MRS. B.

You have started a difficulty, Emily, which certainly requires explanation. It is found by experiment that the power of absorption corresponds with and is proportional to that of radiation; so that under equal temperatures, bodies compensate for the greater loss they sustain in consequence of their greater radiation by their greater absorption; so that if you were to make your experiment in an atmosphere heated like the canisters, to the temperature of boiling water, though it is true that the canisters would radiate in different degrees, no change of temperature would be produced in them, because they would each absorb caloric in proportion to their respective radiation.

EMILY.

But would not the canisters of boiling water also absorb caloric in different degrees in a room of the common temperature?

MRS. B.

Undoubtedly they would. But the various bodies in the room would not, at a lower temperature, furnish either of the canisters with a sufficiency of caloric to compensate for the loss they undergo; for, suppose the black canister to absorb 400 rays of caloric, whilst the metallic one absorbed only 200; yet if the former radiate 800, whilst the latter radiates only 400, the black canister will be the first cooled down to the temperature of the room. But from the moment the equilibrium of temperature has taken place, the black canister, both receiving and giving out 400 rays, and the metallic one 200, no change of temperature will take place.

EMILY.

I now understand it extremely well. But what becomes of the surplus of calorific rays, which good radiators emit and bad radiators refuse to receive; they must wander about in search of a resting-place?

MRS. B.

They really do so; for they are rejected and sent back, or, in other words, reflected by the bodies which are bad radiators of caloric; and they are thus transmitted to other bodies which happen to lie in their way, by which they are either absorbed or again reflected, according as the property of reflection, or that of absorption, predominates in these bodies.

CAROLINE.

I do not well understand the difference between radiating and reflecting caloric, for the caloric that is reflected from a body proceeds from it in straight lines, and may surely be said to radiate from it?

MRS. B.

It is true that there at first appears to be a great analogy between radiation and reflection, as they equally convey the idea of the transmission of caloric.

But if you consider a little, you will perceive that when a body radiates caloric, the heat which it emits not only proceeds from, but has its origin in the body itself. Whilst when a body reflects caloric, it parts with none of its own caloric, but only reflects that which it receives from other bodies.

EMILY.

Of this difference we have very striking examples before us, in the tin vessel of water, and the concave mirrors; the first radiates its own heat, the latter reflect the heat which they receive from other bodies.

CAROLINE.

Now, that I understand the difference, it no longer surprises me that bodies which radiate, or part with their own caloric freely, should not have the power of transmitting with equal facility that which they receive from other bodies.

EMILY.

Yet no body can be said to possess caloric of its own, if all caloric is originally derived from the sun.

MRS. B.

When I speak of a body radiating its own caloric, I mean that which it has absorbed and incorporated either immediately from the sun's rays, or through the medium of any other substance.

CAROLINE.

It seems natural enough that the power of absorption should be in opposition to that of reflection, for the more caloric a body receives, the less it will reject.

EMILY.

And equally so that the power of radiation should correspond with that of absorption. It is, in fact, cause and effect; for a body cannot radiate heat without having previously absorbed it; just as a spring that is well fed flows abundantly.

MRS. B.

Fluids are in general very bad radiators of caloric; and air neither radiates nor absorbs caloric in any sensible degree.

We have not yet concluded our observations on free caloric. But I shall defer, till our next meeting, what I have further to say on this subject. I believe it will afford us ample conversation for another interview.



CONVERSATION III.

CONTINUATION OF THE SUBJECT.

MRS. B.

In our last conversation, we began to examine the tendency of caloric to restore an equilibrium of temperature. This property, when once well understood, affords the explanation of a great variety of facts which appeared formerly unaccountable. You must observe, in the first place, that the effect of this tendency is gradually to bring all bodies that are in contact to the same temperature. Thus, the fire which burns in the grate, communicates its heat from one object to another, till every part of the room has an equal proportion of it.

EMILY.

And yet this book is not so cold as the table on which it lies, though both are at an equal distance from the fire, and actually in contact with each other, so that, according to your theory, they should be exactly of the same temperature.

CAROLINE.

And the hearth, which is much nearer the fire than the carpet, is certainly the colder of the two.

MRS. B.

If you ascertain the temperature of these several bodies by a thermometer (which is a much more accurate test than your feeling), you will find that it is exactly the same.

CAROLINE.

But if they are of the same temperature, why should the one feel colder than the other?

MRS. B.

The hearth and the table feel colder than the carpet or the book, because the latter are not such good conductors of heat as the former. Caloric finds a more easy passage through marble and wood, than through leather and worsted; the two former will therefore absorb heat more rapidly from your hand, and consequently give it a stronger sensation of cold than the two latter, although they are all of them really of the same temperature.

CAROLINE.

So, then, the sensation I feel on touching a cold body, is in proportion to the rapidity with which my hand yields its heat to that body?

MRS. B.

Precisely; and, if you lay your hand successively on every object in the room, you will discover which are good, and which are bad conductors of heat, by the different degrees of cold you feel. But, in order to ascertain this point, it is necessary that the several substances should be of the same temperature, which will not be the case with those that are very near the fire, or those that are exposed to a current of cold air from a window or door.

EMILY.

But what is the reason that some bodies are better conductors of heat than others?

MRS. B.

This is a point not well ascertained. It has been conjectured that a certain union or adherence takes place between the caloric and the particles of the body through which it passes. If this adherence be strong, the body detains the heat, and parts with it slowly and reluctantly; if slight, it propagates it freely and rapidly. The conducting power of a body is therefore, inversely, as its tendency to unite with caloric.

EMILY.

That is to say, that the best conductors are those that have the least affinity for caloric.

MRS. B.

Yes; but the term affinity is objectionable in this case, because, as that word is used to express a chemical attraction (which can be destroyed only by decomposition), it cannot be applicable to the slight and transient union that takes place between free caloric and the bodies through which it passes; an union which is so weak, that it constantly yields to the tendency which caloric has to an equilibrium. Now you clearly understand, that the passage of caloric, through bodies that are good conductors, is much more rapid than through those that are bad conductors, and that the former both give and receive it more quickly, and therefore, in a given time, more abundantly, than bad conductors, which makes them feel either hotter or colder, though they may be, in fact, both of the same temperature.

CAROLINE.

Yes, I understand it now; the table, and the book lying upon it, being really of the same temperature, would each receive, in the same space of time, the same quantity of heat from my hand, were their conducting powers equal; but as the table is the best conductor of the two, it will absorb the heat from my hand more rapidly, and consequently produce a stronger sensation of cold than the book.

MRS. B.

Very well, my dear; and observe, likewise, that if you were to heat the table and the book an equal number of degrees above the temperature of your body, the table, which before felt the colder, would now feel the hotter of the two; for, as in the first case it took the heat most rapidly from your hand, so it will now impart heat most rapidly to it. Thus the marble table, which seems to us colder than the mahogany one, will prove the hotter of the two to the ice; for, if it takes heat more rapidly from our hands, which are warmer, it will give out heat more rapidly to the ice, which is colder. Do you understand the reason of these apparently opposite effects?

EMILY.

Perfectly. A body which is a good conductor of caloric, affords it a free passage; so that it penetrates through that body more rapidly than through one which is a bad conductor; and consequently, if it is colder than your hand, you lose more caloric, and if it is hotter, you gain more than with a bad conductor of the same temperature.

MRS. B.

But you must observe that this is the case only when the conductors are either hotter or colder than your hand; for, if you heat different conductors to the temperature of your body, they will all feel equally warm, since the exchange of caloric between bodies of the same temperature is equal. Now, can you tell me why flannel clothing, which is a very bad conductor of heat, prevents our feeling cold?

CAROLINE.

It prevents the cold from penetrating . . . . . . . .

MRS. B.

But you forget that cold is only a negative quality.

CAROLINE.

True; it only prevents the heat of our bodies from escaping so rapidly as it would otherwise do.

MRS. B.

Now you have explained it right; the flannel rather keeps in the heat, than keeps out the cold. Were the atmosphere of a higher temperature than our bodies, it would be equally efficacious in keeping their temperature at the same degree, as it would prevent the free access of the external heat, by the difficulty with which it conducts it.

EMILY.

This, I think, is very clear. Heat, whether external or internal, cannot easily penetrate flannel; therefore in cold weather it keeps us warm; and if the weather was hotter than our bodies, it would keep us cool.

MRS. B.

The most dense bodies are, generally speaking, the best conductors of heat; probably because the denser the body the greater are the number of points or particles that come in contact with caloric. At the common temperature of the atmosphere a piece of metal will feel much colder than a piece of wood, and the latter than a piece of woollen cloth; this again will feel colder than flannel; and down, which is one of the lightest, is at the same time one of the warmest bodies.

CAROLINE.

This is, I suppose, the reason that the plumage of birds preserves them so effectually from the influence of cold in winter?

MRS. B.

Yes; but though feathers in general are an excellent preservative against cold, down is a kind of plumage peculiar to aquatic birds, and covers their chest, which is the part most exposed to the water; for though the surface of the water is not of a lower temperature than the atmosphere, yet, as it is a better conductor of heat, it feels much colder, consequently the chest of the bird requires a warmer covering than any other part of its body. Besides, the breasts of aquatic birds are exposed to cold not only from the temperature of the water, but also from the velocity with which the breast of the bird strikes against it; and likewise from the rapid evaporation occasioned in that part by the air against which it strikes, after it has been moistened by dipping from time to time into the water.

If you hold a finger of one hand motionless in a glass of water, and at the same time move a finger of the other hand swiftly through water of the same temperature, a different sensation will be soon perceived in the different fingers.

Most animal substances, especially those which Providence has assigned as a covering for animals, such as fur, wool, hair, skin, &c. are bad conductors of heat, and are, on that account, such excellent preservatives against the inclemency of winter, that our warmest apparel is made of these materials.

EMILY.

Wood is, I dare say, not so good a conductor as metal, and it is for that reason, no doubt, that silver teapots have always wooden handles.

MRS. B.

Yes; and it is the facility with which metals conduct caloric that made you suppose that a silver pot radiated more caloric than an earthen one. The silver pot is in fact hotter to the hand when in contact with it; but it is because its conducting power more than counterbalances its deficiency in regard to radiation.

We have observed that the most dense bodies are in general the best conductors; and metals, you know, are of that class. Porous bodies, such as the earths and wood, are worse conductors, chiefly, I believe, on account of their pores being filled with air; for air is a remarkably bad conductor.

CAROLINE.

It is a very fortunate circumstance that air should be a bad conductor, as it tends to preserve the heat of the body when exposed to cold weather.

MRS. B.

It is one of the many benevolent dispensations of Providence, in order to soften the inclemency of the seasons, and to render almost all climates habitable to man.

In fluids of different densities, the power of conducting heat varies no less remarkably; if you dip your hand into this vessel full of mercury, you will scarcely conceive that its temperature is not lower than that of the atmosphere.

CAROLINE.

Indeed I know not how to believe it, it feels so extremely cold. —But we may easily ascertain its true temperature by the thermometer. —It is really not colder than the air;—the apparent difference then is produced merely by the difference of the conducting power in mercury and in air.

MRS. B.

Yes; hence you may judge how little the sense of feeling is to be relied on as a test of the temperature of bodies, and how necessary a thermometer is for that purpose.

It has indeed been doubted whether fluids have the power of conducting caloric in the same manner as solid bodies. Count Rumford, a very few years since, attempted to prove, by a variety of experiments, that fluids, when at rest, were not at all endowed with this property.

CAROLINE.

How is that possible, since they are capable of imparting cold or heat to us; for if they did not conduct heat, they would neither take it from, nor give it to us?

MRS. B.

Count Rumford did not mean to say that fluids would not communicate their heat to solid bodies; but only that heat does not pervade fluids, that is to say, is not transmitted from one particle of a fluid to another, in the same manner as in solid bodies.

EMILY.

But when you heat a vessel of water over the fire, if the particles of water do not communicate heat to each other, how does the water become hot throughout?

MRS. B.

By constant agitation. Water, as you have seen, expands by heat in the same manner as solid bodies; the heated particles of water, therefore, at the bottom of the vessel, become specifically lighter than the rest of the liquid, and consequently ascend to the surface, where, parting with some of their heat to the colder atmosphere, they are condensed, and give way to a fresh succession of heated particles ascending from the bottom, which having thrown off their heat at the surface, are in their turn displaced. Thus every particle is successively heated at the bottom, and cooled at the surface of the liquid; but as the fire communicates heat more rapidly than the atmosphere cools the succession of surfaces, the whole of the liquid in time becomes heated.

CAROLINE.

This accounts most ingeniously for the propagation of heat upwards. But suppose you were to heat the upper surface of a liquid, the particles being specifically lighter than those below, could not descend: how therefore would the heat be communicated downwards?

MRS. B.

If there were no agitation to force the heated surface downwards, Count Rumford assures us that the heat would not descend. In proof of this he succeeded in making the upper surface of a vessel of water boil and evaporate, while a cake of ice remained frozen at the bottom.

CAROLINE.

That is very extraordinary indeed!

MRS. B.

It appears so, because we are not accustomed to heat liquids by their upper surface; but you will understand this theory better if I show you the internal motion that takes place in liquids when they experience a change of temperature. The motion of the liquid itself is indeed invisible from the extreme minuteness of its particles; but if you mix with it any coloured dust, or powder, of nearly the same specific gravity as the liquid, you may judge of the internal motion of the latter by that of the coloured dust it contains. —Do you see the small pieces of amber moving about in the liquid contained in this phial?

CAROLINE.

Yes, perfectly.

MRS. B.

We shall now immerse the phial in a glass of hot water, and the motion of the liquid will be shown, by that which it communicates to the amber.

EMILY.

I see two currents, the one rising along the sides of the phial, the other descending in the centre: but I do not understand the reason of this.

MRS. B.

The hot water communicates its caloric, through the medium of the phial, to the particles of the fluid nearest to the glass; these dilate and ascend laterally to the surface, where, in parting with their heat, they are condensed, and in descending, form the central current.

CAROLINE.

This is indeed a very clear and satisfactory experiment; but how much slower the currents now move than they did at first?

MRS. B.

It is because the circulation of particles has nearly produced an equilibrium of temperature between the liquid in the glass and that in the phial.

CAROLINE.

But these communicate laterally, and I thought that heat in liquids could be propagated only upwards.

MRS. B.

You do not take notice that the heat is imparted from one liquid to the other, through the medium of the phial itself, the external surface of which receives the heat from the water in the glass, whilst its internal surface transmits it to the liquid it contains. Now take the phial out of the hot water, and observe the effect of its cooling.

EMILY.

The currents are reversed; the external current now descends, and the internal one rises. —I guess the reason of this change:— the phial being in contact with cold air instead of hot water, the external particles are cooled instead of being heated; they therefore descend and force up the central particles, which, being warmer, are consequently lighter.

MRS. B.

It is just so. Count Rumford hence infers that no alteration of temperature can take place in a fluid, without an internal motion of its particles, and as this motion is produced only by the comparative levity of the heated particles, heat cannot be propagated downwards.

But though I believe that Count Rumford's theory as to heat being incapable of pervading fluids is not strictly correct, yet there is, no doubt, much truth in his observation, that the communication is materially promoted by a motion of the parts; and this accounts for the cold that is found to prevail at the bottom of the lakes in Switzerland, which are fed by rivers issuing from the snowy Alps. The water of these rivers being colder, and therefore more dense than that of the lakes, subsides to the bottom, where it cannot be affected by the warmer temperature of the surface; the motion of the waves may communicate this temperature to some little depth, but it can descend no further than the agitation extends.

EMILY.

But when the atmosphere is colder than the lake, the colder surface of the water will descend, for the very reason that the warmer will not.

MRS. B.

Certainly: and it is on this account that neither a lake, nor any body of water whatever, can be frozen until every particle of the water has risen to the surface to give off its caloric to the colder atmosphere; therefore the deeper a body of water is, the longer will be the time it requires to be frozen.

EMILY.

But if the temperature of the whole body of water be brought down to the freezing point, why is only the surface frozen?

MRS. B.

The temperature of the whole body is lowered, but not to the freezing point. The diminution of heat, as you know, produces a contraction in the bulk of fluids, as well as of solids. This effect, however, does not take place in water below the temperature of 40 degrees, which is 8 degrees above the freezing point. At that temperature, therefore, the internal motion, occasioned by the increased specific gravity of the condensed particles, ceases; for when the water at the surface no longer condenses, it will no longer descend, and leave a fresh surface exposed to the atmosphere: this surface alone, therefore, will be further exposed to its severity, and will soon be brought down to the freezing point, when it becomes ice, which being a bad conductor of heat, preserves the water beneath a long time from being affected by the external cold.

CAROLINE.

And the sea does not freeze, I suppose, because its depth is so great, that a frost never lasts long enough to bring down the temperature of such a great body of water to 40 degrees?

MRS. B.

That is one reason why the sea, as a large mass of water, does not freeze. But, independently of this, salt water does not freeze till it is cooled much below 32 degrees, and with respect to the law of condensation, salt water is an exception, as it condenses even many degrees below the freezing point. When the caloric of fresh water, therefore, is imprisoned by the ice on its surface, the ocean still continues throwing off heat into the atmosphere, which is a most signal dispensation of Providence to moderate the intensity of the cold in winter.

CAROLINE.

This theory of the non-conducting power of liquids, does not, I suppose, hold good with respect to air, otherwise the atmosphere would not be heated by the rays of the sun passing through it?

MRS. B.

Nor is it heated in that way. The pure atmosphere is a perfectly transparent medium, which neither radiates, absorbs, nor conducts caloric, but transmits the rays of the sun to us without in any way diminishing their intensity. The air is therefore not more heated, by the sun's rays passing through it, than diamond, glass, water, or any other transparent medium.

CAROLINE.

That is very extraordinary! Are glass windows not heated then by the sun shining on them?

MRS. B.

No; not if the glass be perfectly transparent. A most convincing proof that glass transmits the rays of the sun without being heated by them is afforded by the burning lens, which by converging the rays to a focus will set combustible bodies on fire, without its own temperature being raised.

EMILY.

Yet, Mrs. B., if I hold a piece of glass near the fire it is almost immediately warmed by it; the glass therefore must retain some of the caloric radiated by the fire? Is it that the solar rays alone pass freely through glass without paying tribute? It seems unaccountable that the radiation of a common fire should have power to do what the sun's rays cannot accomplish.

MRS. B.

It is not because the rays from the fire have more power, but rather because they have less, that they heat glass and other transparent bodies. It is true, however, that as you approach the source of heat the rays being nearer each other, the heat is more condensed, and can produce effects of which the solar rays, from the great distance of their source, are incapable. Thus we should find it impossible to roast a joint of meat by the sun's rays, though it is so easily done by culinary heat. Yet caloric emanated from burning bodies, which is commonly called culinary heat, has neither the intensity nor the velocity of solar rays. All caloric, we have said, is supposed to proceed originally from the sun; but after having been incorporated with terrestrial bodies, and again given out by them, though its nature is not essentially altered, it retains neither the intensity nor the velocity with which it first emanated from that luminary; it has therefore not the power of passing through transparent mediums, such as glass and water, without being partially retained by those bodies.

EMILY.

I recollect that in the experiment on the reflection of heat, the glass skreen which you interposed between the burning taper and the mirror, arrested the rays of caloric, and suffered only those of light to pass through it.

CAROLINE.

Glass windows, then, though they cannot be heated by the sun shining on them, may be heated internally by a fire in the room? But, Mrs. B., since the atmosphere is not warmed by the solar rays passing through it, how does it obtain heat; for all the fires that are burning on the surface of the earth would contribute very little towards warming it?

EMILY.

The radiation of heat is not confined to burning bodies: for all bodies, you know, have that property; therefore, not only every thing upon the surface of the earth, but the earth itself, must radiate heat; and this terrestrial caloric, not having, I suppose, sufficient power to traverse the atmosphere, communicates heat to it.

MRS. B.

Your inference is extremely well drawn, Emily; but the foundation on which it rests is not sound; for the fact is, that terrestrial or culinary heat, though it cannot pass through the denser transparent mediums, such as glass or water, without loss, traverses the atmosphere completely: so that all the heat which the earth radiates, unless it meet with clouds or any foreign body to intercept its passage, passes into the distant regions of the universe.

CAROLINE.

What a pity that so much heat should be wasted!

MRS. B.

Before you are tempted to object to any law of nature, reflect whether it may not prove to be one of the numberless dispensations of Providence for our good. If all the heat which the earth has received from the sun, since the creation had been accumulated in it, its temperature by this time would, no doubt, have been more elevated than any human being could have borne.

CAROLINE.

I spoke indeed very inconsiderately. But, Mrs. B., though the earth, at such a high temperature, might have scorched our feet, we should always have had a cool refreshing air to breathe, since the radiation of the earth does not heat the atmosphere.

EMILY.

The cool air would have afforded but very insufficient refreshment, whilst our bodies were exposed to the burning radiation of the earth.

MRS. B.

Nor should we have breathed a cool air; for though it is true that heat is not communicated to the atmosphere by radiation, yet the air is warmed by contact with heated bodies, in the same manner as solids or liquids. The stratum of air which is immediately in contact with the earth is heated by it; it becomes specifically lighter and rises, making way for another stratum of air which is in its turn heated and carried upwards; and thus each successive stratum of air is warmed by coming in contact with the earth. You may perceive this effect in a sultry day, if you attentively observe the strata of air near the surface of the earth; they appear in constant agitation, for though it is true the air is itself invisible, yet the sun shining on the vapours floating in it, render them visible, like the amber dust in the water. The temperature of the surface of the earth is therefore the source from whence the atmosphere derives its heat, though it is communicated neither by radiation, nor transmitted from one particle of it to another by the conducting power; but every particle of air must come in contact with the earth in order to receive heat from it.

EMILY.

Wind then by agitating the air should contribute to cool the earth and warm the atmosphere, by bringing a more rapid succession of fresh strata of air in contact with the earth, and yet in general wind feels cooler than still air?

MRS. B.

Because the agitation of the air carries off heat from the surface of our bodies more rapidly than still air, by occasioning a greater number of points of contact in a given time.

EMILY.

Since it is from the earth and not the sun that the atmosphere receives its heat, I no longer wonder that elevated regions should be colder than plains and valleys; it was always a subject of astonishment to me, that in ascending a mountain and approaching the sun, the air became colder instead of being more heated.

MRS. B.

At the distance of about a hundred million of miles, which we are from the sun, the approach of a few thousand feet makes no sensible difference, whilst it produces a very considerable effect with regard to the warming the atmosphere at the surface of the earth.

CAROLINE.

Yet as the warm air rises from the earth and the cold air descends to it, I should have supposed that heat would have accumulated in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and that we should have felt the air warmer as we ascended?

MRS. B.

The atmosphere, you know, diminishes in density, and consequently in weight, as it is more distant from the earth; the warm air, therefore, rises only till it meets with a stratum of air of its own density; and it will not ascend into the upper regions of the atmosphere until all the parts beneath have been previously heated. The length of summer even in warm climates does not heat the air sufficiently to melt the snow which has accumulated during the winter on very high mountains, although they are almost constantly exposed to the heat of the sun's rays, being too much elevated to be often enveloped in clouds.

EMILY.

These explanations are very satisfactory; but allow me to ask you one more question respecting the increased levity of heated liquids. You said that when water was heated over the fire, the particles at the bottom of the vessel ascended as soon as heated, in consequence of their specific levity: why does not the same effect continue when the water boils, and is converted into steam? and why does the steam rise from the surface, instead of the bottom of the liquid?

MRS. B.

The steam or vapour does ascend from the bottom, though it seems to arise from the surface of the liquid. We shall boil some water in this Florence flask, (PLATE IV. Fig. 1.) in order that you may be well acquainted with the process of ebullition;—you will then see, through the glass, that the vapour rises in bubbles from the bottom. We shall make it boil by means of a lamp, which is more convenient for this purpose than the chimney fire.



EMILY.

I see some small bubbles ascend, and a great many appear all over the inside of the flask; does the water begin to boil already?

MRS. B.

No; what you now see are bubbles of air, which were either dissolved in the water, or attached to the inner surface of the flask, and which, being rarefied by the heat, ascend in the water.

EMILY.

But the heat which rarefies the air inclosed in the water must rarefy the water at the same time; therefore, if it could remain stationary in the water when both were cold, I do not understand why it should not when both are equally heated?

MRS. B.

Air being much less dense than water, is more easily rarefied; the former, therefore, expands to a great extent, whilst the latter continues to occupy nearly the same space; for water dilates comparatively but very little without changing its state and becoming vapour. Now that the water in the flask begins to boil, observe what large bubbles rise from the bottom of it.

EMILY.

I see them perfectly; but I wonder that they have sufficient power to force themselves through the water.

CAROLINE.

They must rise, you know, from their specific levity.

MRS. B.

You are right, Caroline; but vapour has not in all liquids (when brought to the degree of vaporization) the power of overcoming the pressure of the less heated surface. Metals, for instance, mercury excepted, evaporate only from the surface; therefore no vapour will ascend from them till the degree of heat which is necessary to form it has reached the surface; that is to say, till the whole of the liquid is brought to a state of ebullition.

EMILY.

I have observed that steam, immediately issuing from the spout of a teakettle, is less visible than at a further distance from it; yet it must be more dense when it first evaporates, than when it begins to diffuse itself in the air.

MRS. B.

When the steam is first formed, it is so perfectly dissolved by caloric, as to be invisible. In order however to understand this, it will be necessary for me to enter into some explanation respecting the nature of SOLUTION. Solution takes place whenever a body is melted in a fluid. In this operation the body is reduced to such a minute state of division by the fluid, as to become invisible in it, and to partake of its fluidity; but in common solutions this happens without any decomposition, the body being only divided into its integrant particles by the fluid in which it is melted.

CAROLINE.

It is then a mode of destroying the attraction of aggregation.

MRS. B.

Undoubtedly. —The two principal solvent fluids are water, and caloric. You may have observed that if you melt salt in water, it totally disappears, and the water remains clear, and transparent as before; yet though the union of these two bodies appears so perfect, it is not produced by any chemical combination; both the salt and the water remain unchanged; and if you were to separate them by evaporating the latter, you would find the salt in the same state as before.

EMILY.

I suppose that water is a solvent for solid bodies, and caloric for liquids?

MRS. B.

Liquids of course can only be converted into vapour by caloric. But the solvent power of this agent is not at all confined to that class of bodies; a great variety of solid substances are dissolved by heat: thus metals, which are insoluble in water, can be dissolved by intense heat, being first fused or converted into a liquid, and then rarefied into an invisible vapour. Many other bodies, such as salt, gums, &c. yield to either of these solvents.

CAROLINE.

And that, no doubt, is the reason why hot water will melt them so much better than cold water?

MRS. B.

It is so. Caloric may, indeed, be considered as having, in every instance, some share in the solution of a body by water, since water, however low its temperature may be, always contains more or less caloric.

EMILY.

Then, perhaps, water owes its solvent power merely to the caloric contained in it?

MRS. B.

That, probably, would be carrying the speculation too far; I should rather think that water and caloric unite their efforts to dissolve a body, and that the difficulty or facility of effecting this, depend both on the degree of attraction of aggregation to be overcome, and on the arrangement of the particles which are more or less disposed to be divided and penetrated by the solvent.

EMILY.

But have not all liquids the same solvent power as water?

MRS. B.

The solvent power of other liquids varies according to their nature, and that of the substances submitted to their action. Most of these solvents, indeed, differ essentially from water, as they do not merely separate the integrant particles of the bodies which they dissolve, but attack their constituent principles by the power of chemical attraction, thus producing a true decomposition. These more complicated operations we must consider in another place, and confine our attention at present to the solutions by water and caloric.

CAROLINE.

But there are a variety of substances which, when dissolved in water, make it thick and muddy, and destroy its transparency.

MRS. B.

In this case it is not a solution, but simply a mixture. I shall show you the difference between a solution and a mixture, by putting some common salt into one glass of water, and some powder of chalk into another; both these substances are white, but their effect on the water will be very different.

CAROLINE.

Very different indeed! The salt entirely disappears and leaves the water transparent, whilst the chalk changes it into an opaque liquid like milk.

EMILY.

And would lumps of chalk and salt produce similar effects on water?

MRS. B.

Yes, but not so rapidly; salt is, indeed, soon melted though in a lump; but chalk, which does not mix so readily with water, would require a much greater length of time; I therefore preferred showing you the experiment with both substances reduced to powder, which does not in any respect alter their nature, but facilitates the operation merely by presenting a greater quantity of surface to the water.

I must not forget to mention a very curious circumstance respecting solutions, which is, that a fluid is not nearly so much increased in bulk by holding a body in solution, as it would by mere mixture with the body.

CAROLINE.

That seems impossible; for two bodies cannot exist together in the same space.

MRS. B.

Two bodies may, by condensation, occupy less space when in union than when separate, and this I can show you by an easy experiment.

This phial, which contains some salt, I shall fill with water, pouring it in quickly, so as not to dissolve much of the salt; and when it is quite full I cork it. —If I now shake the phial till the salt is dissolved, you will observe that it is no longer full.

CAROLINE.

I shall try to add a little more salt. —But now, you see, Mrs. B., the water runs over.

MRS. B.

Yes; but observe that the last quantity of salt you put in remains solid at the bottom, and displaces the water; for it has already melted all the salt it is capable of holding in solution. This is called the point of saturation; and the water in this case is said to be saturated with salt.

EMILY.

I think I now understand the solution of a solid body by water perfectly: but I have not so clear an idea of the solution of a liquid by caloric.

MRS. B.

It is probably of a similar nature; but as caloric is an invisible fluid, its action as a solvent is not so obvious as that of water. Caloric, we may conceive, dissolves water, and converts it into vapour by the same process as water dissolves salt; that is to say, the particles of water are so minutely divided by the caloric as to become invisible. Thus, you are now enabled to understand why the vapour of boiling water, when it first issues from the spout of a kettle, is invisible; it is so, because it is then completely dissolved by caloric. But the air with which it comes in contact, being much colder than the vapour, the latter yields to it a quantity of its caloric. The particles of vapour being thus in a great measure deprived of their solvent, gradually collect, and become visible in the form of steam, which is water in a state of imperfect solution; and if you were further to deprive it of its caloric, it would return to its original liquid state.

CAROLINE.

That I understand very well. If you hold a cold plate over a tea-urn, the steam issuing from it will be immediately converted into drops of water by parting with its caloric to the plate; but in what state is the steam, when it becomes invisible by being diffused in the air?

MRS. B.

It is not merely diffused, but is again dissolved by the air.

EMILY.

The air, then, has a solvent power, like water and caloric?

MRS. B.

This was formerly believed to be the case. But it appears from more recent enquiries that the solvent power of the atmosphere depends solely upon the caloric contained in it. Sometimes the watery vapour diffused in the atmosphere is but imperfectly dissolved, as is the case in the formation of clouds and fogs; but if it gets into a region sufficiently warm, it becomes perfectly invisible.

EMILY.

Can any water dissolve in the atmosphere without its being previously converted into vapour by boiling?

MRS. B.

Unquestionably; and this constitutes the difference between vaporization and evaporation. Water, when heated to the boiling point, can no longer exist in the form of water, and must necessarily be converted into vapour or steam, whatever may be the state and temperature of the surrounding medium; this is called vaporization. But the atmosphere, by means of the caloric it contains, can take up a certain portion of water at any temperature, and hold it in a state of solution. This is simply evaporation. Thus the atmosphere is continually carrying off moisture from the surface of the earth, until it is saturated with it.

CAROLINE.

That is the case, no doubt, when we feel the atmosphere damp.

MRS. B.

On the contrary, when the moisture is well dissolved it occasions no humidity: it is only when in a state of imperfect solution and floating in the atmosphere, in the form of watery vapour, that it produces dampness. This happens more frequently in winter than in summer; for the lower the temperature of the atmosphere, the less water it can dissolve; and in reality it never contains so much moisture as in a dry hot summer's day.

CAROLINE.

You astonish me! But why, then, is the air so dry in frosty weather, when its temperature is at the lowest?

EMILY.

This, I conjecture, proceeds not so much from the moisture being dissolved, as from its being frozen; is not that the case?

MRS. B.

It is; and the freezing of the watery vapour which the atmospheric heat could not dissolve, produces what is called a hoar frost; for the particles descend in freezing, and attach themselves to whatever they meet with on the surface of the earth.

The tendency of free caloric to an equilibrium, together with its solvent power, are likewise connected with the phenomena of rain, of dew, &c. When moist air of a certain temperature happens to pass through a colder region of the atmosphere, it parts with a portion of its heat to the surrounding air; the quantity of caloric, therefore, which served to keep the water in a state of vapour, being diminished, the watery particles approach each other, and form themselves into drops of water, which being heavier than the atmosphere, descend to the earth. There are also other circumstances, and particularly the variation in the weight of the atmosphere, which may contribute to the formation of rain. This, however, is an intricate subject, into which we cannot more fully enter at present.

EMILY.

In what manner do you account for the formation of dew?

MRS. B.

Dew is a deposition of watery particles or minute drops from the atmosphere, precipitated by the coolness of the evening.

CAROLINE.

This precipitation is owing, I suppose, to the cooling of the atmosphere, which prevents its retaining so great a quantity of watery vapour in solution as during the heat of the day.

MRS. B.

Such was, from time immemorial, the generally received opinion respecting the cause of dew; but it has been very recently proved by a course of ingenious experiments of Dr. Wells, that the deposition of dew is produced by the cooling of the surface of the earth, which he has shown to take place previously to the cooling of the atmosphere; for on examining the temperature of a plot of grass just before the dew-fall, he found that it was considerably colder than the air a few feet above it, from which the dew was shortly after precipitated.

EMILY.

But why should the earth cool in the evening sooner than the atmosphere?

MRS. B.

Because it parts with its heat more readily than the air; the earth is an excellent radiator of caloric, whilst the atmosphere does not possess that property, at least in any sensible degree. Towards evening, therefore, when the solar heat declines, and when after sunset it entirely ceases, the earth rapidly cools by radiating heat towards the skies; whilst the air has no means of parting with its heat but by coming into contact with the cooled surface of the earth, to which it communicates its caloric. Its solvent power being thus reduced, it is unable to retain so large a portion of watery vapour, and deposits those pearly drops which we call dew.

EMILY.

If this be the cause of dew, we need not be apprehensive of receiving any injury from it; for it can be deposited only on surfaces that are colder than the atmosphere, which is never the case with our bodies.

MRS. B.

Very true; yet I would not advise you for this reason to be too confident of escaping all the ill effects which may arise from exposure to the dew; for it may be deposited on your clothes, and chill you afterwards by its evaporation from them. Besides, whenever the dew is copious, there is a chill in the atmosphere which it is not always safe to encounter.

CAROLINE.

Wind, then, must promote the deposition of dew, by bringing a more rapid succession of particles of air in contact with the earth, just as it promotes the cooling of the earth and warming of the atmosphere during the heat of the day?

MRS. B.

Yes; provided the wind be unattended with clouds, for these accumulations of moisture not only prevent the free radiation of the earth towards the upper regions, but themselves radiate towards the earth; under these circumstances much less dew is formed than on fine clear nights, when the radiation of the earth passes without obstacle through the atmosphere to the distant regions of space, whence it receives no caloric in exchange. The dew continues to be deposited during the night, and is generally most abundant towards morning, when the contrast between the temperature of the earth and that of the air is greatest. After sunrise the equilibrium of temperature between these two bodies is gradually restored by the solar rays passing freely through the atmosphere to the earth; and later in the morning the temperature of the earth gains the ascendency, and gives out caloric to the air by contact, in the same manner as it receives it from the air during the night. —Can you tell me, now, why a bottle of wine taken fresh from the cellar (in summer particularly), will soon be covered with dew; and even the glasses into which the wine is poured will be moistened with a similar vapour?

EMILY.

The bottle being colder than the surrounding air, must absorb caloric from it; the moisture therefore which that air contained becomes visible, and forms the dew which is deposited on the bottle.

MRS. B.

Very well, Emily. Now, Caroline, can you inform me why, in a warm room, or close carriage, the contrary effect takes place; that is to say, that the inside of the windows is covered with vapour?

CAROLINE.

I have heard that it proceeds from the breath of those within the room or the carriage; and I suppose it is occasioned by the windows which, being colder than the breath, deprive it of part of its caloric, and by this means convert it into watery vapour.

MRS. B.

You have both explained it extremely well. Bodies attract dew in proportion as they are good radiators of caloric, as it is this quality which reduces their temperature below that of the atmosphere; hence we find that little or no dew is deposited on rocks, sand, water; while grass and living vegetables, to which it is so highly beneficial, attract it in abundance—another remarkable instance of the wise and bountiful dispensations of Providence.

EMILY.

And we may again observe it in the abundance of dew in summer, and in hot climates, when its cooling effects are so much required; but I do not understand what natural cause increases the dew in hot weather?

MRS. B.

The more caloric the earth receives during the day, the more it will radiate afterwards, and consequently the more rapidly its temperature will be reduced in the evening, in comparison to that of the atmosphere. In the West-Indies especially, where the intense heat of the day is strongly contrasted with the coolness of the evening, the dew is prodigiously abundant. During a drought, the dew is less plentiful, as the earth is not sufficiently supplied with moisture to be able to saturate the atmosphere.

CAROLINE.

I have often observed, Mrs. B., that when I walk out in frosty weather, with a veil over my face, my breath freezes upon it. Pray what is the reason of that?

MRS. B.

It is because the cold air immediately seizes on the caloric of your breath, and, by robbing it of its solvent, reduces it to a denser fluid, which is the watery vapour that settles on your veil, and there it continues parting with its caloric till it is brought down to the temperature of the atmosphere, and assumes the form of ice.

You may, perhaps, have observed that the breath of animals, or rather the moisture contained in it, is visible in damp weather, or during a frost. In the former case, the atmosphere being over-saturated with moisture, can dissolve no more. In the latter, the cold condenses it into visible vapour; and for the same reason, the steam arising from water that is warmer than the atmosphere, becomes visible. Have you never taken notice of the vapour rising from your hands after having dipped them into warm water?

CAROLINE.

Frequently, especially in frosty weather.

MRS. B.

We have already observed that pressure is an obstacle to evaporation: there are liquids that contain so great a quantity of caloric, and whose particles consequently adhere so slightly together, that they may be rapidly converted into vapour without any elevation of temperature, merely by taking off the weight of the atmosphere. In such liquids, you perceive, it is the pressure of the atmosphere alone that connects their particles, and keeps them in a liquid state.

CAROLINE.

I do not well understand why the particles of such fluids should be disunited and converted into vapour, without any elevation of temperature, in spite of the attraction of cohesion.

MRS. B.

It is because the degree of heat at which we usually observe these fluids is sufficient to overcome their attraction of cohesion. Ether is of this description; it will boil and be converted into vapour, at the common temperature of the air, if the pressure of the atmosphere be taken off.

EMILY.

I thought that ether would evaporate without either the pressure of the atmosphere being taken away, or heat applied; and that it was for that reason so necessary to keep it carefully corked up?

MRS. B.

It is true it will evaporate, but without ebullition; what I am now speaking of is the vaporization of ether, or its conversion into vapour by boiling. I am going to show you how suddenly the ether in this phial will be converted into vapour, by means of the air-pump. —Observe with what rapidity the bubbles ascend, as I take off the pressure of the atmosphere.

CAROLINE.

It positively boils: how singular to see a liquid boil without heat!

MRS. B.

Now I shall place the phial of ether in this glass, which it nearly fits, so as to leave only a small space, which I fill with water; and in this state I put it again under the receiver. (PLATE IV. Fig. 1.)* You will observe, as I exhaust the air from it, that whilst the ether boils, the water freezes.

[Footnote *: Two pieces of thin glass tubes, sealed at one end, might answer this purpose better. The experiment, however, as here described, is difficult, and requires a very nice apparatus. But if, instead of phials or tubes, two watch-glasses be used, water may be frozen almost instantly in the same manner. The two glasses are placed over one another, with a few drops of water interposed between them, and the uppermost glass is filled with ether. After working the pump for a minute or two, the glasses are found to adhere strongly together, and a thin layer of ice is seen between them.]

CAROLINE.

It is indeed wonderful to see water freeze in contact with a boiling fluid!

EMILY.

I am at a loss to conceive how the ether can pass to the state of vapour without an addition of caloric. Does it not contain more caloric in a state of vapour, than in a state of liquidity?

MRS. B.

It certainly does; for though it is the pressure of the atmosphere which condenses it into a liquid, it is by forcing out the caloric that belongs to it when in an aeriform state.

EMILY.

You have, therefore, two difficulties to explain, Mrs. B. —First, from whence the ether obtains the caloric necessary to convert it into vapour when it is relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere; and, secondly, what is the reason that the water, in which the bottle of ether stands, is frozen?

CAROLINE.

Now, I think, I can answer both these questions. The ether obtains the addition of caloric required, from the water in the glass; and the loss of caloric, which the latter sustains, is the occasion of its freezing.

MRS. B.

You are perfectly right; and if you look at the thermometer which I have placed in the water, whilst I am working the pump, you will see that every time bubbles of vapour are produced, the mercury descends; which proves that the heat of the water diminishes in proportion as the ether boils.

EMILY.

This I understand now very well; but if the water freezes in consequence of yielding its caloric to the ether, the equilibrium of heat must, in this case, be totally destroyed. Yet you have told us, that the exchange of caloric between two bodies of equal temperature, was always equal; how, then, is it that the water, which was originally of the same temperature as the ether, gives out caloric to it, till the water is frozen, and the ether made to boil?

MRS. B.

I suspected that you would make these objections; and, in order to remove them, I enclosed two thermometers in the air-pump; one which stands in the glass of water, the other in the phial of ether; and you may see that the equilibrium of temperature is not destroyed; for as the thermometer descends in the water, that in the ether sinks in the same manner; so that both thermometers indicate the same temperature, though one of them is in a boiling, the other in a freezing liquid.

EMILY.

The ether, then, becomes colder as it boils? This is so contrary to common experience, that I confess it astonishes me exceedingly.

CAROLINE.

It is, indeed, a most extraordinary circumstance. But pray, how do you account for it?

MRS. B.

I cannot satisfy your curiosity at present; for before we can attempt to explain this apparent paradox, it is necessary to become acquainted with the subject of LATENT HEAT: and that, I think, we must defer till our next interview.

CAROLINE.

I believe, Mrs. B., that you are glad to put off the explanation; for it must be a very difficult point to account for.

MRS. B.

I hope, however, that I shall do it to your complete satisfaction.

EMILY.

But before we part, give me leave to ask you one question. Would not water, as well as ether, boil with less heat, if deprived of the pressure of the atmosphere?

MRS. B.

Undoubtedly. You must always recollect that there are two forces to overcome, in order to make a liquid boil or evaporate; the attraction of aggregation, and the weight of the atmosphere. On the summit of a high mountain (as Mr. De Saussure ascertained on Mount Blanc) much less heat is required to make water boil, than in the plain, where the weight of the atmosphere is greater.* Indeed if the weight of the atmosphere be entirely removed by means of a good air-pump, and if water be placed in the exhausted receiver, it will evaporate so fast, however cold it maybe, as to give it the appearance of boiling from the surface. But without the assistance of the air-pump, I can show you a very pretty experiment, which proves the effect of the pressure of the atmosphere in this respect.

Observe, that this Florence flask is about half full of water, and the upper half of invisible vapour, the water being in the act of boiling. —I take it from the lamp, and cork it carefully—the water, you see, immediately ceases boiling. —I shall now dip the flask into a bason of cold water.**

[Footnote *: On the top of Mount Blanc, water boiled when heated only to 187 degrees, instead of 212 degrees.]

[Footnote **: The same effect may be produced by wrapping a cold wet linen cloth round the upper part of the flask. In order to show how much the water cools whilst it is boiling, a thermometer, graduated on the tube itself, may be introduced into the bottle through the cork.]

CAROLINE.

But look, Mrs. B., the hot water begins to boil again, although the cold water must rob it more and more of its caloric! What can be the reason of that?

MRS. B.

Let us examine its temperature. You see the thermometer immersed in it remains stationary at 180 degrees, which is about 30 degrees below the boiling point. When I took the flask from the lamp, I observed to you that the upper part of it was filled with vapour; this being compelled to yield its caloric to the cold water, was again condensed into water— What, then, filled the upper part of the flask?

EMILY.

Nothing; for it was too well corked for the air to gain admittance, and therefore the upper part of the flask must be a vacuum.

MRS. B.

The water below, therefore, no longer sustains the pressure of the atmosphere, and will consequently boil at a much lower temperature. Thus, you see, though it had lost many degrees of heat, it began boiling again the instant the vacuum was formed above it. The boiling has now ceased, the temperature of the water being still farther reduced; if it had been ether, instead of water, it would have continued boiling much longer, for ether boils, under the usual atmospheric pressure, at a temperature as low as 100 degrees; and in a vacuum it boils at almost any temperature; but water being a more dense fluid, requires a more considerable quantity of caloric to make it evaporate quickly, even when the pressure of the atmosphere is removed.

EMILY.

What proportion of vapour can the atmosphere contain in a state of solution?

MRS. B.

I do not know whether it has been exactly ascertained by experiment; but at any rate this proportion must vary, both according to the temperature and the weight of the atmosphere; for the lower the temperature, and the greater the pressure, the smaller must be the proportion of vapour that the atmosphere can contain.

To conclude the subject of free caloric, I should mention Ignition, by which is meant that emission of light which is produced in bodies at a very high temperature, and which is the effect of accumulated caloric.

EMILY.

You mean, I suppose, that light which is produced by a burning body?

MRS. B.

No: ignition is quite independent of combustion. Clay, chalk, and indeed all incombustible substances, may be made red hot. When a body burns, the light emitted is the effect of a chemical change which takes place, whilst ignition is the effect of caloric alone, and no other change than that of temperature is produced in the ignited body.

All solid bodies, and most liquids, are susceptible of ignition, or, in other words, of being heated so as to become luminous; and it is remarkable that this takes place pretty nearly at the same temperature in all bodies, that is, at about 800 degrees of Fahrenheit's scale.

EMILY.

But how can liquids attain so high a temperature, without being converted into vapour?

MRS. B.

By means of confinement and pressure. Water confined in a strong iron vessel (called Papin's digester) can have its temperature raised to upwards of 400 degrees. Sir James Hall has made some very curious experiments on the effects of heat assisted by pressure; by means of strong gun-barrels, he succeeded in melting a variety of substances which were considered as infusible: and it is not unlikely that, by similar methods, water itself might be heated to redness.

EMILY.

I am surprised at that: for I thought that the force of steam was such as to destroy almost all mechanical resistance.

MRS. B.

The expansive force of steam is prodigious; but in order to subject water to such high temperatures, it is prevented by confinement from being converted into steam, and the expansion of heated water is comparatively trifling. —But we have dwelt so long on the subject of free caloric, that we must reserve the other modifications of that agent to our next meeting, when we shall endeavour to proceed more rapidly.



CONVERSATION IV.

ON COMBINED CALORIC, COMPREHENDING SPECIFIC AND LATENT HEAT.

MRS. B.

We are now to examine the other modifications of caloric.

CAROLINE.

I am very curious to know of what nature they can be; for I have no notion of any kind of heat that is not perceptible to the senses.

MRS. B.

In order to enable you to understand them, it will be necessary to enter into some previous explanations.

It has been discovered by modern chemists, that bodies of a different nature, heated to the same temperature, do not contain the same quantity of caloric.

CAROLINE.

How could that be ascertained? Have you not told us that it is impossible to discover the absolute quantity of caloric which bodies contain?

MRS. B.

True; but at the same time I said that we were enabled to form a judgment of the proportions which bodies bore to each other in this respect. Thus it is found that, in order to raise the temperature of different bodies the same number of degrees, different quantities of caloric are required for each of them. If, for instance, you place a pound of lead, a pound of chalk, and a pound of milk, in a hot oven, they will be gradually heated to the temperature of the oven; but the lead will attain it first, the chalk next, and the milk last.

CAROLINE.

That is a natural consequence of their different bulks; the lead being the smallest body, will be heated soonest, and the milk, which is the largest, will require the longest time.

MRS. B.

That explanation will not do, for if the lead be the least in bulk, it offers also the least surface to the caloric, the quantity of heat therefore which can enter into it in the same space of time is proportionally smaller.

EMILY.

Why, then, do not the three bodies attain the temperature of the oven at the same time?

MRS. B.

It is supposed to be on account of the different capacity of these bodies for caloric.

CAROLINE.

What do you mean by the capacity of a body for caloric?

MRS. B.

I mean a certain disposition of bodies to require more or less caloric for raising their temperature to any degree of heat. Perhaps the fact may be thus explained:

Let us put as many marbles into this glass as it will contain, and pour some sand over them—observe how the sand penetrates and lodges between them. We shall now fill another glass with pebbles of various forms—you see that they arrange themselves in a more compact manner than the marbles, which, being globular, can touch each other by a single point only. The pebbles, therefore, will not admit so much sand between them; and consequently one of these glasses will necessarily contain more sand than the other, though both of them be equally full.

CAROLINE.

This I understand perfectly. The marbles and the pebbles represent two bodies of different kinds, and the sand the caloric contained in them; it appears very plain, from this comparison, that one body may admit of more caloric between its particles than another.

MRS. B.

You can no longer be surprised, therefore, that bodies of a different capacity for caloric should require different proportions of that fluid to raise their temperatures equally.

EMILY.

But I do not conceive why the body that contains the most caloric should not be of the highest temperature; that is to say, feel hot in proportion to the quantity of caloric it contains?

MRS. B.

The caloric that is employed in filling the capacity of a body, is not free caloric; but is imprisoned as it were in the body, and is therefore imperceptible: for we can feel only the caloric which the body parts with, and not that which it retains.

CAROLINE.

It appears to me very extraordinary that heat should be confined in a body in such a manner as to be imperceptible.

MRS. B.

If you lay your hand on a hot body, you feel only the caloric which leaves it, and enters your hand; for it is impossible that you should be sensible of that which remains in the body. The thermometer, in the same manner, is affected only by the free caloric which a body transmits to it, and not at all by that which it does not part with.

CAROLINE.

I begin to understand it: but I confess that the idea of insensible heat is so new and strange to me, that it requires some time to render it familiar.

MRS. B.

Call it insensible caloric, and the difficulty will appear much less formidable. It is indeed a sort of contradiction to call it heat, when it is so situated as to be incapable of producing that sensation. Yet this modification of caloric is commonly called SPECIFIC HEAT.

CAROLINE.

But it certainly would have been more correct to have called it specific caloric.

EMILY.

I do not understand how the term specific applies to this modification of caloric?

MRS. B.

It expresses the relative quantity of caloric which different species of bodies of the same weight and temperature are capable of containing. This modification is also frequently called heat of capacity, a term perhaps preferable, as it explains better its own meaning.

You now understand, I suppose, why the milk and chalk required a longer portion of time than the lead to raise their temperature to that of the oven?

EMILY.

Yes: the milk and chalk having a greater capacity for caloric than the lead, a greater proportion of that fluid became insensible in those bodies: and the more slowly, therefore, their temperature was raised.

CAROLINE.

But might not this difference proceed from the different conducting powers of heat in these three bodies, since that which is the best conductor must necessarily attain the temperature of the oven first?

MRS. B.

Very well observed, Caroline. This objection would be insurmountable, if we could not, by reversing the experiment, prove that the milk, the chalk, and the lead, actually absorbed different quantities of caloric, and we know that if the different time they took in heating, proceeded merely from their different conducting powers, they would each have acquired an equal quantity of caloric.

CAROLINE.

Certainly. But how can you reverse this experiment?

MRS. B.

It may be done by cooling the several bodies to the same degree in an apparatus adapted to receive and measure the caloric which they give out. Thus, if you plunge them into three equal quantities of water, each at the same temperature, you will be able to judge of the relative quantity of caloric which the three bodies contained, by that, which, in cooling, they communicated to their respective portions of water: for the same quantity of caloric which they each absorbed to raise their temperature, will abandon them in lowering it; and on examining the three vessels of water, you will find the one in which you immersed the lead to be the least heated; that which held the chalk will be the next; and that which contained the milk will be heated the most of all. The celebrated Lavoisier has invented a machine to estimate, upon this principle, the specific heat of bodies in a more perfect manner; but I cannot explain it to you, till you are acquainted with the next modification of caloric.

EMILY.

The more dense a body is, I suppose, the less is its capacity for caloric?

MRS. B.

This is not always the case with bodies of different nature; iron, for instance, contains more specific heat than tin, though it is more dense. This seems to show that specific heat does hot merely depend upon the interstices between the particles; but, probably, also upon some peculiar constitution of the bodies which we do not comprehend.

EMILY.

But, Mrs. B., it would appear to me more proper to compare bodies by measure, rather than by weight, in order to estimate their specific heat. Why, for instance, should we not compare pints of milk, of chalk, and of lead, rather than pounds of those substances; for equal weights may be composed of very different quantities?

MRS. B.

You are mistaken, my dear; equal weight must contain equal quantities of matter; and when we wish to know what is the relative quantity of caloric, which substances of various kinds are capable of containing under the same temperature, we must compare equal weights, and not equal bulks of those substances. Bodies of the same weight may undoubtedly be of very different dimensions; but that does not change their real quantity of matter. A pound of feathers does not contain one atom more than a pound of lead.

CAROLINE.

I have another difficulty to propose. It appears to me, that if the temperature of the three bodies in the oven did not rise equally, they would never reach the same degree; the lead would always keep its advantage over the chalk and milk, and would perhaps be boiling before the others had attained the temperature of the oven. I think you might as well say that, in the course of time, you and I should be of the same age?

MRS. B.

Your comparison is not correct, Caroline. As soon as the lead reached the temperature of the oven, it would remain stationary; for it would then give out as much heat as it would receive. You should recollect that the exchange of radiating heat, between two bodies of equal temperature, is equal: it would be impossible, therefore, for the lead to accumulate heat after having attained the temperature of the oven; and that of the chalk and milk therefore would ultimately arrive at the same standard. Now I fear that this will not hold good with respect to our ages, and that, as long as I live, I shall never cease to keep my advantage over you.

EMILY.

I think that I have found a comparison for specific heat, which is very applicable. Suppose that two men of equal weight and bulk, but who required different quantities of food to satisfy their appetites, sit down to dinner, both equally hungry; the one would consume a much greater quantity of provisions than the other, in order to be equally satisfied.

MRS. B.

Yes, that is very fair; for the quantity of food necessary to satisfy their respective appetites, varies in the same manner as the quantity of caloric requisite to raise equally the temperature of different bodies.

EMILY.

The thermometer, then, affords no indication of the specific heat of bodies?

MRS. B.

None at all: no more than satiety is a test of the quantity of food eaten. The thermometer, as I have repeatedly said, can be affected only by free caloric, which alone raises the temperature of bodies.

But there is another mode of proving the existence of specific heat, which affords a very satisfactory illustration of that modification. This, however, I did not enlarge upon before, as I thought it might appear to you rather complicated. —If you mix two fluids of different temperatures, let us say the one at 50 degrees, and the other at 100 degrees, of what temperature do you suppose the mixture will be?

CAROLINE.

It will be no doubt the medium between the two, that is to say, 75 degrees.

MRS. B.

That will be the case if the two bodies happen to have the same capacity for caloric; but if not, a different result will be obtained. Thus, for instance, if you mix together a pound of mercury, heated at 50 degrees, and a pound of water heated at 100 degrees, the temperature of the mixture, instead of being 75 degrees, will be 80 degrees; so that the water will have lost only 12 degrees, whilst the mercury will have gained 38 degrees; from which you will conclude that the capacity of mercury for heat is less than that of water.

CAROLINE.

I wonder that mercury should have so little specific heat. Did we not see it was a much better conductor of heat than water?

MRS. B.

And it is precisely on that account that its specific heat is less. For since the conductive power of bodies depends, as we have observed before, on their readiness to receive heat and part with it, it is natural to expect that those bodies which are the worst conductors should absorb the most caloric before they are disposed to part with it to other bodies. But let us now proceed to LATENT HEAT.

CAROLINE.

And pray what kind of heat is that?

MRS. B.

It is another modification of combined caloric, which is so analogous to specific heat, that most chemists make no distinction between them; but Mr. Pictet, in his Essay on Fire, has so clearly discriminated them, that I am induced to adopt his view of the subject. We therefore call latent heat that portion of insensible caloric which is employed in changing the state of bodies; that is to say, in converting solids into liquids, or liquids; into vapour. When a body changes its state from solid to liquid, or from liquid to vapour, its expansion occasions a sudden and considerable increase of capacity for heat, in consequence of which it immediately absorbs a quantity of caloric, which becomes fixed in the body which it has transformed; and, as it is perfectly concealed from our senses, it has obtained the name of latent heat.

CAROLINE.

I think it would be much more correct to call this modification latent caloric instead of latent heat, since it does not excite the sensation of heat.

MRS. B.

This modification of heat was discovered and named by Dr. Black long before the French chemists introduced the term caloric, and we must not presume to alter it, as it is still used by much better chemists than ourselves. And, besides, you are not to suppose that the nature of heat is altered by being variously modified: for if latent heat and specific heat do not excite the same sensations as free caloric, it is owing to their being in a state of confinement, which prevents them from acting upon our organs; and consequently, as soon as they are extricated from the body in which they are imprisoned, they return to their state of free caloric.

EMILY.

But I do not yet clearly see in what respect latent heat differs from specific heat; for they are both of them imprisoned and concealed in bodies.

MRS. B.

Specific heat is that which is employed in filling the capacity of a body for caloric, in the state in which this body actually exists; while latent heat is that which is employed only in effecting a change of state, that is, in converting bodies from a solid to a liquid, or from a liquid to an aeriform state. But I think that, in a general point of view, both these modifications might be comprehended under the name of heat of capacity, as in both cases the caloric is equally engaged in filling the capacities of bodies.

I shall now show you an experiment, which I hope will give you a clear idea of what is understood by latent heat.

The snow which you see in this phial has been cooled by certain chemical means (which I cannot well explain to you at present), to 5 or 6 degrees below the freezing point, as you will find indicated by the thermometer which is placed in it. We shall expose it to the heat of a lamp, and you will see the thermometer gradually rise, till it reaches the freezing point——

EMILY.

But there it stops, Mrs. B., and yet the lamp burns just as well as before. Why is not its heat communicated to the thermometer?

CAROLINE.

And the snow begins to melt, therefore it must be rising above the freezing point?

MRS. B.

The heat no longer affects the thermometer, because it is wholly employed in converting the ice into water. As the ice melts, the caloric becomes latent in the new-formed liquid, and therefore cannot raise its temperature; and the thermometer will consequently remain stationary, till the whole of the ice be melted.

CAROLINE.

Now it is all melted, and the thermometer begins to rise again.

MRS. B.

Because the conversion of the ice into water being completed, the caloric no longer becomes latent; and therefore the heat which the water now receives raises its temperature, as you find the thermometer indicates.

EMILY.

But I do not think that the thermometer rises so quickly in the water as it did in the ice, previous to its beginning to melt, though the lamp burns equally well?

MRS. B.

That is owing to the different specific heat of ice and water. The capacity of water for caloric being greater than that of ice, more heat is required to raise its temperature, and therefore the thermometer rises slower in the water than in the ice.

EMILY.

True; you said that a solid body always increased its capacity for heat by becoming fluid; and this is an instance of it.

MRS. B.

Yes, and the latent heat is that which is absorbed in consequence of the greater capacity which the water has for heat, in comparison to ice.

I must now tell you a curious calculation founded on that consideration. I have before observed to you that though the thermometer shows us the comparative warmth of bodies, and enables us to determine the same point at different times and places, it gives us no idea of the absolute quantity of heat in any body. We cannot tell how low it ought to fall by the privation of all heat, but an attempt has been made to infer it in the following manner. It has been found by experiment, that the capacity of water for heat, when compared with that of ice, is as 10 to 9, so that, at the same temperature, ice contains one tenth of caloric less than water. By experiment also it is observed, that in order to melt ice, there must be added to it as much heat, as would, if it did not melt it, raise its temperature 140 degrees. This quantity of heat is therefore absorbed when the ice, by being converted into water, is made to contain one-ninth more caloric than it did before. Therefore 140 degrees is a ninth part of the heat contained in ice at 30 degrees; and the point of zero, or the absolute privation of heat, must consequently be 1260 degrees below 32 degrees.

This mode of investigating so curious a question is ingenious, but its correctness is not yet established by similar calculations for other bodies. The points of absolute cold, indicated by this method in various bodies, are very remote from each other; it is however possible, that this may arise from some imperfection in the experiments.

CAROLINE.

It is indeed very ingenious—but we must now attend to our present experiment. The water begins to boil, and the thermometer is again stationary.

MRS. B.

Well, Caroline, it is your turn to explain the phenomenon.

CAROLINE.

It is wonderfully curious! The caloric is now busy in changing the water into steam, in which it hides itself, and becomes insensible. This is another example of latent heat, producing a change of form. At first it converted a solid body into a liquid, and now it turns the liquid into vapour!

MRS. B.

You see, my dear, how easily you have become acquainted with these modifications of insensible heat, which at first appeared so unintelligible. If, now, we were to reverse these changes, and condense the vapour into water, and the water into ice, the latent heat would re-appear entirely, in the form of free caloric.

EMILY.

Pray do let us see the effect of latent heat returning to its free state.

MRS. B.

For the purpose of showing this, we need simply conduct the vapour through this tube into this vessel of cold water, where it will part with its latent heat and return to its liquid form.

EMILY.

How rapidly the steam heats the water!

MRS. B.

That is because it does not merely impart its free caloric to the water, but likewise its latent heat. This method of heating liquids, has been turned to advantage, in several economical establishments. The steam-kitchens, which are getting into such general use, are upon the same principle. The steam is conveyed through a pipe in a similar manner, into the several vessels which contain the provisions to be dressed, where it communicates to them its latent caloric, and returns to the state of water. Count Rumford makes great use of this principle in many of his fire-places: his grand maxim is to avoid all unnecessary waste of caloric, for which purpose he confines the heat in such a manner, that not a particle of it shall unnecessarily escape; and while he economises the free caloric, he takes care also to turn the latent heat to advantage. It is thus that he is enabled to produce a degree of heat superior to that which is obtained in common fire-places, though he employs less fuel.

EMILY.

When the advantages of such contrivances are so clear and plain, I cannot understand why they are not universally used.

MRS. B.

A long time is always required before innovations, however useful, can be reconciled with the prejudices of the vulgar.

EMILY.

What a pity it is that there should be a prejudice against new inventions; how much more rapidly the world would improve, if such useful discoveries were immediately and universally adopted!

MRS. B.

I believe, my dear, that there are as many novelties attempted to be introduced, the adoption of which would be prejudicial to society, as there are of those which would be beneficial to it. The well-informed, though by no means exempt from error, have an unquestionable advantage over the illiterate, in judging what is likely or not to prove serviceable; and therefore we find the former more ready to adopt such discoveries as promise to be really advantageous, than the latter, who having no other test of the value of a novelty but time and experience, at first oppose its introduction. The well-informed, however, are frequently disappointed in their most sanguine expectations, and the prejudices of the vulgar, though they often retard the progress of knowledge, yet sometimes, it must be admitted, prevent the propagation of error. —But we are deviating from our subject.

We have converted steam into water, and are now to change water into ice, in order to render the latent heat sensible, as it escapes from the water on its becoming solid. For this purpose we must produce a degree of cold that will make water freeze.

CAROLINE.

That must be very difficult to accomplish in this warm room.

MRS. B.

Not so much as you think. There are certain chemical mixtures which produce a rapid change from the solid to the fluid state, or the reverse, in the substances combined, in consequence of which change latent heat is either extricated or absorbed.

EMILY.

I do not quite understand you.

MRS. B.

This snow and salt, which you see me mix together, are melting rapidly; heat, therefore, must be absorbed by the mixture, and cold produced.

CAROLINE.

It feels even colder than ice, and yet the snow is melted. This is very extraordinary.

MRS. B.

The cause of the intense cold of the mixture is to be attributed to the change from a solid to a fluid state. The union of the snow and salt produces a new arrangement of their particles, in consequence of which they become liquid; and the quantity of caloric, required to effect this change, is seized upon by the mixture wherever it can be obtained. This eagerness of the mixture for caloric, during its liquefaction, is such, that it converts part of its own free caloric into latent heat, and it is thus that its temperature is lowered.

EMILY.

Whatever you put in this mixture, therefore, would freeze?

MRS. B.

Yes; at least any fluid that is susceptible of freezing at that temperature. I have prepared this mixture of salt and snow for the purpose of freezing the water from which you are desirous of seeing the latent heat escape. I have put a thermometer in the glass of water that is to be frozen, in order that you may see how it cools.

CAROLINE.

The thermometer descends, but the heat which the water is now losing, is its free, not its latent heat.

MRS. B.

Certainly; it does not part with its latent heat till it changes its state and is converted into ice.

EMILY.

But here is a very extraordinary circumstance! The thermometer is fallen below the freezing point, and yet the water is not frozen.

MRS. B.

That is always the case previous to the freezing of water when it is in a state of rest. Now it begins to congeal, and you may observe that the thermometer again rises to the freezing point.

CAROLINE.

It appears to me very strange that the thermometer should rise the very moment that the water freezes; for it seems to imply that the water was colder before it froze than when in the act of freezing.

MRS. B.

It is so; and after our long dissertation on this circumstance, I did not think it would appear so surprising to you. Reflect a little, and I think you will discover the reason of it.

CAROLINE.

It must be, no doubt, the extrications of latent heat, at the instant the water freezes, that raises the temperature.

MRS. B.

Certainly; and if you now examine the thermometer, you will find that its rise was but temporary, and lasted only during the disengagement of the latent heat—now that all the water is frozen it falls again, and will continue to fall till the ice and mixture are of an equal temperature.

EMILY.

And can you show us any experiments in which liquids, by being mixed, become solid, and disengage latent heat?

MRS. B.

I could show you several; but you are not yet sufficiently advanced to understand them well. I shall, however, try one, which will afford you a striking instance of the fact. The fluid which you see in this phial consists of a quantity of a certain salt called muriat of lime, dissolved in water. Now, if I pour into it a few drops of this other fluid, called sulphuric acid, the whole, or very nearly the whole, will be instantaneously converted into a solid mass.

EMILY.

How white it turns! I feel the latent heat escaping, for the bottle is warm, and the fluid is changed to a solid white substance like chalk!

CAROLINE.

This is, indeed, the most curious experiment we have seen yet. But pray what is that white vapour that ascends from the mixture?

MRS. B.

You are not yet enough of a chemist to understand that. —But take care, Caroline, do not approach too near it, for it has a very pungent smell.

I shall show you another instance similar to that of the water, which you observed to become warmer as it froze. I have in this phial a solution of a salt called sulphat of soda or Glauber's salt, made very strong, and corked up when it was hot, and kept without agitation till it became cold, as you may feel the phial is. Now when I take out the cork and let the air fall upon it, (for being closed when boiling, there was a vacuum in the upper part) observe that the salt will suddenly crystallize. . . .

CAROLINE.

Surprising! how beautifully the needles of salt have shot through the whole phial!

MRS. B.

Yes, it is very striking—but pray do not forget the object of the experiment. Feel how warm the phial has become by the conversion of part of the liquid into a solid.

EMILY.

Quite warm I declare! this is a most curious experiment of the disengagement of latent heat.

MRS. B.

The slakeing of lime is another remarkable instance of the extrication of latent heat. Have you never observed how quick-lime smokes when water is poured upon it, and how much heat it produces?

CAROLINE.

Yes; but I do not understand what change of state takes place in the lime that occasions its giving out latent heat; for the quick-lime, which is solid, is (if I recollect right) reduced to powder, by this operation, and is, therefore, rather expanded than condensed.

MRS. B.

It is from the water, not the lime, that the latent heat is set free. The water incorporates with, and becomes solid in the lime; in consequence of which, the heat, which kept it in a liquid state, is disengaged, and escapes in a sensible form.

CAROLINE.

I always thought that the heat originated in the lime. It seems very strange that water, and cold water too, should contain so much heat.

EMILY.

After this extrication of caloric, the water must exist in a state of ice in the lime, since it parts with the heat which kept it liquid.

MRS. B.

It cannot properly be called ice, since ice implies a degree of cold, at least equal to the freezing point. Yet as water, in combining with lime, gives out more heat than in freezing, it must be in a state of still greater solidity in the lime, than it is in the form of ice; and you may have observed that it does not moisten or liquefy the lime in the smallest degree.

EMILY.

But, Mrs. B., the smoke that rises is white; if it was only pure caloric which escaped, we might feel, but could not see it.

MRS. B.

This white vapour is formed by some of the particles of lime, in a state of fine dust, which are carried off by the caloric.

EMILY.

In all changes of state, then, a body either absorbs or disengages latent heat?

MRS. B.

You cannot exactly say absorbs latent heat, as the heat becomes latent only on being confined in the body; but you may say, generally, that bodies, in passing from a solid to a liquid form, or from the liquid state to that of vapour, absorb heat; and that when the reverse takes place, heat is disengaged.*

[Footnote *: This rule, if not universal, admits of very few exceptions.]

EMILY.

We can now, I think, account for the ether boiling, and the water freezing in vacuo, at the same temperature.**

[Footnote **: See page 102.]

MRS. B.

Let me hear how you explain it.

EMILY.

The latent heat, which the water gave out in freezing, was immediately absorbed by the ether, during its conversion into vapour; and therefore, from a latent state in one liquid, it passed into a latent state in the other.