In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree—the spruce— abounds.

3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.

I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in the rain—all evidences of wasted time.

4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced statement.

12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.—1. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations.

"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks.

"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady of a clerk in Brooklyn.

3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."

4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one.

13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.—The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.

In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which can't be distinguished from engravings.



II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

THE SENTENCE

14. English grammar is the study of the forms of English words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

15. Elements of a Sentence.—The elements of a sentence, as regards the office that they perform, are the subject and the predicate. The subject is that about which something is asserted, and the predicate is that which asserts something about the subject.

Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself to complete a sentence: [The thrush sings. The thrush has been singing]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck John (object complement, or object). Edward became king (attribute complement). The people made Edward king (objective complement)].

The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought (to which the general term substantive may be given); some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, assertive); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, objective complement).

In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact. Such additions are known as modifiers. The word-groups which are used as modifiers are the phrase and the clause.

[The thrush, sings in the pine woods (phrase). The wayfarer who hears the thrush is indeed fortunate (clause).]

Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:

[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].

The unmodified subject may be called the simple subject, or, merely, the subject. If modified, it becomes the complete subject.

The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is present, may be called the simple predicate. If modified, it becomes the complete predicate.

Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the simple predicate; modified or completed, the complete predicate.

16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.—Sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes: declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

A declarative sentence is one that makes a statement or declares something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote Mother Goose?].

An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty: ["Fling away ambition"].

Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the sentence is said to be an exclamatory sentence: [How happy all the children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" (exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" (exclamatory imperative)].

Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.

WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES

17. The Individual Elements of which every sentence is composed are words. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words horse, he, blue, speaks, merrily, at, and because, has a certain naming value, more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, horse, blue, he, merrily, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of at and because, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation between other ideas: ["I am at my post"], ["I go because I must"]. The word speaks is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences: He speaks in public. He is a public speaker. It is evident that speaks contains in itself the naming value represented in the word speaker, but also has the connecting office fulfilled in the second sentence by is.

All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a connecting or relational office.

PARTS OF SPEECH

18. Parts of Speech.—When we examine the different words in sentences we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a phrase or a clause.

A phrase is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, that is used as a single part of speech.

A clause is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it is called a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Some grammarians use the word clause for a subordinate statement only.

19. Classification.—The eight parts of speech may be classified as follows:—

I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns. II. Assertives: verbs. III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs. IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions. V. Interjections.

20. Definitions.—The parts of speech may be defined as follows:—

(1) A noun is a word used as a name.

(2) A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, place, or thing without naming it.

(3) An adjective is a word that modifies a substantive.

(4) A verb is a word that asserts something—action, state, or being—- concerning a substantive.

(5) An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

(6) A preposition is a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.

(7) A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way.

(8) An interjection is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of the sentence.

NOUNS

21. Classes of Nouns.—Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper nouns [Esther] and common nouns [girl].

Common nouns include abstract nouns [happiness] and collective nouns [army].

Any word mentioned merely as a word is a noun: [And is a conjunction].

22. Inflection.—A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed inflection.

23. Number.—The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed number. A noun that denotes but one object is singular in number. A noun that denotes more than one object is plural in number.

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s and es to the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].

Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:—

1. The irregular plural in en [child, children].

2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].

3. Fourteen nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into yes [leaf, leaves].

4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es [enemy, enemies].

5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding 's:[You have used too many i's].

6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].

7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. (a) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the plural [sheep, deer]. (b) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. (c) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. (d) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, news, politics].

8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].

9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.]

10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].

24. Case.—Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence.

Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed declension. There are three cases in the English language: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.

25. Formation of the Possessive.—Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in s, form the possessive regularly by adding 's to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].

In case the plural already ends in s, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls'].

A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the 's would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].

Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding 's to the last word. This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: [Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].

Notice that in the following expression the 's is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book].

Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness of the rock, not The rock's hardness].

26. Gender.—Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the masculine gender; those denoting females are of the feminine gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the neuter gender.

27. Person.—Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in the first, second, or third person. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.

28. Constructions of Nouns.—The following are the usual constructions of nouns:—

(a) The possessive case of the noun denotes possession.

(b) Nouns in the nominative case are used as follows:—

1. As the subject of a verb: [The western sky is all aflame]

2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous season of the year].

3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor soul, it could not be!].

4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my baby!].

5. Absolutely: [The rain being over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine].

6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a native of Genoa, discovered America].

(c) Nouns in the objective case are used as follows:—

1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a host of golden daffodils].

2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him king].

3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave Ethel a ring].

4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of New England].

5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded the man (him)to go without delay].

6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be: [I thought it to be John (him)].

7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last week].

8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great explorer].

29. Equivalents for Nouns.

1. Pronoun: [John gave his father a book for Christmas].

2. Adjective: [The good alone are truly great].

3. Adverb: [I do not understand the whys and wherefores of the process].

4. A gerund, or infinitive in ing: [Seeing is believing].

5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, to think is to act].

6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe that she took the money]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.

7. A prepositional phrase: [Over the fence is out].

PRONOUNS

30. Antecedent.—The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the antecedent, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender, but not necessarily in case.

31. Classes of Pronouns.—Pronouns are commonly divided into five classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, (5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).

32. Personal Pronouns.—Personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: I, you, he, she, and it.

33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.—The personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be understood.

1. The word it is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is used impersonally.

2. The pronoun it is often used as the grammatical subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb: [It is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun it is called an expletive. There is used in the same way.

34. Cautions and Suggestions.

1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms its, yours, ours, and theirs.

2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement: [It is I; it is they].

3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of the most common violations of this rule is in using their in such sentences as the following:—Every boy and girl must arrange his desk. Who has lost his book? The use of every and the form has obliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular.

His may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is convenient not to use the expression his or her.

4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: [I asked him to go].

5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case: [I knew it (obj.) to be him]; but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was he].

6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.

7. Do not use the personal pronoun form them for the adjective those: [Those books are mine].

35. Compound Personal Pronouns.—To the personal pronouns my, our, your, him, her, it, and them, the syllables self (singular) and selves (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed compound personal pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:—

1. They are used for emphasis: [He himself is an authority on the subject].

2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured himself].

36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.—The pronouns who, which, what (= that which), that, and as (after such) are more than equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are often named relative pronouns because they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied; they are equally well named conjunctive pronouns because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate clauses only; these clauses are called relative clauses, and since they modify substantives, are also called adjective clauses.

37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.—Who is used to represent persons, and objects or ideas personified; which is used to represent things; that and as are used to represent both persons and things.

When a clause is used for the purpose of pointing out some particular person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by that; but when the clause supplies an additional thought, who or which is more frequently used. The former is called a restrictive clause, and the latter, a non-restrictive clause.

[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the omission of the comma before that. [My eldest brother, who is now in England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.

In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate, in thought, the boy that broke his leg from all other boys. Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so for the purpose of limiting or restricting thought to one especial boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the word eldest. The clause, who is now in England, is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.

38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.—Relative pronouns may be used as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and possessive modifier.

The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [I, who am your friend, will assist you].

The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found: [He whom the president appointed was fitted for the position].

39. Compound Relative Pronouns.—The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever and soever to the relative pronouns who, which, and what. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to whoever wishes it. Give it to whomever you see].

40. Interrogative Pronouns.—The pronouns who, which, and what are used to ask questions, and when so used, are called interrogative pronouns. Who refers to persons; what, to things; and which, to persons or things. Like the relatives who has three case forms; which and what are uninflected.

The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did you see? The introductory whom is an interrogative pronoun, and the clause itself is called an indirect question.

The words which, what, and whose may also be used as modifiers of substantives, and when so used they are called interrogative adjectives: ["What manner of man is this?" Whose child is this? Which book did you choose?].

41. Demonstrative Pronouns.—This and that, with their plurals these and those, are called demonstrative pronouns, because they point out individual persons or things.

42. Indefinite Pronouns.—Some pronouns, as each, either, some, any, many, such, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, one and other, are inflected.

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others

POSS. one's ones' other's others'

43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.—Many words, as has been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question is called a pronominal adjective; but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place, it is called an adjective pronoun. [That house is white (adjective). That is the same house (pronoun).]

ADJECTIVES

44. Classes of Adjectives.—There are two general classes of adjectives: the descriptive [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and the limiting or definitive adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,—descriptive adjectives. Proper adjectives and participial adjectives form a small part of this large class: [European countries. A running brook].

45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.—The limiting adjectives include the various classes of pronominal adjectives (all of which have been mentioned under pronouns), the articles (a, an, and the), and adjectives denoting place and number.

46. Comparison of Adjectives.—With the exception of the words this and that, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a difference in degree. This change of form is called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllables er and est to the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable, the adverbs more and most are placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].

47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.—A few adjectives are compared irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bad } evil } worse worst ill }

far farther farthest

good } better best well }

fore former { foremost { first

late { later { latest { latter { last

little less least

many } more most much }

near nearer { nearest { next

old { older { oldest { elder { eldest

The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree, and as adjectives in the other two degrees:—

(forth) further furthest

(in) inner { innermost { inmost

(out) { outer { outermost { utter { utmost { uttermost

(up) upper { upmost { uppermost

48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.

1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an industrious, faithful pupil].

2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].

3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, the broker and real estate agent].

4. This, these, that, and those must agree in number with the noun they modify: [This kind of flowers; those sorts of seeds].

5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: [This is the more complete of the two].

6. When than is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any house].

7. Do not use a after kind of, sort of, etc.: [What kind of man is he? (not, What kind of a man)]. One man does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds.

49. Constructions of Adjectives.—Adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to be attributive in construction. When the adjective limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is called a predicate adjective.Predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements: [The sea is rough to-day (attribute complement), He painted the boat green (objective complement)].

50. Equivalents for Adjectives.—The following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective:—

1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "Margaret Ogilvy," is very beautiful].

2. A noun used as an adjective: [A campaign song].

3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts of kindness and of love].

4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook running between the alders. Soldiers hired to serve a foreign country are called mercenaries].

5. Relative clauses: [This is the house that Jack built].

6. An adverb (sometimes called the locative adjective): [The book here is the one I want].



VERBS

51. Uses of Verbs.—A verb is the word or word-group that makes an assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as speaks serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. The most purely relational verb is the verb to be, which is called the copula or linking verb, for the very reason that it joins predicate words to the subject: [The lake is beautiful]. To be, however, is not always a pure copula. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must believe that He is," the word is means exists.Verbs that are like the copula, such as, appear, become, seem, etc., are called copulative verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such as sings, plays, runs, etc., are called attributive verbs. They attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.

52. Classes of Verbs.—According to their uses in a sentence verbs are divided into two classes: transitive and intransitive.

A transitive verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed or implied, called the object, to designate the receiver or the product of the action: [They seized the city. They built a city]. The transitive verb may sometimes be used absolutely:[The horse eats]. Here the object is implied.

An intransitive verb is one that does not take an object to complete its meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. They were standing at the water's edge].

A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are always intransitive. The verbs lie and lay, rise and raise, sit and set, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. The verbs lie, rise, and sit (usually) are intransitive in meaning, while the verbs lay, raise, and set are transitive. The word sit may sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat themselves down to rest].

The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.

[The fire burns merrily (intransitive). The fire burned the building (transitive). The bird flew swiftly (intransitive). The boy flew his kite (transitive).]

Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a cognate object: [He died a noble death.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.

53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.—Some intransitive verbs make a complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such verbs are said to be of complete predication: [The snow melts].

All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is termed a complement. The complement of a transitive verb is called the object complement, or simply the object: [She found the book]. Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an indirect object: [I gave her the book]. When a word belonging to the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the predicate, it is termed an attribute complement. This complement may be either a noun or an adjective: [He is our treasurer (noun). This rose is fragrant (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.

54. Auxiliary Verbs.—English verbs have so few changes of form to express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the so-called auxiliary verbs. The most common are: do, be, have, may, must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could, and ought. Some of these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.

Can is used to denote the ability of the subject.

May is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"

Must indicates necessity.

Ought expresses obligation.

Had should never be used with ought. To express a moral obligation in past time, combine ought with the perfect infinitive: [I ought to have done it].

Should sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].

Would sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of should and would, see Appendix 60.

55. Principal Parts.—The main forms of the verb—so important as to be called the principal parts because the other parts are formed from them— are the root infinitive, the preterite (past) indicative, and the past participle [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. The present participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.

56. Inflection.—As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or inflection, in the case of the noun, is called declension; in the case of the verb it is called conjugation. Nouns are declined; verbs are conjugated.

57. Person and Number.—In Latin, or any other highly inflected language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person and number, but in English there is but one in common use, s in the third person singular: [He runs], St or est is used after thou in the second person singular: [Thou lovest].

58. Agreement.—Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number. The following suggestions concerning agreement may be helpful:—

1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: [Bread and milk is wholesome food].

2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by neither ... nor, differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer of the two: [Neither they nor I am to blame].

3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or, either ... or, neither ... nor, the verb is singular: [Either this book or that is mine].

4. Words joined to the subject by with, together with, as well as, etc., do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of the subject: [John, as well as the girls, is playing house. One of my books is lying on the table. Neither of us is to blame].

5. When the article the precedes the word number, used as a subject, the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [The number of pupils in our schools is on the increase. A number of children have been playing in the sand pile].

6. The pronoun you always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is singular: [You were here yesterday].

7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.

59. Tense.—The power of the verb to show differences of time is called tense. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or condition at the time of speaking. There are three primary tenses: present, preterite (past), and future; and three secondary tenses for completed action:present perfect, past perfect (pluperfect), and future perfect.

English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: I love, I loved. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of will, shall, have, be, or do with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb are built up. The formation of the preterite tense, and the consequent division of verbs into strong and weak, will be discussed later.

60. The Future Tense.—The future tense is formed by combining shall or will with the root infinitive, without to.

The correct form of the future tense in assertions is here given:—

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall 2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall 3. He will fall 3. They will fall

Will, in the first person, denotes not simple futurity, but determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].

Shall, in the second and third persons, is not simply the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the determination of the speaker with reference to others.

Notice:—

1. In clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the same auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used independently: [I fear we shall be late. My friend is determined that her son shall not be left alone].

2. In all other subordinate clauses, shall, for all persons, denotes simple futurity; will, an expression of willingness or determination: [He thinks that he shall be there. He promises that he will be there].

3. In questions, shall is always used in the first person; in the second and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the answer.

(NOTE.—Should and would follow the rules for shall and will.)

61. Tenses for the Completed Action.

1. To represent an action as completed at the present time, the past participle is used with have (hast, has). This forms the present perfect tense: [I have finished].

2. To represent an action as completed in past time, the past participle is combined with had (hadst). This forms the past perfect, or pluperfect, tense: [I had finished].

3. To represent action that will be completed in future time, shall have or will have is combined with the past participle. This forms the future perfect tense: [I shall have finished].

62. Sequence of Tenses.—It is, in general, true that the tense of a subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This is known as the Law of the Sequence (or following) of Tenses: [I know he means well. I knew he meant well].

The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not necessarily in the same tense.

[I think he is there. I thought he was there. I think he was there. I thought he had been there. I think he will be there. I thought he would be there.]

In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense requires.

General truths and present facts should be expressed in the present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He believed that truth is unchangeable. Who did you say is president of your society?].

The perfect infinitive is used to denote action completed at the time of the main verb: [I am sorry to have wounded you].

63. Mode.—A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how an action should be regarded is called mode (mood). In our language there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.

The indicative mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact: [I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].

The subjunctive mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].

The imperative mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].

64. The Subjunctive Mode.—The subjunctive is disappearing from colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.

The verb to be has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the present and preterite:—

IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ. { I am I be { I was I were { Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were { We are We be { We were We were { You are You be { You were You were { They are They be { They were They were

In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal endings.

INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn

The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing the auxiliary verbs may (might), would, or should. May, would, and should are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I may go" (may = am allowed to), may is indicative. In "you should go" (= ought to), should is indicative.

The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:—

1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].

2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without if, the verb precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].

3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].

4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].

5. A concession,—supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I shall pity him].

6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].

The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional clauses, the present refers either to present or future time: [Though the earth be removed, we shall not fear].

The preterite refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].

The pluperfect subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time: [If you had been here, this would not have happened].

The phrases with may, might, can, must, could, would, and should are sometimes called the potential mode, but the constructions all fall within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is only an incumbrance.

65. The Imperative Mode.—The imperative is the mode of command and entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one tense,—the present. It has but one person,—the second. The subject is usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my books," the subject is you, understood. Were John the subject, the verb must be holds. John is, here, a compellative, or vocative.

66. Voice.—Verbs are said to be in the active voice when they represent the subject as acting, and in the passive voice when they represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted upon.

The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the object of the preposition by: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by my dog (passive)].

Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him a coward]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called a coward by John].

Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active: [John paid him nine dollars]. If the indirect object becomes the subject in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the retained object: [He was paid nine dollars by John].

67. Infinitives.—The infinitive form of the verb is often called a verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the noun. It is distinguished from the finite, or true, verb because it does not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.

There are two infinitives: the root infinitive (commonly preceded by to, the so-called sign of the infinitive), and the gerund, or infinitive in -ing.

1. Root infinitive: [To write a theme requires practice].

2. Gerund: [Riding rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the sentence. In 1, to write shows its verb nature by governing the object theme; in 2, riding shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the adverb rapidly.

Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know him to be a good boy]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.

The infinitive has two tenses: the present and the perfect. The present tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the principal verb: [He tries to write. He tried to write. He will try to write]. The perfect infinitive denotes action complete with reference to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad to have known her].

68. Participles.—Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl playing the piano is my cousin]. Playing, as an adjective, modifies the noun girl; it shows its verbal nature by taking the object piano.

The present participle ends in -ing. When the past participle has an ending, it is either -d, -ed, -t, or -en. The perfect participle is formed by combining having with a past participle; as, having gone.

There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or infinitive in -ing, unless the adjective character of the one and the noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, driving the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). Driving the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].

Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used in all the adjective constructions.

One especial construction requires notice,—the absolute construction, or the nominative absolute, as it is called: [The ceremony having been finished, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a clause denoting time or cause or some circumstance attendant on the main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As the sentence stands, walking modifies rain.

69. Conjugation.—The complete and orderly arrangement of the various forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be found in any text-book on English grammar.

The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of to be and a past participle: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some form of to be with a present participle: [I am instructing].

It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past participle used as an attribute complement of the verb be. Both have the same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as an adjective denoting condition: [James was tired by his day's work (passive voice). James was tired (attribute complement)].

70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.—Verbs are divided into two classes as regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which form the preterite and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the present, regular verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others irregular. A better classification, based on more careful study of the history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the weak and those of the strong conjugations.

The weak verbs are those which form the preterite by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the present: love, loved. There is also infrequently a change of vowel: sell, sold; teach, taught.

All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are strong verbs. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the past participle in -n or -en is a sure indication that a verb is strong. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.

A complete list of strong verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the most common will be given, together with a few weak verbs, in the use of which mistakes occur.

PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE am was been arise rose arisen bear bore borne, born[1] begin began begun bid (command) bade bidden bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen climb climbed climbed come came come do did done drink drank drunk[2] drive drove driven drown drowned drowned eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hide hid hidden hurt hurt hurt know knew known lay laid laid lie (recline) lay lain lead led led read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken show showed shown sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung steal stole stolen swell swell { swelled { swollen swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown wear wore worn wish wished wished write wrote written

[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."] [Footnote 2: Drunken is an adjective.]

CAUTION.—Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always use the past participle form in the compound tenses.



ADVERBS

71. Classes of Adverbs.—Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we may divide them, according to use, into limiting, interrogative, and conjunctive adverbs.

Limiting adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows well].

Interrogative adverbs are used to ask questions: [When shall you come? He asked where we were going (indirect question)].

Conjunctive adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, where we stayed a month]. Here where is used as a connective and also as a modifier of stayed.

Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:

1. Adverbial clauses: [Go where duty calls].

2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot where I put them].

3. Noun clause: [I do not know how he will succeed].

Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of manner, time, place, and degree. The classification is not, however, a rigid one.

Adverbs of manner answer the question How? Most of these terminate in -ly. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like meaning: [She sang very loud].

Adverbs of time answer the question When?

Adverbs of place answer the question Where? This class, together with the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.

Adverbs of degree answer the question To what extent? These adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

72. Phrasal Adverbs.—Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot easily be separated into parts. They have been called phrased adverbs; as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.

73. Inflection.—Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.

The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the syllables er and est to the positive degree. The great majority of adverbs, however, make use of the words more and most or less and least to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, least carefully].

Some adverbs are compared irregularly:—

badly } worse worst ill (evil)} far } { farther { farthest forth } { further { furthest late later { latest { last little less least much more most nigh nigher { nigher { next well better best

74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.

1. Some words, as fast, little, much, more, and others, have the same form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part of speech each is.

(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).

(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.

2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which should not be confused.

(Adjective) She is a good student.

(Adverb) He works well.

3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; not, I feel badly].

4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].

75. Equivalents for Adverbs.

1. A phrase: [The child ran away with great glee].

2. A clause: [I will go canoeing when the lake is calm].

3. A noun: [Please come home. I will stay five minutes].



PREPOSITIONS

76. Classes of Prepositions.—The simple prepositions are: at, after, against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, till, to, under, up, and with.

Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, underneath, across, between, concerning, and notwithstanding.

77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.—Mistakes are frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition will be given.

afraid of. agree with a person. agree to a proposal. bestow upon. compare to (to show similarity). compare with (to show similarity or difference). comply with. conform to. convenient for or to. correspond to or with (a thing). correspond with (a person). dependent on. differ from (a person or thing). differ from or with (an opinion). different from. disappointed in. frightened at or by. glad of. need of. profit by. scared by. taste of (food). taste for (art). thirst for or after.

Like, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be used as a conjunction: [She looks like me; not, She looks like I do]. The appropriate conjunction here would be as: [She speaks as I do].

The prepositions in and at denote rest or motion in a place; into denotes motion toward a place: [He is in the garden. He went into the garden].

78. Prepositional Phrases.—The preposition, with its object, forms what is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is adjective in force when it modifies a substantive; and adverbial, when it modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage by the sea (adjective). He sat on the bench (adverb)].

Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, in, on, off, up, and to. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: [The ship lay to. A storm came on].



CONJUNCTIONS

79. Classes of Conjunctions.—Conjunctions are divided according to their use into two general classes: the cooerdinate and the subordinate conjunctions.

Cooerdinate conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank; subordinate conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.

The principal cooerdinate conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, and for. And is said to be copulative because it merely adds something to what has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are also, besides, likewise, moreover, and too; and the correlative conjunctions, both ... and, not only ... but also, etc. These are termed correlative because they occur together. But is termed the adversative cooerdinate conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are yet, however, nevertheless, only, notwithstanding, and still. Or is alternative in its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.

Other similar conjunctions are either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else. Either ... or and neither ... nor are termed correlative conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. For, because, such, and as are cooerdinate conjunctions only in such a case as the following: [She has been running, for she is out of breath].

Some of the most common conjunctions of the subordinate type are those of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and result. That introducing a subordinate clause may be called a substantive conjunction: [I knew that I ought to go].

There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are called correlatives. The principal pairs are as ... so, as ... as, so ... as, if ... then, though ... yet.

80. Simple and Compound Sentences.—In the first section of this review the parts of a sentence were named as the subject and predicate.

The subject may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the cooerdinating conjunctions: [Alice and her cousin are here]. The predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played and made merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: [John and Richard climbed the ladder and jumped on the hay].

In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject and one predicate, is said to be simple.

When two clauses—that is, two groups of words containing each a subject and predicate—are united by a cooerdinate conjunction, the sentence is said to be compound: [John wished to play Indian, but Richard preferred to play railroad].

The cooerdinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play Indian; Richard preferred another game].

81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.—A subordinate conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, thus forming a complex sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills the office of some single part of speech, it is a subordinate clause. In the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main clause. It, therefore, stands in adverbial relation to the verb "went." "That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a substantive relation to the verb.

Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions (sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is complex. If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is compound-complex.

The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.



SENTENCE STRUCTURE

82. Phrases.—Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.

From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its introductory word or words, as:—

1. Prepositional: [They were in the temple].

2. Infinitive: [He tried to make us hear].

3. Participial: [Having finished my letter].

Classified as to use, a phrase may be—

1. A noun: [To be good is to be truly great].

2. An adjective: [The horse is an animal of much intelligence].

3. An adverb: [He lives in the city].

83. Clauses.—It has been already shown that clauses may be either principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, it does not hold in cases like the following:—

1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.

2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.

The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal clauses.

84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.—A. Subordinate clauses may be classified into substantive and modifying clauses.

Substantive clauses show the various substantive constructions. Thus:—

1. Subject: ["Thou shalt not covet," is the tenth commandment].

2. Object: [I know what you wish].

3. Appositive: [The truth that the earth is spherical is generally believed].

4. Attribute complement: [The truth is that she is not well].

Modifying clauses show adjective and adverbial constructions.

Thus:—

1. Adjective: [The house which you see is mine].

2. Adverb: [I will go when it is possible].

B. Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the introductory word.

(a) Clauses introduced by relative or interrogative pronouns: who, which, what, that (= who or which), as (after such), and the compound relatives, whoever, whichever, whatever (the first three are both relative and interrogative): [The school that stands on the hillside is painted white. I know whom you mean].

(b) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The man whose library is well furnished is rich. I see which way I ought to take].

(c) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as when, whenever, since (referring to time), until, before, after, where, whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how: [I know the house where lie lives].

(d) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as because, since (= because), though, although, if, unless, that (= in order that), as, as if, as though, then: [I will go since you wish it].

C. Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of the thought expressed.

(a) General description: [The house, which stands on the hill, has a fine view].

(b) Place: [The house where he was born is torn down].

(c) Time: [He works whenever he can].

(d) Cause: [Since you wish it, I will go].

(e) Concession: [Although he is my friend, I can see his faults].

(f) Purpose: [Run, that you may obtain the prize].

(g) Result: [She was so tired that she stumbled].

(h) Condition: [If it rains, we shall not go].

(i) Comparison: [You look as if you were tired].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying clauses.

(j) Direct quotation: [She said, "I will go"].

(k) Indirect statement: [She said that she would go].

(l) Indirect question: [I knew where his house was].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive clauses.

85. The Framework of a Sentence has been already described as consisting of the subject, the verb, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some completing element, object or attribute complement. Occasionally an objective complement must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both subject and predicate may have modifiers.

The usual modifiers of the subject are:—

1. Adjective: [The golden bowl is broken].

2. Adjective phrase: [The house on the hill is beautiful].

3. Adjective clause: [The house which stands on the hill is beautiful].

4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [Helen's paint box is lost].

5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the president of the club, will open the debate].

6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My sometime friend].

7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work to do is a blessing].

8. Participle: [The child, lagging behind, lost her way].

The modifiers of the predicate are:—

1. Adverb: [The snow melted very quickly].

2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a mile].

3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together to decide an important question].

4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran along the road].

5. Adverbial clause: [Go when you can].

6. Nominative absolute: [The speeches being over, the audience dispersed].

Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [To speak plainly, I cannot go. Perhaps I may help you].



LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS

86. Special Words.—A list is here given of words which appear as various parts of speech:—-

a (1) Adjective: A book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.

about (1) Preposition: Walk about the house. (2) Adverb: We walked about for an hour. By, over, up, etc., are used in the same way.

above (1) Preposition: The sun is above the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go above. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from above. (4) Adjective: The above remarks are discredited. Below has the same uses.

after (1) Preposition: After our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He came after she went away.

all (1) Pronoun: All went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I gave my all. (3) Adjective: All hands to the rescue. (4) Adverb: The work is all right.

as (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such as I have. (2) Conjunctive adverb: I am not so old as she. (3) Adverb: What other grief is as hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: As it was hot, we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her as a friend. (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks as if he were not well.

before (1) Preposition: He stood before the door. (2) Conjunctive Adverb: I will do it before I go. (3) Adverb: She has never been here before.

both (1) Adjective: Both white and red pines are beautiful. (2) Pronoun: Both are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is both good and beautiful.

but (1) Conjunction: John reads but Richard plays. (2) Preposition: All but him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can but fail.

either (1) Adjective: Either dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction: Either this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun: Either is right.

fast (1) Noun: A long fast. (2) Verb: They fast often. (3) Adverb: The rain fell fast. (4) Adjective: He is a fast walker.

for (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, for I promised. (2) Cooerdinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, for I saw her. (3) Preposition: I have nothing for you.

hard (1) Adjective: Hard labor. (2) Adverb: He works hard.

like (1) Noun: We may never see her like again. (2) Adjective: This process gives like results. (3) Adverb: Like as a father pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks like me. (By some grammarians like in this case is considered a adjective with the preposition to omitted.) (5) Verb: You like your work.

little (1) Adjective: A little bread. (2) Noun: I wish a little. (3) Adverb: He laughs little. Much has the same uses.

many a (1) Adjective: Many a tree.

notwithstanding (1) Preposition: Notwithstanding the rain, we were content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy, notwithstanding (the fact that) she is an invalid.

only (1) Adjective: This is the only way. (2) Adverb: Only experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should go, only it is stormy.

since (1) Preposition: Since that day I have not seen her. (2) Conjunction: Since you lost it, you must replace it. (3) Adverb: I have not seen her since. (4) Conjunctive Adverb: You have been here since I have.

still (1) Adjective: The lake is still. (2) Adverb: The tree is still lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is entertaining; still he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil is said to still the waves. (5) Noun: In the still of noonday the song of the locust was loud.

than (1) Conjunction: I am older than she. (2) Preposition: Than whom there is none wiser.

that (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: That is right. (2) Conjunctive Pronoun: He that lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective: That book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this that you may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction: That this is true is evident.

the (1) Adjective (article): The lake. (2) Adverb: The more ... the merrier.

then (1) Adverb: I shall know then. (2) Conjunction: If you so decide, then we may go.

there (1) Adverb: The stream runs there. (2) Expletive: There are many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: There! there! it makes no difference!

what (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard what you said. Pronoun: What shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective: What game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I know what books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: What with this and what with that, he finally got his wish. (6) Interjection: What! what!

while (1) Noun: A long while. (2) Verb: To while away the time. (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in while it snows.



III. FIGURES OF SPEECH

87. Figures of Speech.—A figure of speech is a change from the usual form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.

While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but it is in poetry that we find most of them.

88. Simile.—A simile is an expressed comparison between objects belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.

1. How far that little candle throws its beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.

—Shakespeare.

2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.

—Matthew Arnold.

3. In the primrose-tinted sky The wan little moon Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.

—Francis C. Rankin.

89. Metaphor.—A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object is like another, in a metaphor we say that one object is another.

EXERCISES

Select the metaphors in the following and change them to similes:—

1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, A living wall, a human wood.

—James Montgomery.

2. The familiar lines Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.

—Longfellow.

3. Life is a leaf of paper white, Whereon each one of us may write His word or two, and then comes night.

—Lowell.

90. Personification.—Personification is a special form of the metaphor in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.

EXERCISES

Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:—

1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts And puts them back into his golden quiver.

—Longfellow.

2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.

—Charles Pierce Burton.

3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.

—Wordsworth.

4. See the mountains kiss high heaven, And the waves clasp one another; No sister flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother.

—Shelley.

91. Apostrophe.—Apostrophe is like personification, but has an additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus formed apostrophe.

The following are examples of apostrophe:—

1. Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!

—Tennyson.

2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, Make me a child again just for to-night! Mother, come back from the echoless shore, Take me again to your heart as of yore.

—Elizabeth Akers Allen.

92. Metonymy.—Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the other.

1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. 2. Each hamlet heard the call. 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. 4. Gray hairs should be respected.

93. Synecdoche.—Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything for the whole or a whole for the part.

1. A babe, two summers old. 2. Give us this day our daily bread. 3. Ring out the thousand years of woe, Ring in the thousand years of peace. 4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.

94. Other Figures of Speech.—Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be given here.

1. Irony consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.

What has the gray-haired prisoner done? Has murder stained his hands with gore? Not so; his crime is a fouler one— God made the old man poor.

—Whittier.

2. Hyperbole is an exaggerated expression used to increase the effectiveness of a statement.

He was a man of boundless knowledge.

3. Antithesis consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire paragraph.

Look like the innocent flower, But be the serpent under it.

—Shakespeare.

4. Climax consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.

I came, I saw, I conquered.

5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of interrogation. An affirmative question denies and a negative question affirms.

1. Am I my brother's keeper? 2. Am I not free?



IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE

95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.—On pages 153-155 we have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by employing the devices of balance and contrast.

We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or unity often results in a lack of emphasis.

96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by—

1. The presence of more than one main thought. (Stonewall Jackson was a general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: (Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very religious man.)

2. The addition of too many dependent clauses. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)

3. The presence of incongruous ideas. (With his hair combed and his shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous ideas.

4. A needless change of construction. (Silas was kindly received by the men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, they began to think of catching the thief.)

5. Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical unit of the paragraph. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)

97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by—

1. The wrong placing of modifiers. (The victorious general was returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing the correlatives either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also; and the word only. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of these words.

2. The careless use of pronouns. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told this parent the night before in his room.)

3. Careless participial and infinitive relations. (After carefully preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)

4. The use of wrong connectives. (It rained yesterday, and I went to school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went to school).

5. Failure to observe parallelism in form. (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)

98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by—

1. Weak beginnings and endings. (A fire in the city is an exciting event to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are "exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,— at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,—as the introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. (The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest as well as for securing emphasis.

2. Failure to observe the order of climax. (Dazed, broken-hearted, hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)

3. The use of superfluous words. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and "hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. (Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)

4. The use of general rather than specific terms. (He approached the brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the stream.)

5. Failure to employ balance and contrast. (Worth makes the man; but the fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.

EXERCISES

Point out the specific faults and correct:—

1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.

2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the novel.

3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other players for a time, he got up and left the room.

4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could overcome.

5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.

6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.

7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind heart.

8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed them.

9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous disorder.

10. The boys were only injured a little.

11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we are wise enough to discover it.

12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope was hypocritical and spiteful.

13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little to live for.

14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most valorous knight.

15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.

16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,—the union of Athelstane and Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.

17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.

18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names for ourselves and to acquire property.