CONCRETE MIXTURES AND CONCRETING.—The curb body is usually made of a 1-3-5 or 6 concrete and the curb finish of a 1-2 mortar. Portland cement is employed almost exclusively. The concrete mixture commonly used is of such consistency that thorough ramming is necessary to flush the cement to the surface. The cubical contents of combined curb and gutter of the forms illustrated will run from 3 to 5 cu. yds. per 100 ft., and about one-eighth of this will be facing mortar 1 in. thick; thus a curb running 5 cu. yds. per 100 ft. will contain per 100 ft. about 0.83 cu. yd. of mortar and 4.17 cu. yds. of concrete. The usual method of concreting is to erect the forms for the back of the curb wall and the front of the gutter slab and concrete to the height of the water table clear across; then shape the exposed top of the water table to section and place the mortar finish, and then erect the face form for the gutter wall, bring the concrete backing and vertical face finish up together and, finally, finish the top. The finish coat is placed by troweling on the horizontal surfaces; on the vertical face of the curb wall it may be placed in any one of several ways. Frequently the mortar coat is simply plastered against the face board and filled behind with concrete. Another method is to lay a 1-in. board against the inside of the form, concrete behind it, then withdraw the board, fill the space with mortar and tamp concrete and mortar to a thorough bond. The special face forms shown in Chapter VIII may be used in place of the board. The securing of a good bond between the backing concrete and the mortar facing is governed by the same conditions that govern sidewalk work.

COST OF CURB AND GUTTER.—The cost of concrete curb and gutter is commonly estimated in cents per lineal foot. The cost of excavating, loading and carting will run about the same per cubic yard as for sidewalks. Excavating the trench and preparing the sub-grade usually runs from ct. to 2 cts. per foot of curb, but sometimes it amounts to 3 cts. Placing the sub-base will cost for placing and tamping 1 ct. per ft., to which is to be added the cost of materials; a 6-in. sub-base 30 ins. wide contains 4.7 cu. yds., tamped measure, of materials per 100 ft. The amount of materials per foot depends upon the cross-section of the curb; it equals in cubic yards the area of cross-section in square feet divided by 27, and of this volume about one-eighth will be 1-2 mortar and seven-eighths 1-3-6 concrete. The tables in Chapter II give the amounts of materials per cubic yard of these mixtures; the product of these quantities and the cost of the materials on the ground gives the cost. The labor cost of mixing and placing, including the form work, will run from 10 to 14 cts. per foot. In round figures curb and gutter of the section shown in the accompanying illustrations may be estimated to cost in the neighborhood of 40 cts. per lineal foot. The following sections give records of cost of individual jobs of curb and gutter construction.

Cost at Ottawa, Canada.—The method and cost of constructing 1,326 ft. of concrete curb and gutter at Ottawa, Ont., are given in some detail by Mr. G. H. Richardson, Assistant City Engineer, in the annual report of the City Engineer for 1905. We have remodeled the description and rearranged the figures of cost in the following paragraphs.

The concrete curb was built before doing any work on the roadway, and the first task was the excavation of a trench 2 ft. wide and averaging 1 ft. 8 ins. in depth through light red sand. On the bottom of this trench there was placed a foundation of stone spalls 8 ins. thick; in width this foundation reached from 3 ins. back of the curb to 6 ins. beyond the front of the water table. The curb was made 5 ins. thick and ran from 10 ins. to 5 ins. in height, and the water table was 14 ins. wide and 4 ins. thick, with a fall of 1 ins. from front to back. The concrete used was a mixture of 1 Portland cement, 3 sand, 3 5/8-in. screened limestone, and 4 2-in. stone. It was deposited in forms and tamped to bring the water to the face and then smoothed with a light troweling of stiff mortar.

The forms were constructed by first setting pickets and nailing to them a back board 2 ins. thick and 12 ins. wide and a front board 2 ins. thick and 6 ins. wide. The concrete for the water table was deposited in this form in sections and brought to surface by straight edge riding on wooden strips nailed across the form and properly set to slope, etc. After the water table had been troweled down and brushed a 110-in. board was set to mold the front face of the curb. This board was sustained by small "knee frames" made of three pieces of 12-in. stuff, one conforming to the slope of the water table and long enough to extend beyond the front of the 26-in. front board, a second standing plumb and bearing against the 110-in. face board, and the third forming a small corner brace between the two former to hold them in their proper relative positions. The 110-in. face board, etc., was separated from the 212-in. back board by a 5-in. block at each end, and then braced by the knee frames every 3 or 4 ft. In this way it was possible to bring this 110-in. board into perfect line by moving the knee braces in or out, and when correct nailing them to the 26-in. front board. The 110-in. face board being in position and braced and lined, the curb material was thoroughly tamped in, and when ready was troweled and brushed on the top, a small round being worked onto the top front corner with the trowel.

Expansion joints were provided for by building into the curb every 12 ft., a piece of 3/8-in. boiler plate, which was afterward withdrawn and the joint filled with sand and faced over. As soon as the concrete had set sufficiently the face board was taken down and face of curb finished and brushed, the fillet between curb and water table being finished to 2 ins. radius. Circular curb and gutter of same construction was built at each corner, -in. basswood being used for forms, instead of 21-in. lumber.

In addition to the actual construction of curb and gutter the cost given below includes the cleaning up of the street, spreading or removal of all surplus material from excavation, and the extension of all sidewalks out to the curbs at the corners. It was also necessary to maintain a watchman on this work, which duty, under ordinary circumstances, would be done by the general watchman. The total length built was 1,326 ft., of which 1,209 ft. is straight and 117 ft. curved to a 12-ft. radius.

The rates of wages paid were $2 for horse and cart, $1.65 for watchman, and an average of $1.90 per day for labor, including foreman; all for nine hours' work per day. The working force consisted of foreman, finisher, handy man. four concrete men, and three laborers.

The labor cost of the work was as follows:

Per ft. P. C. of Item. Total. cts. total. Excavation and setting boards $ 88.90 6.7 30 Laying stone foundation 43.30 3.3 14 Concreting 61.30 4.6 20 Finishing 45.15 3.4 15 Carting 9.85 0.76 3 Watchman 25.00 1.89 8 Clearing up 13.60 1.04 4 Extras (sidewalk extensions) 17.23 1.31 6 ———- ——- — Total $304.33 23.00 100

The cost of materials for curb and foundation were as follows:

Per lin. ft. Total. cts. 171.112 tons spalls $102.93 7.76 42 tons 2-in. stone 41.16 3.09 30.8 tons 5/8-in. stone 42.57 3.21 33,000 lbs. cement 161.70 12.19 24 cu. yds. sand 19.20 1.45 ———- ——- Total $367.56 27.70

The cost of supplies and tools was as follows:

1,000 ft. B. M. 212 boards charged off $ 9.25 500 ft. B. M. 26 boards charged off 4.12 1,000 ft. B. M. 110 boards charged off 14.25 -in. basswood 4.30 keg 3-in. nails 1.42 keg 4-in. nails 1.43 Pickets 3.25 Tools charged off 3.15 ——— Total $41.17

This total, when divided by 1,326 lin. ft. of curb, gives the cost per lineal foot as about 3 cts. We can now summarize as follows:

Per lin. P. C. of Item. Total. ft. total. Labor $304.33 23 43 Material 367.56 28 51 Supplies 41.17 3 6 ———- —— —- Total $713.06 $0.54 100

As indicated above, on more extensive work the costs of carting, watchman, cleaning up, and extras would be avoided. They cost on this work 5 cts. and the work could therefore be done for 49 cts. if no such charges were included. On such work also the charge for supplies would be lower per foot and on any future work the labor cost could be materially lowered, this curb having been somewhat of an experiment as to method of construction. It is thought that with no charges for carting, cleaning, watchman, and extras, and with the experience obtained, this curb could be built for about 46 cts. The proportions adopted and the method of construction followed, produce a very strong, dense, homogeneous curb and gutter.



Cost at Champaign, Ill.—The following costs were recorded by Mr. Charles Apple, and relate to work done at Champaign, Ill., in 1903. The work was done by contract, at 45 cts. per lin. ft. of the curb and gutter shown in Fig. 125.

The concrete curb and gutter was built in a trench as shown in the cut. The earth was removed from this trench with pick and shovel at a rate of 1 cu. yd. per man per hour. The concrete work was built in alternate sections, 7 ft. in length. A continuous line of planks was set on edge to form the front and back of the concrete curb and gutter; and wood partitions staked into place, were used. The cost of the work was as follows:

No. of Total Cost per Item. men. wages. 100 ft. Opening trench, 1830-in. 2 $3.50 $2.43 Placing and tamping cinders 2 3.50 1.00

Setting forms: Boss setter 1 3.00 ... Assistant setter 1 2.00 ... Laborer 1 1.75 ... — ——- ——- 3 $6.75 $1.69

Mixing and placing concrete: Clamp man 1 $1.75 ... Wheelers 3 5.25 ... Mixing concrete 4 7.00 ... Mixing finishing coat 2 3.50 ... Tampers 1 1.75 ...

Finishing: Foreman and boss finisher 1 4.00 ... Assistant finisher 1 3.00 ... Water boy 1 .50 ... — ——— ——- Total making concrete 14 $26.75 $7.64 Total for labor per 100 ft $12.76

Materials for 100 lin. ft.: Quantity. Price. Portland cement 8-1/3 bbls. $1.85 $15.42 Cinders 7.5 yds. .50 3.75 Gravel 2.5 yds. 1.00 2.50 Broken stone 2.5 yds. 1.40 3.50 Sand 1.0 1.00 1.00 Total for material per 100 ft $26.17 Total for material and labor per 100 ft. $38.93

This is the total cost, exclusive of lumber, tools, interest, profits, etc., and it is practically 40 cts. per lin. ft.

In 100 lin. ft. of curb and gutter there were 4.6 cu. yds. of concrete and mortar facing, 4 cu. yds. of which were concrete; hence the 9 men in the concrete gang laid 14 cu. yds. of concrete per day, whereas the 4 men mixing and placing the mortar finishing laid only 2 cu. yds. of mortar per day, assuming that the mortar finishing averaged just 1 in. thick. Since these 4 men (2 mixers and 2 finishers) received $10.50 a day, it cost more than $4 per cu. yd. to mix and place the 1-2 mortar, as compared with $1.41 per cu. yd. for mixing and placing the concrete. The concrete was built in alternate sections 7 ft. long. The 3 men placing forms averaged 400 lin. ft. a day, so that the cost of placing the forms was $1 per cu. yd. of concrete. The 2 men placing and tamping cinders averaged 16 cu. yds. of cinders per day, or 8 cu. yds. per man. This curb and gutter was built by contract at 45 cts. per lin. ft.

For several jobs, in which a curb and gutter essentially the same as shown in Fig. 125 was built, our records show a general correspondence with the above given data of Mr. Apple. Our work was done with smaller gangs, 1 mason and 2 laborers being the ordinary gang. Such a gang would lay 80 to 100 lin. ft. of curb and gutter per 10-hr. day, at the following cost:

1 mason at $2.50 $2.50 2 laborers at $1.50 3.00 ——- Total $5.50

This made a cost of 5 to 7 cts. per lin. ft. for labor, and it did not include the cost of digging a trench to receive the curb and gutter.



CHAPTER XVI.

METHODS AND COST OF LINING TUNNELS AND SUBWAYS.



Tunnel lining work is of two distinct classes: Lining work, done during original construction and relining of tunnels in service. The methods of work to be adopted and the cost of work will be different in the two cases. In relining work the costs are increased by the necessity of providing for the movement of trains and by the delays due to these movements and also by the labor of removing the old lining and, often, of enlarging the excavation. Comparatively few published figures are available on the cost of concrete tunnel lining, and such as exist are commonly incomplete. The common practice is to record the cost as so much per lineal foot of tunnel. This should be done, but the record should also show the cost per cubic yard of concrete in the lining. The notions of engineers vary as to the proper thickness of lining to use and this dimension also varies with the character of the ground. One tunnel lining may easily contain twice as many cubic yards of concrete per lineal foot of lining as another tunnel contains.

The two problems in form construction for tunnel work are: First, to construct the form work so that it does not interfere with train movements, and, second, to construct it so that it can be taken down, transported and re-erected and thus used over and over. The examples of practice given in the succeeding sections are the best instructions that can be laid before the reader in regard to possible ways of solving these problems and, also, the problem of handling the concrete and other materials to the work.



METHOD OF LINING CAPITOL HILL TUNNEL, PENNSYLVANIA R. R., WASHINGTON, D. C.—The tunnel through Capitol Hill for the Pennsylvania R. R. approach to its new Union Station at Washington, D. C, is a two-track, double tube tunnel 4,000 ft. long through earth. Figure 126 shows the lining construction; it consists of stone masonry center wall, mass concrete inverts and side walls and a brick roof arch backed with concrete. For building the center and side walls the traveling derrick shown by Fig. 127 was employed. This traveler moved ahead with the work on a 14-ft. gage track and it handled the stone and concrete buckets from the material cars to the workmen on the walls. In connection with the derrick in the concrete side wall construction use was made of steel plate forms for the inside faces of the walls. These forms were made of 410 ft. sections of steel plate, constructed as shown by Fig. 128, and connected together by bolting through the flanges. The steel forms were erected by hand in advance of the derrick, 20 ft. of form on each side at a time. The concrete buckets were brought into the tunnel on cars hauled by electric motors from the mixing plant at the portal, and the buckets were lifted by the derricks and emptied into the forms. The side walls were concreted to the springing line and then the five-ring brick roof arches were constructed on traveling centers and in 20-ft. sections. The remainder of the concrete was then placed over the arches by means of the special back-filling machine, shown by Fig. 129. This machine also handled the earth used to fill behind the masonry. It consisted of a platform mounted on wheels and of the same general construction as the derrick platform. On the forward end of this platform a stationary hoist was mounted and behind this a belt conveyor platform.



The latter structure was pivoted near the forward end so that it could swing right and left on a circular track under its rear end. It carried a 30-cu. ft. hopper on its forward end, from under which a belt conveyor ascended an incline toward the rear and was carried back into the space behind the roof arch on a cantilever arm. In operating the back-filling machine the material bucket was lifted from the car below, carried back on the trolley beam until over the hopper and then dumped by hand into the hopper. From the hopper the material dropped onto the conveyor belt and was carried back over the arch and dumped in place ready for tamping. The trolley beam of the hoist was so arranged that the hoisting movement was vertical until the bucket hit the trolley and was then up and backward until the stop at the end of the trolley beam was reached. This point was directly over the hopper. Hoisting was done by a Lambert engine, driven by a 15 H.P. electric motor. The conveyor belt was 20 ins. wide and was operated at a speed of 180 ft. per minute by a 7 H.P. electric motor. The machine required two men to operate and was considered to save the labor of twelve shovelers.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING SIDE WALLS IN RELINING THE MULLAN TUNNEL.—The Mullan Tunnel, 3,850 ft. long, on the Northern Pacific Ry., about 20 miles west of Helena, Mont., had its original timber lining replaced in 1894 with a lining consisting of concrete side walls and a brick roof arch. The construction of the old and new linings is shown by Fig. 130. The method of constructing the side walls was as follows:

The original timbering consisted of sets of 1212-in. posts carrying five segment arches of 1212-in. timbers joined by -in. dowels. For a portion of the lining the posts carried plates on which the arches set; elsewhere the arches rested directly on the post tops. The arches and posts carried 4-in. lagging filled behind with cordwood. The timber lining was removed to make place for the new work in the manner shown by Fig. 130. When there were no plates a 7-ft. section AB was first prepared by removing one post and supporting the undermined arch ribs by struts SS. The timbering in this section was cut out and excavation made for the wall footing. Two temporary posts FF were then set up, fastened by hook bolts L and lagged behind to make the wall form. Several of these 7-ft. sections were cut out at once, each two being separated by a 5-ft. section of timbering. The mortar car shown in Fig. 130 was then run alongside the sections in order and enough 1-3 mortar was run by chute into each to make an 8-in. layer. As the car moved ahead to succeeding sections enough broken stone was shoveled into the last preceding section to take up the mortar. The walls were thus built in 8-in. layers and became hard enough to support the arches in from 10 to 14 days. The arches were then allowed to take footing on the wall, and the posts of the remaining 5-ft. sections were removed and the concrete wall built up as for the 7-ft. sections. Where the posts carried wall plates the struts SS were not needed, the wall plate supporting the undermined post as a beam. English Portland cement was used and the concrete mixture was about 4 parts mortar to 5 parts broken stone—a very rich mixture. The average progress was about 30 ft., or 45 cu. yds. of side wall per working day; the average cost of the walls, including everything, was $8 per cu. yd. of concrete. The brick arch cost $17 per cu. yd. Mr. H. C. Relf is authority for these figures.



METHOD AND COST OF LINING A SHORT TUNNEL, PEEKSKILL, N. Y.—The following methods and costs of lining a double track railway tunnel 275 ft. long near Peekskill, N.Y., are given by Mr. Geo. W. Lee. In presenting these data it is important to note that while some of the methods described are applicable to so short a tunnel they could not be used on a long tunnel. Figure 131 is a cross-section of the tunnel showing the lining. The tunnel was through rock, which stood up without timbering, and the rock section was excavated from 6 ins. to 3 ft. outside the lining. A 1-2-4 concrete using crusher run stone below 1 in. in size was used for the lining and portal head wall coping and a 1-3-6 concrete for the portal head walls proper. The cost of the portal head walls is included in the costs given further on.



The side wall foundation trenches were first excavated from 1 to 3 ft. deep and footing concreted and leveled up, the back of the footing being carried up against the rock and the front lined to forms giving a 12-in. offset to the side wall. The footings contained 200 cu. yds. of concrete. Platforms 25 ft. square and level with the springing lines were then erected at each end of the tunnel. A derrick was placed at each platform to handle skips between it and the material tracks which ran underneath and through the tunnel with a turnout at each end for switching back empty cars. A 60 H.P. portable boiler supplied steam for the derrick engines and a pump. The wall forms were built and erected in panels 12 ft. long; these panels had 46-in. plates and sills, 44-in. studs 3 ft. on centers and 2-in. dressed and matched spruce sheeting. Four panels were set up, two on each side, midway of the tunnel and braced to the tunnel track. Wheelbarrow runways carried on bents were built from the platforms to the forms, one from one platform to one side, another from the other platform to the opposite side. Temporary bulkheads were erected to close the ends of the forms and they were filled. Meanwhile carpenters were setting other panels at each end of the two first erected on each side. After 24 hours the panels first set were taken down and moved ahead and the processes described continued until the full length of side wall was completed. The side walls were not concreted back to the rock; back forms of 1-in. hemlock were used and the space remaining was filled with spalls. The side walls contained 692 cu. yds. of concrete.

Arch forms were erected for 96 ft. at the center of the tunnel, using 12-ft. lagging, so that sections of this length could be taken down and moved ahead, nine at each end. The lagging was first laid to a height of 3 ft. above the springing line on each side and the concrete dumped directly in place from runways laid on the lower chords of the arch ribs, which were placed 4 ft. apart. When the concrete reached a height too great for direct discharge into the forms it was dumped on the runway and passed over with shovels. On the upper portion of the ring the concrete was first shoveled to a platform erected on the center posts of the ribs about 2 ft. below the crown and then passed in on the lagging which was laid in 4-ft. instead of 12-ft. lengths at this stage of the work. As soon as each section of arch ring was completed it was waterproofed with six layers of tar paper laid in hot tar and then packed behind with spalls. The arch centers were struck in a comparatively short time; in one instance they were struck 90 hours after the last concrete was placed and no settlement was apparent. The arch forms stuck so fast to the concrete, however, that they had to be jacked down by chiseling out the lagging so as to get a bearing on the arch concrete and by nailing thrust blocks to the rib posts. The section was then hauled ahead by passing the main fall of the derrick through a snatch block on the first rib. When hauled clear of the lining all but the first 3-ft. of lagging on each side was removed; they were then jacked into position. The arch ring contained 932 cu. yds. of concrete.

Including the portal head walls 1,948 cu. yds. of concrete were laid at the following costs for labor and materials:

Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Cement at $1.63 per bbl. $ 5,755.50 $2.951 Sand at $0.75 per cu. yd. 662.94 0.339 Stone at $0.80 per cu. yd. 1,303.20 0.668

Lumber— Mixing platforms and runways 336.89 0.174 Ribs, including hand sawing 234.10 0.120 Backing boards 134.44 0.069 Lagging 341.04 0.176 Sheathing 268.49 0.137 Plates, sills, studs, braces 182.75 0.093 Coal 118.73 0.061 Oil 16.12 0.008 Hardware, nails, spikes, etc. 224.39 0.118 Tools 181.10 0.093 Freight on stone, cement, etc. 3,089.86 1.584 Labor of all kinds 8,036.31 4.121 ————— ———- Total $20,885.86 $10.712

METHOD OF LINING CASCADE TUNNEL, GREAT NORTHERN RY.—The Cascade Tunnel, 13,813 ft. long, built in 1897-1900, was lined throughout with concrete from 24 ins. to 3 ft. thick, mixed and placed in the following manner: It was necessary to place the lining without interfering with the transportation of materials and excavated material to and from the work ahead. The arrangement adopted to secure this end is shown by Fig. 132. A platform 500 ft. long was constructed at the elevation of the wall plates; the rear end of this platform was reached by an incline, up which the cars loaded with concrete were hauled by an air hoist and cable and delivered to any point on this platform. While each 500 ft. of tunnel was being concreted, the next 500 ft. of platform in advance was being built, with its approach incline, so that there was no delay in the work.

Complete concrete plants were installed at each portal, advantage being taken of the side hills of the approach into the mountain to handle as much material as possible by gravity. Each plant was equipped with a No. 6 Gates crusher, 40-in.8-ft. rock screens, and 16-in.16-ft. screw concrete mixers. Large storage bins for the cement, sand and stone were built adjacent to the mixer plant. A 1-3-5 concrete was used. The stone was crushed from the best rock obtained in the tunnel excavation. This rock was loaded into the regular muck cars, taken to the portal by electric motors, and then dumped into other cars below the level of the muck cars. These cars were hauled by hoisting engine and cable to the crusher floor and then dumped and sorted to avoid danger from pieces of unexploded dynamite. It was then run through the crushers, washers and screens to the stone bin and thence to the mixers. The mixed concrete was discharged into cars on the level of the muck car tracks and these cars were taken by motor into the tunnel to the incline, up which they were hauled by cable and dumped on the platform. From the platform the concrete was shoveled into the wall forms or onto the centers as desired.



The walls were concreted in alternate 12-ft. sections, the weight on the timber arch thus being gradually transferred from the plumb posts to the walls. The roof arch was also built in 12-ft. sections, the centers being in sections of corresponding length which were moved forward on dollies and jacked up as the work advanced. Ten sections of centering were used at each end. An average of 7 bbls. of cement were used per lineal foot of lining. The average monthly progress of lining was about 600 ft. at each end. The concrete lining cost $44 per lin. ft. of tunnel, done by company forces.

METHOD OF RELINING HODGES PASS TUNNEL, OREGON SHORT LINE RY.—The centers and side wall forms and the methods of work adopted in relining the Hodges Pass tunnel on the Oregon Short Line Ry. are explained in the accompanying illustrations. This tunnel is 1,425.8 ft. long and when constructed in 1882 was lined with timber. The new lining consists of concrete side walls carrying a brick roof arch. Both the old and the new linings are shown in the drawings. The tunnel is through a variety of rock and clay strata, and through the soft strata an invert was required. Altogether about one-third of the length of the tunnel was provided with an invert. It will be noted also that the new lining occupies materially more space than the old; this made necessary considerable excavation in enlarging the section.



The work of relining consisted of three operations, viz., the invert construction, the construction of the side walls and the arch construction.



The form of the invert is shown in Fig. 136. It, of course, had to be constructed without entailing a break in the track, and the method adopted was as follows: The ties and ballast were removed from a section of track about 12 ft. long and in their place was substituted the timber frame shown in Fig. 133. Under the middle portion of this frame a trench reaching clear across the tunnel and having a width of 6 to 7 ft. in the direction of the track was excavated to sub-grade of the invert. The concrete was filled into this trench, formed to shape on top, and allowed to harden. The bridging frame was then taken out and the ties and ballast were replaced. Another section of track was then bridged, trenched and concreted and so on until the length of invert required was constructed.



The side wall construction was a more complex operation. It comprised first the removal of the old lining, the enlarging excavation and the form erection and concreting. Two methods of performing this task were employed. Both are illustrated in Fig. 134. By the first method, designated as Plan A, the concreting was done continuously in sections of considerable length. The forms used are shown in detail by Fig. 135. By the second method, the concreting was done in alternate short panels. This method is designated Plan B on the drawings, Fig. 134. The forms used are shown in detail by Fig. 135. The only difference in the form construction for the two plans is in the connection of the posts at the top.



The construction of the centering for the roof arch is shown by Figs. 136 and 137, Fig. 137 giving detail dimensions of the ribs and lagging. The center, as shown by Fig. 136, consisted of four ribs spaced 3 ft. on centers. Each rib consists of two side posts and an arch piece. The side posts on each side are connected at the bottoms by a sill and at the top by a cap. Jacks between the sill and a mud sill laid on the concrete invert or in the ditch held the center in place during arch construction. Lowering these jacks dropped the center onto trucks traveling on the mud sills. Thus the center was moved along as the work progressed. As will be noted from Figs. 134 and 135, the side wall forms carried the work only to the bottoms of the old caps. The arch center completed the concrete wall work and the roof arch. Only about one-third of the new lining had the brick arch, as shown by the drawings; in the remaining two-thirds the concrete was carried up much further on each side; in fact, the brickwork constituted only the top third of the arch.



In describing the forms and centers we have left much of the explanation to the drawings. These show all dimensions and details, and indicate in a measure the mode of procedure. The work done consisted of excavation enlarging the section, of removing the old timber lining and of the form work, concreting and bricklaying for the new lining. All of it above convenient reach from the ground was done from a movable staging formed by a deck fixed on a flat car so as to be adjustable in height. The concrete was mixed by hand on this car platform and shoveled directly into the forms, the platform being raised as the work increased in height. The concrete used was a 1-3-5 mixture of 2-in. broken stone.

The organization of the working force is not easily stated since the work was done as the traffic permitted and varied with the conditions. Generally from 12 to 16 men were all that could be employed to advantage. Complete records of cost were kept, but they were destroyed by fire, so that the only figures available on this point are the totals. These are as follows:

Item. Totals. Per lin. ft. Labor $21,129 $14.81 Materials 13,939 9.77 ———- ———- Total $35,068 $24.58

These amounts average the cost of the invert, which was required for about one-third of the length, over the whole tunnel.

RELINING A SHORT TUNNEL.—The following figures show the cost of relining with concrete a timber lined railway tunnel. The concrete side walls were 14 ft. high and had an average thickness of 2 ft. Therefore each side wall averaged nearly 1.3 cu. yds. per lin. ft., and the two walls averaged 2.59 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The concrete was mixed 1-3-5, being, we believe, unnecessarily rich in cement. The average amount of concrete placed in the walls per day was 50 cu. yds.

Cost of Side Walls. Materials— Per cu. yd. 1.33 bbl. cement at $2.00 $2.66 0.5 cu. yd. sand at 0.18 0.09 0.75 cu. yd. stone at 0.55 0.41 ———- Total $3.16

Labor on concrete— 0.01 day foreman at $5.00 $0.05 0.03 day foreman at $3.00 0.09 0.03 day engineman at $3.00 0.09 0.35 day laborer at $1.75 0.61 ———- ———- 0.42 Total $0.84

Labor, removing timber, building forms, excavating, etc.— 0.02 day foreman at $5.00 $0.10 0.05 day foreman at $3.00 0.15 0.40 day laborer at $1.75 0.70 ———- ———- 0.47 Total $0.95

Miscellaneous— 0.02 day engineer and superintendent at $5.00 $0.10 Falsework and forms, timber and iron 0.07 Tools, light, etc. 0.10 Interest and depreciation of $1,800 plant at 20% per annum 0.09 Train service, 0.03 day work train at $25 0.75

Summary concrete side walls— Per cu. yd. Materials $3.16 Labor on concrete 0.84 Labor removing timber, etc. 0.95 Train service 0.75 Miscellaneous 0.34 ———- Total $6.04

In the two side walls there were 2.59 cu. yds. of concrete per lin. ft. of tunnel, hence the cost of the side walls was $6.04 $2.59 = $15.64 per lin. ft. of tunnel. The concrete arch varied in thickness, averaging from 14 to 20 ins. at the springing line to 8 to 14 ins. at the crown. The arch averaged 1.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. About 20 cu. yds. of arch were placed per day. The arch concrete was mixed 1-3-5 and the cost was as follows:

Cost of Concrete Arch. Materials— Per cu. yd. 1.36 bbls. cement, $2.00 $2.72 0.05 cu. yd. sand, 0.18 0.09 0.75 cu. yd. stone, 0.55 0.41 ———- Total $3.22 1.8 cu. yds. dry rock backing at 0.55 $0.99 Labor on concrete— 0.02 day foreman at $5.00 $0.10 0.12 day foreman at 3.00 0.36 0.88 day laborer at 1.75 1.54 ———- ———- ——— 1.02 Total $1.96 $2.00 Labor placing 1.08 cu. yds. rock backing— 0.01 day foreman at $5.00 $0.05 0.51 day foreman at 3.00 0.15 0.55 day laborer at 1.75 0.96 ———- ———- ———- 0.61 Total $1.90 $1.16 Labor removing timbers, forms, excavations, etc.— 0.02 day foreman at $5.00 $0.10 0.04 day foreman at 3.00 0.12 0.06 day carpenter at 2.50 0.15 0.40 day laborer at 1.75 0.70 ———- ———- ———- 0.52 Total $2.06 $1.07 Train service— 0.06 day at $25 $1.50 Miscellaneous— Engineering and superintendence. .07 Falsework, timber and iron .13 Tools, light, etc .12 Interest and depreciation, $1,800 plant, 20% per annum 0.09

Summary concrete arch— Concrete materials $3.22 Dry rock backing (1.8 c. y.) 0.99 Labor and concrete 2.00 Labor placing 1.8 cu. yds. rock backing 1.16 Labor removing timber, etc 1.07 Train service hauling materials 1.50 Engineering and superintendence 0.07 Falsework, timber and iron 0.13 Tools, light, etc. 0.12 Interest and depreciation plant 0.09 ——— Grand total $10.35

It will be noted that the "train service" is an item that really should be considered as a part of the cost of the materials, for the cost of the sand and stone is the cost f. o. b. cars at the sand pit and at the quarry, to which should be added the cost of hauling them to the tunnel—to-wit, the "train service."

Summing up, we have the following as the cost per lineal foot for lining this single-track tunnel with concrete: Per lin. ft.

2.59 cu. yds. side walls at $6.04 $15.64 1.20 cu. yds. arch at 10.33 12.40 ———- ——— ———- 3.79 cu. yds. Total $9.38 $28.04

It should be remembered that the higher cost of the arch concrete is due in large measure to the fact that 1.8 cu. yds. of dry rock packing above the arch are included in the cost of the concrete. Strictly speaking, this dry rock packing should not be charged against the arch concrete, and, segregating it, we have the following:

Per lin. ft. 2.59 cu. yds. concrete side walls at $6.04 $15.64 1.20 cu. yds. concrete arch at 8.18 9.82 2.16 cu. yds. dry rock at 0.55 1.19 Labor placing 2.16 cu. yds. at 0.64 1.39 ——— Total $28.04

This is a much more rational analysis of the cost and a still further reduction in the cost of the arch concrete might be made by prorating the train service item ($1.50 per cu. yd. concrete). At least half of this train service should be charged to the dry rock backing, for there are 1.25 cu. yds. of sand and broken stone to 1.80 cu. yds. of dry rock backing.

The amount of this dry rock backing, or packing, varies greatly in different parts of a tunnel. In the first half of this tunnel it averaged 1.8 cu. yds. per lin. ft., while in the second half it averaged nearly 2.4 cu. yds. per lin. ft.

METHOD OF MIXING AND PLACING CONCRETE FOR A TUNNEL LINING.—The tunnel known as the Burton tunnel is located on the Jasper-French Lick extension of the Southern Ry., and about 4 miles from French Lick, Ind. It is a single track tunnel 2,200 ft. long with 300 ft. at one end on a 4-30' curve and 1,900 ft. on tangent. The material penetrated was slate and loose rock, requiring solid timbering throughout. This timbering is shown by Fig. 138, which also shows the concrete lining; the timbering was embedded in the concrete lining.



The original timber lining was composed as follows: Posts 1012 ins. and spaced 3 ft. apart were set on 312-in. sills and carried 1012-in. wall plates which supported 1012-in. segmental arch ribs spaced 3 ft. apart. The lagging behind the posts was 36-in. stuff and the lagging over the arch ribs was 46-in. stuff. The section of the concrete lining is shown by Fig. 138, it required 4,132 cu. yds. of concrete and 161.43 lbs. of reinforcement per lin. ft. The concrete was a 1-2-5 crushed stone—between 2 in. and in. size—mixture; it required 1.16 bbls. of cement, 0.52 cu. yds. sand and 0.92 cu. yds. of stone per cubic yard of concrete. The amount of reinforcement per cubic yard of concrete was 39.1 lbs.



All the concrete was mixed and handled from one end of the tunnel. The mixing plant was located in the approach cut at one end. A standard gage main track ran through the cut. About 20 ft. in the clear to one side of this track a trestle 500 ft. long was built, carrying an 18-ft. gage derrick track and a narrow gage 3-cu. yd. dump car track. A stiff leg derrick operating a 1 cu. yd. orange peel or a 1 cu. yd. clam-shell Hayward bucket was mounted on a carriage traveling on the 18-ft. gage track. The side of the trestle nearest the railway track was sheeted vertically and the space between this sheeting and the track was floored over at track level for stock piles. Near the end of the trestle toward the tunnel and on the same side of the track was the mixer plant. This consisted of two 85 cu. yd. bins, one for sand and one for stone, carried by a tower so that their bottoms were 25 ft. above track level. Below the bins was a charging platform pierced by a measuring hopper. Below the measuring hopper was a 1 cu. yd. cubical mixer and below the mixer was a 3-ft. gage track for 1 cu. yd. Koppel side dump cars. To the rear of the tower at ground level there was a 20-cu. yd. sand bin and a 20-cu. yd. stone bin set side by side with a continuous bucket elevator leading from each to the corresponding bin on the tower. The cement house was located directly across the railway track from the tower. At the side of the cement house nearest the track there was an inclined bag elevator leading up to a bridge spanning the railway track at the level of the charging floor of the mixer plant. On this bridge ran a car for carrying bags of cement. The plant as described is shown by Figs. 139 and 140.

In operation the derrick unloaded the stone and sand cars by means of the Hayward buckets either into the bins at the feet of the bucket elevators or onto stock piles on the flooring beside the trestle. When put into stock piles the materials had to be reloaded by derrick into the 3 cu. yd. cars on the trestle narrow gage track and carried by these cars to the elevator boots. The sand and stone were chuted from the tower bins directly into the charging hopper below. Here the cement bags, brought across the bridge on the car into which they were loaded directly by the bag elevator, were opened and the cement added to the sand and stone. The charge was then dropped into the mixer and from the mixer the batch dropped into the Koppel concrete cars.

In the tunnel a traveling platform was constructed on two standard gage flat cars so coupled that a platform 100 ft. long and slightly narrower than the clear space between side wall forms was obtained. Connecting the end of the platform toward the mixing plant was a rampe or inclined platform mounted on wheels. The Koppel car tracks from the mixer were carried up the incline and the full length of the level platform. The cars were hauled to the foot of the incline by a light locomotive. A cable was then hooked to them; this cable was run through a block on the level platform, its free end coming back to the locomotive, which thus pulled the cars up the incline by moving back toward the mixer. On the level platform the cars were pushed by hand and dumped on the floor, whence the concrete was shoveled into the forms.

The platform construction deserves mention in the particular that it provided for adjusting the platform vertically. At each corner of the car a vertical post some 7 or 8 ft. high was set up. The side stringers of the platform carried two vertical posts at each end; these two posts were spaced just far enough apart to slide over the corner post, one on each side of it. A block at the top of the corner posts with the hoist line connected to the bottoms of the platform posts and the lead line going to a winch head, thus made it possible to lift the platform any distance within the height of the vertical post guide and hold it there by blocking under the posts. The arrangement is shown roughly by the sketch, Fig. 141. There was block and tackle for each corner post and a winch at each end of the car. The vertical movement of the platform was between 6 and 7 ft.

The floor was cemented first, then the side walls and finally the roof arch. Floor construction was begun at the portal farthest from the mixing plant. Koppel car tracks were laid through the tunnel and the concrete was dumped from them directly on the ground. The cars were hauled by a light locomotive. As the concreting advanced the dump car track was raised and suspended from timbers across tunnel so that the concrete could be placed under it. As fast as the floor hardened the permanent standard gage track was laid and a temporary third rail placed to give also a dump car track.



When the floor had been finished the side walls were constructed, using the traveling platform and beginning at the far portal. The wall forms consisted of 46-in. studs, spaced 3 ft. apart and carrying 212-in. lagging. A 66-in. waling outside the studs at about mid-height held the studs to the timbering by lag bolts reaching through the wall to the 1012-in. posts. A strip of plank nailed across wall between stud and post held the form at the top. Wall forms were erected for 100 ft. of wall at a time. These forms required about 45 ft. B. M. lumber per lineal foot of form on one side or 90 ft. B. M. for both sides. Two sets of side wall forms or 200 ft. of wall forming were built, and used over and over again. The concrete was shoveled into the wall forms from the traveling platform, the lagging being placed a board at a time as the work progressed upward and the platform being elevated as required, its final position being at about springing line level. When 100 ft. of side walls had been completed the traveling platform was moved ahead for another 100-ft. section.



The centers consisted of 612-in. ribs, made up of 312-in. plank. The feet of the ribs rested on folding wedges on 612-in. wall plates, supported by 66-in. posts setting close against the finished wall. The ends of the ribs were held from closing in by 66-in. walings, one on each side, lag-bolted through the lining to the timbering. The centering required about 315 ft. B. M. of lumber per lineal foot of center. The method of removing the centers was novel. A flat car had erected on it a narrow working platform high enough to reach well up into the arch. Along this platform at the center was erected a sort of "horse," which could be elevated and lowered by jacks. The sketch, Fig. 142, shows the arrangement. At each end and at the middle of the platform two guide posts a a were erected and braced upright. Between these guide posts set plunger posts which were raised and lowered by screw jacks. The three plunger posts carried a longitudinal timber c. The car was run under the ribs of centering to be removed and the timber c raised by working the jacks until it came to close bearing under the ribs d. The railings and the wedges at the foot of the ribs were then removed, leaving the ribs hanging on the timber c. This timber was then jacked down to clear the lining and the ribs rotated horizontally on the point of suspension as a pivot until their ends swung in over the platform. The car was then moved ahead to where the centers were to be used again; the ribs were rotated back to their normal position across tunnel; the timber c was jacked up, and the wedges and railings placed at the first of the ribs.

The concreting on the roof arch was begun at the portal. Two shifts were worked and 42 ft. of arch were concreted each shift.

METHOD AND COST OF LINING GUNNISON TUNNEL.—The costs are for concrete in place in the side walls and the arch of the tunnel, for a length of 440 lin. ft. The quantity of concrete considered in estimating the cost per cubic yard was 616 cu. yds. The material was mixed and placed in cu. yd. batches, the proportion of the mixtures being 1-2.2-4.4. The final cost includes the labor of excavating and screening gravel and sand, the hauling of the same from the bins at the pit to the storage bins at the main shaft, the care of the chutes in the shaft and the mixing of the concrete in the tunnel at the bottom of the shaft, the transportation of the concrete from the mixer to the traveler, the deposition of the concrete, the setting up and taking down of forms and the cost of the cement. It does not include the construction of the gravel pit chutes that hold the screens, the building of the road from the gravel pit to the storage bins at the shaft, the concrete mixer and its installation, the traveler and its installation, the cost of material and labor in the construction of the concrete forms, the requisite power to run the machinery and other expenses of a similar nature.

The gravel used for the concrete was obtained from a pit situated on top of a hill not far from the main shaft leading down to the tunnel. This gravel bed contains very closely the proper proportions of sand and gravel for the concrete aggregates. The gravel was excavated and loaded by hand into side dump cars of 35 cu. ft. capacity. These cars were run to the edge of the hill where the gravel was dumped upon a screen from which it ran by gravity, passing thence into storage bins. From the storage bins the sand and gravel were drawn off into dump wagons having a capacity of 2 cu. yds. and hauled a distance of one-half mile to a second set of storage bins located at the top of the shaft leading into the tunnel. The road from the storage bins at the gravel pit to the storage bins at the head of the shaft was down grade. A two-horse team could readily haul 2 cu. yds. of gravel over this road. The storage bins at the top of the shaft leading into the tunnel communicated with the measuring boxes at the bottom of the shaft by means of chutes. The measuring boxes discharged directly into tram cars. The average length of haul from the mixer to the place of deposition of concrete was about 4,500 ft.

The concrete was placed in the side walls by means of a traveler, which was so operated in the tunnel as to allow the passage of the concrete trains beneath it. The traveler was 64 ft. long and was provided with a slow motion electric hoist, by which the cars containing the concrete were elevated to the top of the traveler and thence transferred to any desired position. The concrete was dumped from these cars into boxes where any remixing or tempering that was required was done, after which the concrete was shoveled directly into the forms. The entire operation of handling the materials of the concrete, it will be seen, utilized gravity to the greatest possible degree.

In order to get a good average cost per cubic yard for handling gravel and sand, this analysis has been based on five months' operation, from November, 1906, to March, 1907. In these five months there were 4,123 cu. yds. of sand and gravel handled. The concrete considered was placed during the month of March. Below is given the distribution of the cost of the concrete as to the specified divisions of the work and as to the class of work involved in each division. Measurements taken at the mixer show that each cubic yard of concrete contained 0.74 cu. yds. of gravel, 0.445 cu yds. of sand and 5.6 sacks of Portland cement. The total of the aggregates is, therefore, 1.185 cu. yds. per cubic yard of concrete. The cement costs $0.62 per sack on the work, making a cost of $3.472 per cubic yard of concrete.

Excavating and screening 4,123 cu. yds. gravel— Total Per cu. yd. cost. gravel. Foreman, 66-7/8 days at $3.04 $ 203.30 $0.049 Labor, 397 days at $2.56 1,017.60 0.247 Labor, 116 days at $2.08 241.80 0.059 ———— ——— Total $1,462.70 $0.355

Hauling 4,123 cu. yds. gravel and sand—

2-horse team and driver, 210 days at $3.60 $756.00 $0.183 2-horse team and driver, 4 days at $4 18.00 0.005 ———- ——— Total $774.00 $0.188

As there were 1.185 cu. yds. of gravel per cubic yard of concrete the cost of gravel per cubic yard of concrete was for—

Excavating and screening (1.185 $0.355) $0.421 Hauling (1.185 $0.188) 0.223 ——— Total $0.644

Adding to this the cost of cement $0.62 5.6 = $3.472, we have $0.644 + $3.472 = $4.116, as the cost of concrete materials per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of labor, mixing and placing was as follows for 616 cu. yds.:

Total Per cu. yd. Mixing 616 cu. yds. concrete— cost. concrete. Superintendent, 2 days at $5.83-1/3 $ 11.67 $0.020 Foreman, 1 day at $4.50 4.50 0.007 Labor, 45 days at $3.04 130.72 0.215 Labor, 93 days at $2.56 238.08 0.381 Hoist engineer, 34 days at $3.52 119.68 0.196 ———- ——— Total $504.65 $0.819

Transporting 616 cu. yds. concrete—

Superintendent, 1 day at $5.83-1/3 $ 5.83 $0.009 Foreman, 1 day at $4.50 4.50 0.007 Motorman, 34 days at $3.04 103.36 0.175 Brakeman, 34 days at $2.56 87.04 0.135 ———- ——— Total $200.73 $0.326

Depositing 616 cu. yds. concrete—

Superintendent, 4 days at $5.83-1/3 $ 23.33 $0.038 Foreman, 4 days at $4.50 18.00 0.029 Foreman, 68 days at $3.04 200.72 0.326 Labor, 238 days at $2.56 610.56 0.991 ———- ——— Total $852.61 $1.384

Setting and moving forms—

Superintendent, 2 days at $5.83-1/3 $ 11.67 $0.018 Foreman, 2 days at $4.50 9.00 0.014 Carpenter foreman, 10 days at $5 50.00 0.080 Carpenter, 13 days at $3.20 41.60 0.067 Labor, 49 days at $3.04 148.96 0.241 Labor, 19 days at $2.56 48.64 0.078 ———- ——— Total $309.87 $0.498

Summarizing we have the following cost:

Materials— Cement, 5.6 bags at $0.62 $3.472 Gravel (excavating and screening) 0.421 Hauling gravel and sand 0.223 ——— Total, materials $4.116

Labor—

Mixing concrete $0.819 Transporting concrete 0.326 Depositing concrete 1.394 Setting and moving forms 0.498 ——— Total, labor $3.037 Grand total $7.153

COST OF CONCRETE WORK IN LINING NEW YORK RAPID TRANSIT SUBWAY.—The costs given here refer alone to the concrete work in constructing the jack arch and steel beam lining of the original standard subway. Figure 143 shows the character of this construction. Arch panel forms were set up between the wall beams and hung from the floor beams and filled behind and above with 1-2-4 trap rock concrete. The form panels were used over and over and the concrete was machine mixed. Common labor was paid $1.50 per 8-hour day; foremen, $3; carpenters, $3; enginemen, $3.50; and masons, $4. The costs cover three sections and are in each case the averages for the whole section. They are, we believe, the only itemized costs that have been published for concrete work on this road.



Two-Track Subway.—In this section of two-track subway there were 8,827 cu. yds. of foundation concrete and 6,664 cu. yds. of concrete in wall and roof arches. The two classes of work cost as follows:

Foundations— Total. Per cu. yd. Labor mixing $ 4,669 $0.53 Labor placing 5,142 0.58 Materials and plant 211 0.02 Cement, sand, stone, etc. 30,719 3.48 ———— ———- Total $40,741 $4.61 Roof and side walls— Labor mixing $ 5,444 $0.82 Labor placing 5,623 0.84 Labor setting forms 14,746 2.21 Labor plastering arches 431 0.06 Materials and plant 1,176 0.18 Cement, sand, stone, etc. 23,888 3.58 ———— ——— Total $51,308 $7.69

Averaging the work we have 15,491 cu. yds. of concrete placed at a cost of $5.94 per cu. yd.

Four-Track Subway.—On two sections of four-track subway the labor cost of mixing and placing concrete similarly divided was as follows:

Section A. Section B. Foundations— Per cu. yd. Per cu. yd. Labor mixing $0.97 $0.94 Labor placing 0.96 0.95 Power 0.14 0.16 ———— ———— Total $2.07 $2.05 Roof and side walls— Labor mixing $0.79 $0.91 Labor placing 0.85 0.94 Labor setting forms 2.01 1.20 Labor plastering arches 0.16 0.23 Power 0.28 0.15 ———- ———- Total $4.09 $3.43



TRAVELING FORMS FOR LINING NEW YORK RAPID TRANSIT RY. TUNNELS.—In constructing the tunnels under Park Ave. and under the north end of Central Park for the New York Rapid Transit Ry., traveling centers and side wall forms were used for the concrete lining. The mixing plants were installed in the shafts and consisted generally of gravity mixers charged at the surface and discharging into skip cars running on the tunnel floor.



The forms used in the Park Ave. tunnel are shown by Figs. 144 and 145; those used in the Central Park tunnel differed only in details. The method of work was slightly different in the two tunnels, but was substantially as follows: Three platforms mounted on wheels were used in each set and two sets were employed. Ahead came a traveler carrying the side wall forms, next came a shorter traveler carrying a derrick, and last came the traveler carrying the roof centers. The arrangement as operated in the Central Park tunnel is shown by Fig. 146. In the Park Ave. tunnel the "bridges" were dispensed with, the skips being hoisted through the open end bays of the derrick car and set directly on the cars on the center traveler.



The traveler carrying the side wall forms was set in position and blocked, the grade and line being given by the track rails, which had been set exactly for that purpose. The side wall forms differed slightly in the two tunnels; those for the Park Ave. tunnel shown by Fig. 144 formed the vertical portion of the wall only so that when the arch forms, Fig. 145, followed a space A B was left which had to be molded by separate sector-like forms. The side wall forms for the Central Park work were constructed as shown by Fig. 147, being curved at the top to merge into the arch centers. In the Park Ave. work the wall studs were adjusted in or out by means of wedges and slotted bolt holes. In the Central Park work the studs A Fig. 145 were hung by -in. bolts from the pieces B spiked to line onto the cross-braces. The bottom was then lined up by means of wedges at D. The side wall studs being lined up, the bottom lagging boards were placed and filled behind by shoveling the concrete into them direct from skip cars on the adjacent tracks on the tunnel floor. In this way the side walls were built up to the tops of the forms.



As soon as the side wall concrete had set the forms were struck and the traveler was moved ahead and set for another section of wall. The derrick and roof arch travelers were then moved into position between the finished walls, and the arch traveler was jacked up and aligned. Skip cars coming from the mixer were run under the derrick traveler, where the skips were lifted by the derrick and set on the platform cars to be run alongside the work. The arch lagging was placed a piece at a time and filled behind by shoveling direct from the skips. As the crown was approached the lagging was placed in short lengths and filled in over the ends, the concrete being shoveled in two lifts; in Fig. 145 the line C D indicates the position of the shoveling board. The centers were struck by lowering the jack supported traveler down onto the track rails.

COST OF MIXING AND PLACING SUBWAY LINING, LONG ISLAND R. R., BROOKLYN, N. Y.—The subway carrying the two tracks of the Long Island R. R. under Atlantic Ave., in Brooklyn, New York city, has a lining consisting of an invert arch 12 ins. thick at the center, side walls 4 ft. thick at the base and 3 ft. thick at the top, and a roof of jack arches between steel I-beams 5 ft. apart. The dimensions inside the concrete are 1620 ft. A 1-8 mixture of cement, sand, gravel and stone was used in the floor and walls and a 1-6 mixture of the same materials in the jack arches. A bag of cement was called 1 cu. ft., so that a barrel was 4 cu. ft. A Hains gravity mixer and a batch mixer were used and careful records were kept of all quantities.

General Data.—During 1903, about 13,880 cu. yds. of the 1-8 concrete were placed, 90 per cent. of which was mixed in the gravity mixer and 10 per cent. in the batch mixer. Of the 1-6 concrete 5,320 cu. yds. were placed, 85 per cent, of which was mixed in the gravity mixer and 15 per cent, in the batch mixer.

Gravity Mixer Work.—During 1903, there were 16,940 cu. yds. of concrete mixed in gravity mixers, requiring 2,860 days' labor mixing and 4,000 days' labor placing. Wages were $1.50 a day and the cost was 26 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing and 33 cts. for placing, making a total of 59 cts. per cu. yd. During the month of August when 2,800 cu. yds. were mixed the cost was as low as 24 cts. for mixing, plus 22 cts. for placing, or a total of 46 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing and placing. The mixer averaged about 113 cu. yds. per day with a gang of 19 men mixing and 26 men placing. The average size of batch was 0.46 cu. yd. In 1904, 20,000 cu. yds. were mixed in 190 days, worked with a gang of 19 men mixing; the gang placing consisted of 25 men. The cost was as follows:

Item. Total. Per cu. yd. 2,950 days labor mixing $ 4,870 24 cts. 4,760 days labor placing 7,300 36 cts. ————- ———— Total $12,170 60 cts.

During the best month of 1904, the labor cost was 16 cts. for mixing and 29 cts. for placing, or a total of 45 cts. per cu. yd.

Batch Mixer Work.—During 1903 the batch mixer mixed 2,390 cu. yds. in 970 labor days mixing and 740 labor days placing at a cost of 59 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing and 55 cts. per cu. yd. for placing, or a total of $1.04 per cu. yd. During the month of June the cost was as low as 40 cts. for mixing and 30 cts. for placing, or 70 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing and placing. The wages paid were $1.50 per day and the average gangs were 11 men mixing and 14 men placing; the average batch mixed was 0.57 cu. yd. and the average output was 35 cu. yds. per day. During 1904, the mixer worked 153 days and averaged 46 cu. yds. per day; the average size of batch was 0.44 cu. yd. The average gangs were 13 men mixing and 11 men placing. The labor cost of 7,000 cu. yds. was as follows:

Item. Total. Per cu. yd. 1,910 days labor mixing $3,175 45 cts. 1,740 days labor placing 2,660 38 cts. ———- ———— Total $5,835 83 cts.

Haulage.—The costs given comprise in mixing, the cost of delivering the materials to the mixer, and, in placing, the cost of hauling the concrete away. A Robins belt conveyor was used to deliver materials to the gravity mixer and this accounts, in a large measure, for the lower cost of mixing by gravity. The mixed concrete was hauled from both mixers in dump cars pushed by men.

Form Work.—The labor cost of forms for 19,300 cu. yds. of concrete placed in 1903 was $16,800, or 87 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete. The total labor days consumed on form work was 6,340 at $2.70 per day. The total cost of concrete in place for mixing, placing and form work was $1.46 per cu. yd., not including lumber in forms, fuel, interest and depreciation.



CHAPTER XVII.

METHODS AND COST OF CONSTRUCTING ARCH AND GIRDER BRIDGES.

The construction problems in arch and girder bridges of moderate spans are simple, and with the exception of center construction and arrangement of plant for making and placing concrete, are best explained by citing specific examples of bridge work. This is the arrangement followed in this chapter.

CENTERS.—The construction of centers is no less important a task for concrete arches than for stone arches. This means that success in the construction of concrete arches depends quite as much upon the sufficiency of the center construction as it does upon any other portion of the work. The center must, in a word, remain as nearly as possible invariable in level and form from the time it is made ready for the concrete until the time it is removed from underneath the arch, and, when the time for removal comes, the construction must be such that that operation can be performed with ease and without shock or jar to the masonry. The problem of center construction is thus the two-fold one of building a structure which is immovable until movement is desired and then moves at will. Incidentally these requisites must be obtained with the least combined expenditure for materials, framing, erection and removal, and with the greatest salvage of useful material when the work is over. The factors to be taken count of are it, will be seen, numerous and may exist in innumerable combinations.



Centers may be classified into two types: (1). Centers whose supports must be arranged so as to leave a clear opening under the center for passing craft or other purposes, and (2) centers whose supports can be arranged in any way that judgment and economy dictate. Centers of the first class are commonly called cocket centers. As examples of a cocket and of a supported center and also as examples of well thought out center design we give the two centers shown by Figs. 148 and 149, both designed for a 50-ft. span segmental arch by the same engineer. The development of the center shown by Fig. 148 into the cocket center shown by Fig. 149 is plainly traceable from the drawings. In respect to the center shown by Fig. 149 which was the construction actually adopted we are informed that 16,464 ft. B. M. were required for a center 36 ft. long, that the framing cost about $12 per M. ft. B. M., with carpenters' wages at $4 per day, and that the cost of bolts and nuts was about $1.50 per M. ft. B. M. With lumber at $20 per M. ft. B. M., this center framed and erected would cost about $35 per M. ft. B. M. As an example of framed centers for larger spans we show by Fig. 158 the centers for the Connecticut Avenue Bridge at Washington, D. C., with costs and quantities; other references to costs are contained in the index.

A center of very economical construction is shown by Fig. 159, and is described in detail in the accompanying text. The distinctive feature of this center is the use of lagging laid lengthwise of the arch and bent to curve. Another example of this form of construction may be found in a 3-span arch bridge built at Mechanicsville, N. Y., in 1903. The viaduct was 17 ft. wide over all, and consisted of two 100-ft. spans and one 50-ft. span. Pile bents were driven to bed rock, the piles being spaced 6 ft. apart and the bents 10 ft. apart. Each bent was capped with 1012-in. timber. On these caps were laid four lines of 1012-in. stringers, and 810-in. posts 3 ft. apart were erected on these stringers, and each set of four posts across the arch was capped with 810-in timbers the ends of which projected 3 ft. beyond the faces of the arch. The tops of these cross caps were beveled to receive the lagging which was put on parallel with the center line of the viaduct, sprung down and nailed to the caps. This lagging consisted of rough 1-in. boards for a lower course, on top of which was laid 1-in. boards dressed on the upper sides. Hardwood wedges were used under the posts for removing the centers. In the centers, forms and braces for the three arches there were used 140,000 ft. B. M. of lumber. The structure contained 2,500 cu. yds. of concrete.

Another type of center that merits consideration in many places is one developed by Mr. Daniel B. Luten and used by him in the construction of many arches of the Luten type of reinforced concrete arch. The particular feature of this type of arch is that in shallow streams for bridges of ordinary span the ends of the arch ring are tied together across stream by a slab of concrete reinforced to take tension. This slab is intended to serve the double purpose of a tie to keep the arch from spreading and thus reduce the weight of abutments and of a pavement preventing scour and its tendency to undermine the abutments. Incidentally this concrete slab, which is built first, serves as a footing for the supports carrying the arch center.

As an illustration of the center we choose a specific structure. In building a 95-ft. span, 11-ft. 1-in. rise arch bridge at Yorktown, Ind., in 1905, the centers were designed so as to avoid the use of sand boxes or wedges. Ribs of 212-in. pieces cut to the arc of the arch soffit were supported on uprights standing on the concrete stream bed pavement. The uprights were so proportioned by Gordon's formula for columns that without bracing they would be too light to support the load of concrete and earth filling that was to come upon them, but when braced at two points dividing the uprights approximately into thirds they would support their loading rigidly and without buckling. The design in detail was as follows: The uprights near the middle of the span were about 15 ft. long and were spaced 7 ft. apart across the stream and 3 ft. apart across the bridge. Each upright then was to support a loading of concrete of 7 ft.3 ft.26 ins. and an earth fill 1 ft.7 ft.3 ft., or a total load of about 9,000 lbs. Applying Gordon's formula for struts with free ends,

f S P = —————————- l I + ———— 125h

where P is the total load = 9,000 lbs., f is fibre stress for oak—1,600 lbs., l is length of strut in inches and h is least diameter of strut in inches, it was found that for a length of 15 ft. a 77-in. upright would be required to satisfy the formula, but for a length of 5 ft., which would result from bracing each strut at two points, a 44-in. timber satisfied the formula. Therefore, 44-in. timbers braced at two points were used for the longest uprights. About 30 days after the completion of the arch the bracing was removed from the uprights, beginning at the ends of the span and working towards the middle. As the bracing was being removed the uprights gradually yielded, buckling from 4 to 6 ins. from the vertical and allowing the arch to settle about in. at the crown. This type of center has been successfully employed in a large number of bridges.

Figure 150 shows a center for a 125-ft. span parabolic arch with the amount and character of the stresses indicated and with a diagram of the actual deflections as measured during the work.



In calculating centers of moderate span there is seldom need of more than the simple formulas and tables given in Chapter IX. When the spans become larger, and particularly when they become very large—over 200 ft.—the problem of calculating centers becomes complex. None but an engineer familiar with statics and the strengths of materials and knowing the efficiency of structural details should be considered for such a task. Such computations are not within the intended scope of this book, and the design of large centers will be passed with the presentation of a single example, the center for the Walnut Lane Bridge at Philadelphia, Pa.

The main arch span of the Walnut Lane Bridge consists of twin arches spaced some 16 ft. apart at the crowns and connected across by the floor. Each of the twin arch rings has a span of 232 ft. and a rise of 70 ft., is 9 ft. thick and 21 ft. wide at the skewback and 5 ft. thick and 18 ft. wide at the crown. The plan was to build a center complete for one arch ring and then to shift it along and re-use it for building the other arch ring. The centering used is shown in diagram by Fig. 151. It consists of five parts: (1) Six concrete piers running the full width of the bridge upon which the structure was moved; (2) a steel framework up to E G, called the "primary bent"; (3) a separate timber portion below the heavy lines E I and W' I'; (4) the "main staging" included in the trapezoid E I W' I', and (5) the "upper trestle" extending from I I' to the intrados.



The primary bent consists of four I-beam post bents having channel chords, the whole braced together rigidly by angles. Each bent is carried on 1 ft.6 in. steel rollers running on a track of 19 in. plate on top of the concrete piers. Between the primary bents and the main staging, and also between the main staging and the upper trestles are lifting devices. The mode of operation planned is as follows: When the center has been erected as shown and the arch ring concreted the separate stagings under K I and K' I' are taken down. Next the portions under the lines I E and I' W' will be taken down and erected under the second arch. Finally the remainder of the center will be shifted sidewise on the rollers to position under the second arch.

MIXING AND TRANSPORTING CONCRETE.—The nature of the plant for mixing and handling the concrete in bridge work will vary not only with varying local conditions but with the size and length of the bridge. For single span structures of moderate size the concrete can be handled directly by derricks or on runways by carts and wheelbarrows. For bridges of several spans the accepted methods of transport are cableways, cars and cars and derricks. Typical examples of each type of plant are given in the following paragraphs, and also in the succeeding descriptions of the Connecticut Avenue Bridge at Washington, D. C., and of a five-span arch bridge.

Cableway Plants.—The bridge was 710 ft. long between abutments and 62 ft. wide; it had a center span of 110 ft., flanked on each side by a 100-ft., a 90-ft. and an 80-ft. span. The mixing plant was located at one end of the bridge and consisted of a Drake continuous mixer, discharging one-half at the mixer and one-half by belt conveyor to a point 50 ft. away, so as to supply the buckets of two parallel cableways. The mixer output per 10-hour day was 400 cu. yds. and the mixing plant was operated at a cost of $27 per day, making the cost of mixing alone 6 cts. per cu. yd. The sand and gravel were excavated from a pit 4 miles away and delivered by electric cars to the bridge site at a cost of 50 cts. per cu. yd. Two 930-ft. span Lambert cableways set parallel with the bridge, one 25 ft. each side of the center axis, were used to deliver the concrete from mixer to forms. The cableway towers were 70 ft. high and the cables had a deflection of 35 ft.; they were designed for a load of 7 tons, but the average load carried was only 3 or 4 tons. These cableways handled practically all the materials used in the construction of the bridge. They delivered from mixer to the work 400 cu. yds. of concrete 450 ft. in 10 hours at a cost of 2 cts. per cu. yd. for operation.



Another example of cableway arrangement for concreting bridge piers is shown by Fig. 151a. The river was about 800 ft. wide, about 3 ft. deep and had banks about 20 ft. high. The piers were about 21 ft. high. The towers for the cableway consisted of a 55-ft. derrick without boom, placed near the bank on the center line of the piers and well guyed and a two-leg bent placed in the middle of the river and held in place by four cable guys anchored to the river bottom. A -in. steel hoisting cable was stretched from a deadman on shore, about 150 ft. back of the derrick, and followed along the center line of the piers, past the derrick just clearing it, to the bent in the middle of the river. At the top of this bent was a 16-in. cable block. Through this block the cable passed down and was made fast to a weight, consisting of a skip loaded with concrete until the cable had the required tension, and a pitch of 18 to 20 ft. from center of river to anchor on shore. In order to secure the required pitch from the shore to the river bent the boom fall of the derrick was hooked onto the cable at the foot of the mast, and then, by going ahead on the single drum hoisting engine, was raised to the mast head. This gave the cable a pitch of 18 to 20 ft. from mast head to top of bent in river. The carriage vised on the cableway consisted of two 16-in. cable sheaves with iron straps, forming a triangle, with a chain hanging from the bottom point, to which was attached the 5 cu. ft. capacity concrete bucket. The concrete was mixed on a platform at the foot of the mast. When ready for operation the chain on the carrier was hooked to the bucket of concrete, the engine started, and both bucket and cable raised, the former running by gravity to the pier. The speed of descent was governed by the height to which the cable was raised on the derrick, and as the bucket neared the dumping point the engine was slacked off and the cable leveled. The bucket was dumped by a man on a staging erected on the pier form. For the return of the bucket the engine was slacked off and the weight on the river bent would pull the cable tight so that the pitch would be toward the shore and the bucket could run down the grade to the mixing platform, the speed being governed as before by leveling the cable. When the piers were completed to the middle of the river the engine and derrick were taken over to opposite side of the river, the bent being left in the middle, and the work continued. By using the extreme grade of the cable it was found that the bucket would run from the platform to the bent (400 ft.) in less than 35 seconds.



Car Plant for 4-Span Arch Bridge.—The bridge had four 110-ft. skew spans, and a total length of 554 ft. The mixing plant was located alongside one abutment on a side hill so that sand and stone could be stored on the slope above. The mixer was set on a platform high enough to clear cars below. Above it and to the rear a charging platform reached back to the stone and sand piles. Side dump cars running on a track on the charging platform took sand and stone to the mixer and cement was got from a cement house at charging platform level. The concrete for the abutment adjacent to the mixer was handled in buckets by a guy derrick. A trestle, Fig. 152, was then built out from the mixer to the first pier; this trestle was so located as to clear the future bridge about 20 ft. and was carried out from shore parallel to the bridge until nearly opposite the pier site, where it was swung toward and across the pier. The concrete was received from the mixer in bottom dump push cars; these cars were run out over the pier site and dumped. When the first pier had been concreted to springing line level, the main trestle was extended to opposite the second pier and the branch track was removed from over the first pier and placed over the second pier. This operation was repeated for the third pier. The last extension of the main track was to the far shore abutment, where the bodies of the cars were hoisted by derrick and dumped into the abutment forms. The derrick was the same one used for the first abutment having been moved and set up during the construction of the intermediate piers. To construct the arches a second trestle was built composed partly of new work and partly of the staging for the arch centers. This trestle rose on an incline from the mixer to the first pier across which it was carried at approximately crown level of the arch. The concrete for the portion of the pier above springing line and for the lower portions of the haunches was dumped direct from the cars. For the upper parts of the arch the concrete was brought to the pier track in two-wheel carts on push cars and thence these carts were taken along the arch toward shore on runways. When the first arch had been concreted the second trestle was extended to pier two and the operation repeated to concrete the second arch.

Hoist and Car Plant for 21-Span Arch Viaduct.—The double track concrete viaduct replaced a single track steel viaduct, being built around and embedding the original steel structure which was maintained in service. The concrete viaduct consisted of 21 spans of 26 ft., 7 spans of 16 ft., and 2 spans of 22 ft. With piers it required about 15,000 cu. yds. of concrete. Two Ransome concrete hoists, one on each side of the original steel structure near one end, were supplied with concrete by a No. 4 Ransome mixer. The mixer discharged direct into the bucket of one hoist and by means of a shuttle car and chute into the bucket of the other hoist.

The shuttle car ran from the mixer up an incline laid with two tracks, one narrow gage and one wide gage, having the same center line. The car was open at the front end and its two rear wheels rode on the broad gage rails and its two forward wheels rode on the narrow gage rails. At the top of the incline the narrow gage rails pitched sharply below the grade of the broad gage rails so that the rear end of the car was tilted up enough to pour the concrete into a chute which led to the bucket of the hoist. The sand and gravel bins were elevated above the mixer and received their materials from cars which dumped directly from the steel viaduct.

The hoist buckets discharged into two hoppers mounted on platforms on the old viaduct. These platforms straddled two narrow gage tracks, one on each side of the old viaduct parallel to and clearing the main track. These side tracks were carried on the cantilever ends of long timbers laid across the old viaduct between ties. At street crossings the overhanging ends of the long timbers were strutted diagonally down to the outside shelf of the bottom chords of the plate girder spans. Six cars were used and the concrete was dumped by them directly into the forms; the fall from the track above being in some cases 40 ft. The hoists and shuttle car were operated by an 812-in. Lambert derrick engine, the boiler of which also supplied steam to the mixer engine. The concrete cars were operated by cable haulage by two Lambert 710-in. engines.

The labor force employed in mixing and placing concrete, including form work, was 45 men, and this force placed on an average 200 cu. yds. of concrete per day. Assuming wages we get the following costs of different parts of the work for labor above:

Item. Per day. Per cu. yd. 1 timekeeper at $2.50 $ 2.50 $0.0125 1 general foreman at $5 5.00 0.0250 3 enginemen at $5 15.00 0.0750 1 carpenter foreman at $4 4.00 0.0200 12 carpenters at $3.50 42.00 0.2100 1 foreman at $4 4.00 0.0200 8 men mixing and transporting at $1.75 14.00 0.0700 13 men placing concrete at $1.75 22.75 0.1137 1 foreman finishing at $4 4.00 0.0200 4 laborers finishing at $1.75 7.00 0.0350 ——— ———- 45 men at $2.70 $120.25 $0.6012

It is probable that the carpenter work includes merely shifting and erecting forms and not the first cost of framing centers. No materials, of course, are included. It should be kept in mind that while the output and labor force are exact the wages are assumed.

Traveling Derrick Plant for 4-Span Arch Bridge.—The bridge consisted of four 70-ft. arch spans and was built close alongside an old bridge which it was ultimately to replace. The approach from the west was across a wide flat; at the east the ground rose more abruptly from the stream. Conditions prevented the use of a long spur track and also made it necessary to install all plant at and to handle all material from the west bank. A diagram sketch of the arrangement adopted is shown by Fig. 153.



The track from the west approached the existing bridge on an embankment 25 ft. high. A spur track 175 ft. long from clear post to end was built on trestle as shown. The cement house and mixer platform were placed at the foot of the embankment at opposite ends of the spur track. Between the two the slope of the embankment was sheeted with 1-in. boards and a timber bulkhead 4 ft. high was built along the toe of the sheeting. Stone, sand and coal were stored behind the bulkhead on the sheeting. A runway close to the bulkhead connected the cement house with the mixer platform, all materials to the mixer being wheeled in barrows on this runway. A -cu. yd. Smith mixer was set on a platform 5 ft. above ground with its discharge end toward the stream. Beginning under this platform a service track was carried across the flat and stream to the extreme end of the east abutment. This track consisted of three rails, two rails 4 ft. apart next to the work and a third rail 25 ft. from the first. The 4-ft. gage provided for cars carrying concrete buckets from the mixer and the 25-ft. gage provided for a traveling derrick; 18-lb. rails were used and they proved to be too light, 40-lb. rails are suggested. The derrick consisted of a triangular platform carrying a stiff leg derrick with a 25-ft. mast and mounted on five wheels. The wheels were double flange 16 ins. diameter and cost $30 each, being the most expensive part of the derrick. The derrick was made on the ground and took four carpenters between 3 and 4 days to build. Derrick and 350 ft. of service track, including pole trestle across the stream, cost between $600 and $800. The derrick was moved by means of a cable wrapped around one spool of the Flory double-drum hoisting engine and leading forward and back to deadmen set at opposite ends of the service track. Cars carrying concrete buckets were run out on the 4-ft. gage track and the buckets were hoisted by the derrick and dumped into a -cu. yd. car running on a movable transverse track across the bridge. This transverse track was necessary to handle the concrete to the far side of the work, the derrick being set too low and the boom being too short to reach. The derrick was used to handle material excavated from the pier foundations and also to tear down the centers and spandrel forms. Some rather general figures on the cost of this bridge are given by Mr. H. C. Harrison, the contractor. They are: