) having a depth of one and a half or two feet below the floor of the drain,—tiles for the drains being built in the walls, and the top covered with a broad stone,—will answer very well.



Fig. 36 - SILT-BASIN OF VITRIFIED PIPE.

A good sort of basin, to reach to the surface of the ground, may be made of large, vitrified drain pipes,—such as are used for town sewerage,—having a diameter of from six to twelve inches, according to the requirements of the work. This basin is shown in Figure 36.

Figure 37 represents a basin made of a 6-inch tile,—similar to that described on page 130, for turning a short corner. A larger basin of the same size, cheaper than if built of brick, may be made by using a large vitrified drain pipe in the place of the one shown in the cut. These vitrified pipes may be perforated in the manner described for the common tile.



Fig. 37 - TILE SILT-BASIN.

In laying the main line C, (Fig. 21,) an underground basin of brick work, (Fig. 35,) or its equivalent, should be placed at stake 7, because at that point the water, which has been flowing on an inclination of 1.09, 2.00 and 2.83 per 100, continues its course over the much less fall of only 0.56 per 100.

If, among the tiles which have passed the inspection, there are some which, from over burning, are smaller than the average, they should be laid at the upper ends of the laterals. The cardinal rule of the tile layer should be never to have a single tile in the finished drain of smaller size, of more irregular shape, or less perfectly laid, than any tile above it. If there is to be any difference in the quality of the drain, at different points, let it grow better as it approaches the outlet and has a greater length above depending upon its action.

*Covering the Tiles, and Filling-in the Ditches.*—The best material for covering the tiles is that which will the most completely surround them, so as to hold them in their places; will be the least likely to have passages for the flow of streams of water into the joints, and will afford the least silt to obstruct the drain. Clay is the best of all available materials, because it is of the most uniform character throughout its mass, and may be most perfectly compacted around the tiles. As has been before stated, all matters which are subject to decay are objectionable, because they will furnish fine matters to enter the joints, and by their decrease of bulk, may leave openings in the earth through which streams of muddy water may find their way into the tiles. Gravel is bad, and will remain bad until its spaces are filled with fine dirt deposited by water, which, leaving only a part of its impurities here, carries the rest into the drain. A gravelly loam, free from roots or other organic matter, if it is strong enough to be worked into a ball when wet, will answer a very good purpose.

Ordinarily, the earth which was thrown out from the bottom of the ditch, and which now lies at the top of the dirt heap, is the best to be returned about the tiles, being first freed from any stones it may contain which are large enough to break or disturb the tiles in falling on to them.

If the bottom of the ditch consists of quicksand or other silty matters, clay or some other suitable earth should be sought in that which was excavated from a less depth, or should be brought from another place. A thin layer of this having been placed in the bottom of the ditch when grading, a slight covering of the same about the tiles will so encase them as to prevent the entrance of the more "slippy" soil.

The first covering of fine earth, free from stones and clods, should be sprinkled gently over the tiles, no full shovelfuls being thrown on to them until they are covered at least six inches deep. When the filling has reached a height of from fifteen to twenty inches, the men may jump into the ditch and tramp it down evenly and regularly, not treading too hard in any one place at first. When thus lightly compacted about the tile, so that any further pressure cannot displace them, the filling should be repeatedly rammed, (the more the better,) by two men standing astride the ditch, facing each other, and working a maul, such as is shown in Figure 38, and which may weigh from 80 to 100 pounds.



Fig. 38 - MAUL FOR RAMMING.

Those to whom this recommendation is new, will, doubtless, think it unwise. The only reply to their objection must be that others who shared their opinion, have, by long observation and experience, been convinced of its correctness. They may practically convince themselves of the value of this sort of covering by a simple and inexpensive experiment: Take two large, water-tight hogsheads, bore through the side of each, a few inches from the bottom, a hole just large enough to admit a 1-1/4-inch tile; cover the bottom to the hight of the lower edge of the hole with strong, wet clay, beaten to a hard paste; on this, lay a line of pipes and collars,—the inner end sealed with putty, and the tile which passes through the hole so wedged about with putty, that no water could pass out between it and the outside of the hole. Cover the tile in one hogshead with loose gravel, and then fill it to the top with loose earth. Cover the tile in the other, twenty inches deep, with ordinary stiff clay, (not wet enough to puddle, but sufficiently moist to pack well,) and ram it thoroughly, so as to make sure that the tiles are completely clasped, and that there is no crack nor crevice through which water can trickle, and then fill this hogshead to the top with earth, of the same character with that used in the other case. These hogsheads should stand where the water of a small roof, (as that of a hog-pen,) may be led into them, by an arrangement which shall give an equal quantity to each;—this will give them rather more than the simple rain-fall, but will leave them exposed to the usual climatic changes of the season. A vessel, of a capacity of a quart or more, should be connected with each outlet, and covered from the dust,— these will act as silt-basins. During the first few storms the water will flow off much more freely from the first barrel; but, little by little, the second one, as the water finds its way through the clay, and as the occasional drying, and repeated filtration make it more porous, will increase in its flow until it will, by the end of the season, or, at latest, by the end of the second season, drain as well as the first, if, indeed, that be not by this time somewhat obstructed with silt. The amount of accumulation in the vessels at the outlet will show which process has best kept back the silt, and the character of the deposit will show which would most probably be carried off by the gentle flow of water in a nearly level drain.

It is no argument against this experiment that its results cannot be determined even in a year, for it is not pretended that drains laid in compact clay will dry land so completely during the first month as those which give more free access to the water; only that they will do so in a comparatively short time; and that, as drainage is a work for all time, (practically as lasting as the farm itself,) the importance of permanence and good working for long years to come, is out of all proportion to that of the temporary good results of one or two seasons, accompanied with doubtful durability.

It has been argued that surface water will be more readily removed by drains having porous filling. Even if this were true to any important degree,—which it is not,—it would be an argument against the plan, for the remedy would be worse than the disease. If the water flow from the surface down into the drain, it will not fail to carry dirt with it, and instead of the clear water, which alone should rise into the tiles from below, we should have a trickling flow from above, muddy with wasted manure and silty earth.

The remaining filling of the ditch is a matter of simple labor, and may be done in whatever way may be most economical under the circumstances of the work. If the amount to be filled is considerable, so that it is desirable to use horse-power, the best way will be to use a scraper, such as is represented in Figure 39, which is a strongly ironed plank, 6 feet long and 18 inches wide, sharp shod at one side, and supplied with handles at the other. It is propelled by means of the curved rods, which are attached to its under side by flexible joints. These rods are connected by a chain which has links large enough to receive the hook of an ox-chain. This scraper may be used for any straight-forward work by attaching the power to the middle of the chain. By moving the hook a few links to the right or left, it will act somewhat after the manner of the mould-board of a plow, and will, if skillfully handled, shoot the filling rapidly into the ditch.



Fig. 39 - BOARD SCRAPER FOR FILLING DITCHES.

If the work is done by hand, mix the surface soil and turf with the subsoil filling for the whole depth. If with a scraper, put the surface soil at the bottom of the loose filling, and the subsoil at the top, as this will be an imitation, for the limited area of the drains, of the process of "trenching," which is used in garden cultivation.

When the ditches are filled, they will be higher than the adjoining land, and it will be well to make them still more so by digging or plowing out a small trench at each side of the drain, throwing the earth against the mound, which will prevent surface water, (during heavy rains,) from running into the loose filling before it is sufficiently settled. A cross section of a filled drain provided with these ditches is shown in Figure 40.



Fig. 40 - CROSS-SECTION OF DITCH (FILLED), WITH FURROW AT EACH SIDE.

In order that the silt-basins may be examined, and their accumulations of earth removed, during the early action of the drains, those parts of the ditches which are above them may be left open, care being taken, by cutting surface ditches around them, to prevent the entrance of water from above. During this time the covers of the basins should be kept on, and should be covered with inverted sods to keep loose dirt from getting into them.

*Collecting the Water (C)f Springs.*—The lateral which connects with the main drain, A, (Fig. 21,) at the point m, and which is to take the water of the spring at the head of the brook, should not be opened until the main has been completed and filled into the silt-basin,—the brook having, meantime, been carried over the other ditches in wooden troughs. This lateral may now be made in the following way: Dig down to the tile of the main, and carry the lateral ditch back, a distance of ten feet. In the bottom of this, place a wooden trough, at least six feet long, laid at such depth that its channel shall be on the exact grade required for laying the tiles, and lay long straw, (held down by weights,) lengthwise within it. Make an opening in the tile of the main and connect the trough with it. The straw will prevent any coarse particles of earth from being carried into the tile, and the flow of the water will be sufficient to carry on to the silt-basin any finer matters. Now open the ditch to and beyond the spring, digging at least a foot below the grade in its immediate vicinity, and filling to the exact grade with small stones, broken bricks, or other suitable material. Lay the tiles from the upper end of the ditch across the stone work, and down to the wooden trough. Now spread a sufficient layer of wood shavings over the stone work to keep the earth from entering it, cover the tiles and fill in the ditch, as before directed, and then remove the straw from the wooden trough and lay tiles in its place. In this way, the water of even a strong spring may be carried into a finished drain without danger. In laying the tile which crosses the stone work, it is well to use full 2-1/2-inch tiles in the place of collars, leaving the joints of these, and of the 1-1/4-inch tiles, (which should join near the middle of the collar tile,) about a quarter of an inch open, to give free entrance to the water.

The stone and tile drain, H, I, is simply dug out to the surface of the rock, if this is not more than two feet below the grade of the upper ends of the laterals with which it connects, and then filled up with loose stones to the line of grade. If the stones are small, so as to form a good bottom for the tiles, they may be laid directly upon it; if not, a bottom for them may be made of narrow strips of cheap boards. Before filling, the tiles and stone work should be covered with shavings, and the filling above these should consist of a strong clay, which will remain in place after the shavings rot away.

*Amending the Map.*—When the tiles are laid, and before they are covered, all deviations of the lines, as in passing around large stones and other obstructions, which may have prevented the exact execution of the original plan, and the location and kind of each underground silt-basin should also be carefully noted, so that they may be transferred to the map, for future reference, in the event of repairs becoming necessary. In a short time after the work is finished, the surface of the field will show no trace of the lines of drain, and it should be possible, in case of need, to find any point of the drains with precision, so that no labor will be lost in digging for it. It is much cheaper to measure over the surface than to dig four feet trenches through the ground.



CHAPTER V. - HOW TO TAKE CARE OF DRAINS AND DRAINED LAND.

So far as tile drains are concerned, if they are once well laid, and if the silt-basins have been emptied of silt until the water has ceased to deposit it, they need no care nor attention, beyond an occasional cleaning of the outlet brook. Now and then, from the proximity of willows, or thrifty, young, water-loving trees, a drain will be obstructed by roots; or, during the first few years after the work is finished, some weak point,—a badly laid tile, a loosely fitted connection between the lateral and a main, or an accumulation of silt coming from an undetected and persistent vein of quicksand,—will be developed, and repairs will have to be made. Except for the slight danger from roots, which must always be guarded against to the extent of allowing no young trees of the dangerous class to grow near a drain through which a constant stream of water flows, it may be fairly assumed that drains which have been kept in order for four or five years have passed the danger of interruption from any cause, and they may be considered entirely safe.

A drain will often, for some months after it is laid, run muddy water after rains. Sometimes the early deposit of silt will nearly fill the tile, and it will take the water of several storms to wash it out. If the tiles have been laid in packed clay, they cannot long receive silt from without, and that which makes the flow turbid, may be assumed to come from the original deposit in the conduit. Examinations of newly laid drains have developed many instances where tiles were at first half filled with silt, and three months later were entirely clean. The muddiness of the flow indicates what the doctors call "an effort of nature to relieve herself," and nature may be trusted to succeed, at least, until she abandons the effort. If we are sure that a drain has been well laid, we need feel no anxiety because it fails to take the water from the ground so completely as it should do, until it settles into a flow of clear water after the heaviest storms.

In the case of art actual stoppage, which will generally be indicated by the "bursting out" of the drain, i.e., the wetting of the land as though there were a spring under it, or as though its water had no underground outlet, (which is the fact,) it will be necessary to lay open the drain until the obstruction is found.

In this work, the real value of the map will be shown, by the facility which it offers for finding any point of any line of drains, and the exact locality of the junctions with the mains, and of the silt-basins. In laying out the plan on the ground, and in making his map, the surveyor will have had recourse to two or more fixed points; one of them, in our example, (fig. 21,) would probably be the center of the main silt-basin, and one, a drilled hole or other mark on the rock at the north side of the field. By staking out on the ground the straight line connecting these two points, and drawing a corresponding line on the map; we shall have a base-line, from which it will be easy, by perpendicular offsets, to determine on the ground any point upon the map. By laying a small square on the map, with one of its edges coinciding with the base-line, and moving it on this line until the other edge meets the desired point, we fix, at the angle of the square, the point on the base-line from which we are to measure the length of the offset. The next step is to find, (by the scale,) the distance of this point from the nearest end of the base-line, and from the point sought. Then measure off, in the field, the corresponding distance on the base-line, and, from the point thus found, measure on a line perpendicular to the base line, the length of the offset; the point thus indicated will be the locality sought. In the same manner, find another point on the same drain, to give the range on which to stake it out. From this line, the drains which run parallel to it, can easily be found, or it may be used as a base-line, from which to find, by measuring offsets, other points near it.

The object of this staking is, to find, in an inexpensive and easy way, the precise position of the drains, for which it would be otherwise necessary to grope in the dark, verifying our guesses by digging four-foot trenches, at random.

If there is a silt-basin, or a junction a short distance below the point where the water shows itself, this will be the best place to dig. If it is a silt-basin, we shall probably find that this has filled up with dirt, and has stopped the flow. In this case it should be cleaned out, and a point of the drain ten feet below it examined. If this is found to be clear, a long slender stick may be pushed up as far as the basin and worked back and forth until the passage is cleared. Then replace the tile below, and try with the stick to clean the tiles above the basin, so as to tap the water above the obstruction. If this cannot be done, or if the drain ten feet below is clogged, it will be necessary to uncover the tiles in both directions until an opening is found, and to take up and relay the whole. If the wetting of the ground is sufficient to indicate that there is much water in the drain, only five or six tiles should be taken up at a time, cleaned and relaid,—commencing at the lower end,—in order that, when the water commences to flow, it may not disturb the bottom of the ditch for the whole distance.

If the point opened is at a junction with the main, examine both the main and the lateral, to see which is stopped, and proceed with one or the other, as directed above. In doing this work, care should be taken to send as little muddy water as possible into the drain below, and to allow the least possible disturbance of the bottom.

If silt-basins have been placed at those points at which the fall diminishes, the obstruction will usually be found to occur at the outlets of these, from a piling up of the silt in front of them, and to extend only a short distance below and above. It is not necessary to take up the tiles until they are found to be entirely clean, for, if they are only one-half or one-third full, they will probably be washed clean by the rush of water, when that which is accumulated above is tapped. The work should be done in settled fair weather, and the ditches should remain open until the effect of the flow has been observed. If the tiles are made thoroughly clean by the time that the accumulated water has run off, say in 24 hours, they may be covered up; if not, it may be necessary to remove them again, and clean them by hand. When the work is undertaken it should be thoroughly done, so that the expense of a new opening need not be again incurred.

It is worse than useless to substitute larger sizes of tiles for those which are taken up. The obstruction, if by silt, is the result of a too sluggish flow, and to enlarge the area of the conduit would only increase the difficulty. If the tiles are too small to carry the full flow which follows a heavy rain, they will be very unlikely to become choked, for the water will then have sufficient force to wash them clean, while if they are much larger than necessary, a deposit of silt to one half of their height will make a broad, flat bed for the stream, which will run with much less force, and will be more likely to increase the deposit.

If the drains are obstructed by the roots of willows, or other trees, the proprietor must decide whether he will sacrifice the trees or the drains; both he cannot keep, unless he chooses to go to the expense of laying in cement all of the drains which carry constant streams, for a distance of at least 50 feet from the dangerous trees. The trouble from trees is occasionally very great, but its occurrence is too rare for general consideration, and must be met in each case with such remedies as circumstances suggest as the best.

The gratings over the outlets of silt-basins which open at the surface of the ground, are sometimes, during the first year of the drainage, obstructed by a fungoid growth which collects on the cross bars. This should be occasionally rubbed off. Its character is not very well understood, and it is rarely observed in old drains. The decomposition of the grass bands which are used to cover the joints of the larger tiles may encourage its formation.

If the surface soil have a good proportion of sand, gravel, or organic matter, so as to give it the consistency which is known as "loamy," it will bear any treatment which it may chance to receive in cultivation, or as pasture land; but if it be a decided clay soil, no amount of draining will enable us to work it, or to turn cattle upon it when it is wet with recent rains. It will much sooner become dry, because of the drainage, and may much sooner be trodden upon without injury; but wet clay cannot be worked or walked over without being more or less puddled, and, thereby, injured for a long time.

No matter how thoroughly heavy clay pasture lands may be under-drained, the cattle should be removed from them when it rains, and kept off until they are comparatively dry. Neglect of this precaution has probably led to more disappointment as to the effects of drainage than any other circumstances connected with it. The injury from this cause does not extend to a great depth, and in the Northern States it would always be overcome by the frosts of a single winter; as has been before stated, it is confined to stiff clay soils, but as these are the soils which most need draining, the warning given is important.



CHAPTER VI. - WHAT DRAINING COSTS.

Draining is expensive work. This fact must be accepted as a very stubborn one, by every man who proposes to undertake the improvement. There is no royal road to tile-laying, and the beginner should count the cost at the outset. A good many acres of virgin land at the West might be bought for what must be paid to get an efficient system of drains laid under a single acre at home. Any man who stops at this point of the argument will probably move West,—or do nothing.

Yet, it is susceptible of demonstration that, even at the West, in those localities where Indian Corn is worth as much as fifty cents per bushel at the farm, it will pay to drain, in the best manner, all such land as is described in the first chapter of this book as in need of draining. Arguments to prove this need not be based at all on cheapness of the work; only on its effects and its permanence.

In fact, so far as draining with tiles is concerned, cheapness is a delusion and a snare, for the reason that it implies something less than the best work, a compromise between excellence and inferiority. The moment that we come down from the best standard, we introduce a new element into the calculation. The sort of tile draining which it is the purpose of this work to advocate is a system so complete in every particular, that it may be considered as an absolutely permanent improvement. During the first years of the working of the drains, they will require more or less attention, and some expense for repairs; but, in well constructed work, these will be very slight, and will soon cease altogether. In proportion as we resort to cheap devices, which imply a neglect of important parts of the work, and a want of thoroughness in the whole, the expense for repairs will increase, and the duration of the usefulness of the drains will diminish.

Drains which are permanently well made, and which will, practically, last for all time, may be regarded as a good investment, the increased crop of each year, paying a good interest on the money that they cost, and the money being still represented by the undiminished value of the improvement. In such a case the draining of the land may be said to cost, not $50 per acre,—but the interest on $50 each year. The original amount is well invested, and brings its yearly dividend as surely as though it were represented by a five-twenty bond.

With badly constructed drains, on the other hand, the case is quite different. In buying land which is subject to no loss in quantity or quality, the farmer considers, not so much the actual cost, as the relation between the yearly interest on the cost, and the yearly profit on the crop,—knowing that, a hundred years hence, the land will still be worth his money.

But if the land were bounded on one side by a river which yearly encroached some feet on its bank, leaving the field a little smaller after each freshet; or if, every spring, some rods square of its surface were sure to be covered three feet deep with stones and sand, so that the actual value of the property became every year less, the purchaser would compare the yearly value of the crops, not only with the interest on the price, but, in addition to this, with so much of the prime value as yearly disappears with the destruction of the land.

It is exactly so with the question of the cost of drainage. If the work is insecurely done, and is liable, in five years or in fifty, to become worthless; the increase of the crops resulting from it, must not only cover the yearly interest on the cost, but the yearly depreciation as well. Therefore what may seem at the time of doing the work to be cheapness, is really the greatest extravagance. It is like building a brick wall with clay for mortar. The bricks and the workmanship cost full price, and the small saving on the mortar will topple the wall over in a few years, while, if well cemented, it would have lasted for centuries. The cutting and filling of the ditches, and the purchase and transportation of the tiles, will cost the same in every case, and these constitute the chief cost; if the proper care in grading, tile-laying and covering, and in making outlets be stingily withheld,—saving, perhaps, one-tenth of the expense,—what might have been a permanent improvement to the land, may disappear, and the whole outlay be lost in ten years. A saving of ten per cent. in the cost will have lost us the other ninety in a short time.

But, while cheapness is to be shunned, economy is to be sought in every item of the work of draining, and should be studied, by proprietor and engineer, from the first examination of the land, to the throwing of the last shovelful of earth on to the filling of the ditch. There are few operations connected with the cultivation of the soil in which so much may be imperceptibly lost through neglect, and carelessness about little details, as in tile-draining. In the original levelling of the ground, the adjustment of the lines, the establishing of the most judicious depth and inclination at each point of the drains, the disposition of surface streams during the prosecution of the work, and in the width of the excavation, the line which divides economy and wastefulness is extremely narrow and the most constant vigilance, together with the best judgment and foresight, are needed to avoid unnecessary cost. In the laying and covering of the tile, on the other hand, it is best to disregard a little slowness and unnecessary care on the part of the workmen, for the sake of the most perfect security of the work.

*Details of Cost.*—The items of the work of drainage may be classified as follows:

1. Engineering and Superintendence.

2. Digging the ditches.

3. Grading the bottoms.

4. Tile and tile-laying.

5. Covering the tile and filling the ditches.

6. Outlets and silt-basins.

1. Engineering and Superintendence.—It is not easy to say what would be the proper charge for this item of the work. In England, the Commissioners under the Drainage Acts of Parliament, and the Boards of Public Works, fix the charge for engineering at $1.25 per acre. That is in a country when the extent of lands undergoing the process of draining is very great, enabling one person to superintend large tracts in the same neighborhood at the same time, and with little or no outlay for travelling expenses. In this country, where the improvement is, thus far, confined to small areas, widely separated; and where there are comparatively few engineers who make a specialty of the work, the charge for services is necessarily much higher, and the amount expended in travelling much greater. In most cases, the proprietor of the land must qualify himself to superintend his own operations, (with the aid of a country surveyor, or a railroad engineer in the necessary instrumental work.) As draining becomes more general, the demand for professional assistance will, without doubt, cause local engineers to turn their attention to the subject, and their services may be more cheaply obtained. At present, it would probably not be prudent to estimate the cost of engineering and superintendence, including the time and skill of the proprietor, at less than $5 per acre, even where from 20 to 50 acres are to be drained at once.

2. Digging the Ditches.—The labor required for the various operations constitutes the principal item of cost in draining, and the price of labor is now so different in different localities, and so unsettled in all, that it is difficult to determine a rate which would be generally fair. It will be assumed that the average wages of day laborers of the class employed in digging ditches, is $1.50 per day, and the calculation will have to be changed for different districts, in proportion to the deviation of the actual rate of wages from this amount. There is a considerable advantage in having the work done at some season, (as after the summer harvest, or late in the fall,) when wages are comparatively low.

The cutting of the ditches should always be let by the rod. When working at day's work, the men will invariably open them wider than is necessary, for the sake of the greater convenience of working, and the extra width causes a corresponding waste of labor.

A 4-foot ditch, in most soils, need be only 20 inches wide at the surface, and 4 inches at the bottom. This gives a mean width of 12 inches, and requires the removal of nearly 2-1/2 cubic yards of earth for each rod of ditch; but an increase to a mean width of 16 inches, (which day workmen will usually reach, while piece workmen almost never will,) requires the removal of 3-1/4 cubic yards to the rod. As the increased width is usually below the middle of the drain, the extra earth will all have to be raised from 2 to 4 feet, and the extra 3/4 yards will cost as much as a full yard taken evenly from the whole side, from top to bottom.

In clay soils, free from stones or "hard pan," but so stiff as to require considerable picking, ordinary workmen, after a little practice, will be able to dig 3-1/2 rods of ditch per day, to an average depth of 3.80,—leaving from 2 to 3 inches of the bottom of 4-foot ditches to be finished by the graders. This makes the cost of digging about 43 cents per rod. In loamy soil the cost will be a little less than this, and in very hard ground, a little more. In sandy and peaty soils, the cost will not be more than 30 cents. Probably 43 cents would be a fair average for soils requiring drainage, throughout the country.

This is about 17 cents for each yard of earth removed.

In soft ground, the caving in of the banks will require a much greater mean width than 12 inches to be thrown out, and, if the accident could not have been prevented by ordinary care on the part of the workman, (using the bracing boards shown in Fig. 28,) he should receive extra pay for the extra work. In passing around large stones it may also be necessary to increase the width.

The following table will facilitate the calculations for such extra work:

CUBIC YARDS OF EXCAVATION IN DITCHES OF VARIOUS WIDTH. Length of 12 Inches 18 Inches 24 Inches 30 Inches 36 Inches Ditch. Wide. Wide. Wide. Wide. Wide. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. Yds. Feet. 1 Yard. 0 12 0 18 0 24 1 3 1 9 1 Rod. 2 12 3 18 4 24 6 3 7 9

Men will, in most soils, work best in couples,—one shovelling out the earth, and working forward, and the other, (moving backward,) loosening the earth with a spade or foot-pick, (Fig. 41.) In stony land, the men should be required to keep their work well closed up,—excavating to the full depth as they go. Then, if they strike a stone too large to be taken out within the terms of their contract, they can skip a sufficient distance to pass it, and the digging of the omitted part may be done by a faithful day workman. This will usually be cheaper and more satisfactory than to pay the contractors for extra work.



Fig. 41 - FOOT PICK.

Concerning the amount of work that one man can do in a day, in different soils, digging ditches 4 feet deep, French says: "In the writer's own field, where the pick was used to loosen the lower two feet of earth, the labor of opening and filling drains 4 feet deep, and of the mean width of 14 inches, all by hand labor, has been, in a mile of drains, being our first experiments, about one day's labor to 3 rods in length. The excavated earth of such a drain measures not quite 3 cubic yards, (exactly, 2.85.)" In a subsequent work, in a sandy soil, two men opened, laid, and refilled 14 rods in one day;—the mean width being 12 inches.(21)

"In the same season, the same men opened, laid, and filled 70 rods of 4-foot drain of the same mean width of 12 inches, in the worst kind of clay soil, where the pick was constantly used. It cost 35 days' labor to complete the job, being 50 cents per rod for the labor alone." Or, under the foregoing calculation of $1.50 per day, 75 cents per rod. These estimates, in common with nearly all that are published, are for the entire work of digging, grading, tile-laying, and refilling. Deducting the time required for the other work, the result will be about as above estimated; for the rough excavation, 3 1/2-rods to the day's work, costing, at $1.50 per day, 43 cents to the rod.