DISEASES OF THE CROP.—Impaction and inflammation are the two common diseases of the crop. Large, impacted crops are usually caused by the feeding of too much dry feed, fermentation of the contents of the crop and foreign bodies that obstruct the opening from the organ.

Inflammation of the crop is caused by excessive use of condiments in the feed, putrid or spoiled feeds and eating caustic drugs, such as lime and rat poison.

The symptoms are dulness, an indisposition to move about, drooping wings and efforts to eject gases and liquids. The crop is found greatly distended and either hard or soft, depending on the quantity of feed present and the cause of the distention. If fermentation is present the crop usually feels soft.

The preventive treatment consists in practising proper methods of feeding. The curative treatment of a recent case consists in manipulating the mass of feed, breaking it up and forcing it upwards toward the mouth. If difficulty in breaking up the mass is experienced, it is advisable to administer a tablespoonful of castor oil to the bird.

If the above manipulations are unsuccessful, an operation is necessary. This consists in making an opening through the skin and the wall of the crop and removing the contents with tweezers. The opening must be closed with sutures. The proper aseptic precautions must be observed.

In inflammation of the crop, the bird should be dieted for at least one day, and one teaspoonful of castor oil given as a laxative.

ACUTE AND CHRONIC INDIGESTION.—The recognition of special forms of indigestion in poultry is difficult. A flock of poultry that is subject to careless and indifferent care may not thrive and a number of the birds develop digestive disorders. This may be indicated by an abnormal or depraved appetite and emaciated condition. Constipation or diarrhoea may occur. In the more severe cases the bird acts dull, the feathers are ruffled and it moves about very little.

The treatment consists in removing the cause, and giving the flock a tonic mixture in the feed. The following mixture may be used: powdered gentian and powdered ginger, eight ounces of each, Glauber's salts four ounces, and sulfate of iron two ounces. One ounce of the above mixture may be given in ten pounds of feed.

WHITE DIARRHOEA OF YOUNG CHICKENS.—White diarrhoea is of the greatest economic importance to the poultryman. The loss of chicks from this disease is greater than the combined loss resulting from all other diseases. It is stated by some authors that not less than fifty per cent of the chickens hatched die from white diarrhoea.

Such a heavy death-rate as is attributed to this disease can not result from improper methods of handling and insanitary conditions. Before it was proven that white diarrhoea was caused by specific germs, a great deal of emphasis was placed on such causes as debilitated breeding stock, improper incubation, poorly ventilated, overcrowded brooders, too high or too low temperatures and filth. Such conditions are important predisposing factors, and may, in isolated cases, result in serious intestinal disorders.

The microorganisms causing this disease belong to both the plant and animal kingdoms. Infection usually occurs within a day or two following hatching. Chicks two or three weeks of age seldom develop the acute form of the disease. Incubator chicks are the most susceptible to the disorder.

The following symptoms occur: The chicks present a droopy, sleepy appearance; the eyes are closed, and the chicks huddle together and peep much of the time; the whitish intestinal discharge is noticed adhering to the fluff near the margins of the vent, and the young bird is very weak; death may occur within the first few days. After the first two weeks the disease becomes less acute. In the highly acute form the chicks die without showing the usual train of symptoms.

It is very easy to differentiate between the infectious and the non-infectious diarrhoea. In the latter, the percentage of chicks affected is small and the disease responds to treatment more readily than does the infectious form. The death-rate in the latter form is about eighty per cent.

The treatment of diarrhoea in chicks from any cause is preventive. This consists in removing the cause. No person can successfully handle poultry if he does not give the necessary attention to sanitation. Poultry houses, runs, watering fountains and feeding places must be constantly cleaned and disinfected. The degree of attention necessary depends on the surroundings, the crowded condition of the poultry houses and runs, and the presence of disease in the flock. If disease is present, we can not clean and disinfect the quarters too often. The attendant can not overlook details in handling the incubator or brooder and feeding the chicks and be uniformly successful.

If the disease is known to be present in the flock, the incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected by fumigating them with formaldehyde gas. If dirty, they should first be washed with a water solution of a good disinfectant. For a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after hatching, the chicks should receive no feed. Dr. Kaupp recommends as an intestinal antiseptic, sulfocarbolate thirty grains, bichloride of mercury six grains, and citric acid three grains, dissolved in one gallon of water. This solution should be kept in front of the chicks all the time. A water solution of powdered copper sulfate (about one-half teaspoonful dissolved in one gallon of water) may be used.

QUESTIONS

1. Name the organs that form the digestive apparatus.

2. What digestive action on the feed occurs in the mouth?

3. Describe the causes and symptoms of inflammation of the mouth; describe the treatment.

4. Give the causes for depraved appetite; describe the symptoms and treatment.

5. Give the capacity of the horse's stomach.

6. Name the different compartments of the ruminant's stomach.

7. Give the capacity of the stomach of ruminants.

8. Name the different stages of digestion occurring in the stomach of the hog.

9. What forms of acute indigestion involve the stomach of solipeds? Give causes and treatment.

10. Give the causes of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants.

11. Give the treatment for the different forms of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants.

12. Name the divisions of small and large intestines of solipeds and ruminants.

13. What is the capacity and length of large intestine of solipeds and ruminants?

14. What are the different forms of acute indigestion of the horses, and causes?

15. Give a general line of treatment for acute indigestion of the horse.

16. Give the causes of white diarrhoea in the young chicks; give a line of treatment.

17. Name the organs of the digestive apparatus of poultry.

18. Name the common diseases of the digestive apparatus of poultry, and give the causes.



CHAPTER V

DISEASES OF THE LIVER

GENERAL DISCUSSION.—The liver is one of the most important glands of the body, as well as the largest. Because of its physiological influence over the functions of the kidneys, intestines, and body in general and the varied functions that it possesses, it is frequently affected by functional disorders.

All of the blood that comes directly from the intestine is received by the liver. It secretes the bile, neutralizes many of the poisonous substances and end products of digestion that are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestine, and acts as a storehouse for the glycogen.

It can be readily understood from this brief statement of the nature of the liver functions, that any functional disorder of the liver may be far reaching in its effect. In many of the diseases that involve other organs, the liver may be primarily affected. It is difficult to diagnose functional disorders of the liver that are responsible for a diseased condition of some other body organ. A knowledge of the physiology and pathology of the liver is of the greatest importance in the diagnosis of this class of disorders.

In the larger domestic animals, symptoms of liver diseases are more obscure than in the small animals. In certain parasitic diseases and in mixed and specific infectious diseases, the liver may show marked pathological changes.

COMMON CAUSES OF LIVER DISORDERS.—Domestic animals commonly live under very unnatural conditions. Ill results do not follow unless these conditions are so extreme as to violate practically all of the health laws. Pampered animals are especially prone to liver disorders. The feeding of too heavy and too concentrated a ration together with insufficient exercise is one of the most common causes of disorders of the liver. The feeding of a ration that is unsuitable for that particular species is a common source of disease in animals. For example, the feeding to carnivora of a ration made up largely of starchy feed, and the feeding of a ration containing an excessive quantity of protein to herbivorous animals may result in intestinal, liver and nervous disorders. Spoiled feed may prove highly injurious. Catarrhal inflammation of the intestine and intestinal parasites may obstruct the bile duct, and interfere seriously with the functions of the liver.

Symptoms.—In diseases of the liver the appetite is irregular or the animal refuses to eat, is constipated, or has diarrhoea. The faeces may be grayish colored or foul smelling. Colicky pains are sometimes manifested. Usually the animal acts dull and weak. A raise in body temperature may be noted. The visible mucous membranes may appear yellowish- or brownish-red in color.

Treatment.—Animals grazing over well drained pastures that are free from injurious weeds and provided with plenty of drinking water, seldom develop diseases of the liver. Exercise, a natural diet and plenty of clean water, as well as preventing liver disorders, may be classed among the most important of all curative agents. Laxatives or cathartics, such as oils, salts, aloes, and calomel, in small doses may be given. We prefer the administration of oil or aloes to horses, Glauber's or Epsom salts to ruminants, and calomel to dogs. The administration of minimum doses of these drugs, and repeating the dose after a short interval, is preferable to large doses. Alkaline tonics are also indicated. The following mixture may be given: bicarbonate of soda, sulfate of soda and common salt, eight ounces of each, and powdered gentian and sulfate of iron, four ounces of each. Large animals may be given a small tablespoonful of this mixture with the feed three times a day. The dose for sheep and hogs is one teaspoonful. A very light, easily digested ration should be fed.

QUESTIONS

1. What can be said of the importance of the liver?

2. Tell something of its duties as a gland.

3. In what animals are liver troubles most conspicuous when present?

4. Give causes of liver disorders.

5. What are the symptoms?

6. What are the most important natural cures?

7. What rule may be given for adapting suitable laxatives to different classes of animals?



CHAPTER VI

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS

GENERAL DISCUSSION.—The urinary apparatus is composed of two glands, the kidneys and an excretory apparatus that carries the excretion of the kidneys to the outside.

The kidneys are situated in the superior region of the abdominal cavity (sublumbar) above the peritoneum, and to the right and left of the median line. They are highly vascular glands, somewhat bean-shaped and of a deep red color. These glands are capable of removing from the blood a fluid that is essentially different in composition and which, if retained in the blood, would be harmful or poisonous to the body tissues.

The kidney excretions are carried from the pelvis of the kidneys by the right and left ureters. These canals terminate in the bladder, an oval-shaped reservoir for the urine. This organ is situated in the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity and at the entrance to the pelvic cavity. Posteriorly, it forms a constricted portion or neck. It is here that the urethra originates. This canal represents the last division of the excretory apparatus. In the female, the urethra is short and terminates in the vulva. In the male it is long and is supported by the penis.

The urine secreted by the kidneys is a body excretion, and consists of water, organic matter and salts. The nitrogenous end-products, aromatic compounds, coloring matter, and mucin form the organic matter. The nitrogenous end-products and aromatic compounds are urea, uric and hippuric acids, benzoic acid and ethereal sulfates of phenol and cresol. The salts are sulfates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The organic and inorganic matter varies with the ration.

The quantity of urine secreted within a given time varies in the different species and at different times in the same individual. In the horse the quantity secreted in twenty-four hours varies from twelve to fifteen pints; in cattle from ten to forty pints; in sheep from one-half to one and three-quarter pints. The normal color of the urine varies. In the horse it is yellow or yellowish-red; in cattle and sheep yellowish; and in the dog a straw yellow. The specific gravity varies with the quantity secreted and the ration fed. When the quantity of urine secreted is above the average, the specific gravity is usually low.

THE NECESSITY OF EXAMINING THE URINE.—In diseases of the urinary apparatus, a careful examination of the urine is very necessary in order to be able to form a correct diagnosis. In domestic animals it is impractical to attempt to determine the exact amount of urine passed within a certain time, but we can make a general estimate of the quantity passed by carefully observing the animal and noting the condition of the bedding in the stall. The sample of urine to be examined is best taken from urine collected at different periods during the day. We should note its color and consistency. The different substances in the urine can be determined only by determining the specific gravity, testing with certain chemical reagents and by making a microscopic examination of the sediment. Normal urine from the horse may be turbid or cloudy and more or less slimy, because of the presence of mucin. This is less true of other species. In disease the color of the urine may be changed to a pale yellow, red or brown. For example, in congestion of the kidneys the urine is light in color and rather transparent; in southern cattle fever it may be red; and in azoturia it may be brown.

EXCESSIVE URINATION.—The horse is the most common sufferer from excessive secretion of urine. The most common causes are musty feeds, such as hay, grain and shipped feeds. New oats, succulent feeds and acrid plants may sometimes cause it. In the fall of the year, when the season is changing from warm to cool weather and the horse eliminates less water from the body by way of the skin, the kidneys may become more active and the quantity of urine secreted be greatly increased. This, however, is a normal physiological condition and should not be confused with this disease.

The first symptom noted is the frequent passing of a large quantity of urine. The animal drinks more water than usual and the appetite is poor. Dulness and a weak, emaciated condition are prominent symptoms. Death occurs unless the cause of the disease is removed. If the poisonous substance has been acting for some time, it is difficult to cure the animal.

This disease can be prevented by eliminating spoiled feeds from the ration fed to animals in our care. Early in the attack the necessary attention to the ration and the feeding of a clean, nourishing ration is sufficient to correct the disease. The quantity of water drunk by the animal should be limited. Complete rest is indicated. Laxatives, stimulants and tonics should be given if necessary.

NEPHRITIS.—Congestion and inflammation of the kidneys commonly occur in mixed and specific infectious diseases, such as septicaemia, pyaemia and influenza. The toxic effect of spoiled feeds, impure drinking water, and irritating drugs like cantharides and turpentine may so irritate the kidneys as to cause them to become inflamed. Chilling of the skin and nervousness or extreme fear may sometimes cause a congestion of these organs. Inflammation of the kidneys is a common complication of azoturia. Irritation from parasites should be included among the causes of this disease.

The symptoms vary in the different stages of the disease. During the period of active congestion the quantity of urine secreted is increased. The scant secretion of urine, dark in color and thick or turbid, is suggestive of an inflammation of the kidneys. The animal moves stiffly, the back may be arched, urination is painful and the urine is passed in very small amounts. The appetite is irregular or suppressed, the pulse strong at first but later small and weak, and the body temperature is elevated. On making a rectal examination we find the bladder empty and the kidneys enlarged and sensitive.

When the kidneys become so badly diseased that they can no longer perform their function of separating from the blood the nitrogenous end-products of digestion, uraemic poisoning occurs. In this later stage of the disease the animal staggers about if moved, and finally goes down in the stall and is unable to get up. Death is usually preceded by convulsions and coma.

The prognosis is very unfavorable, death occurring in the majority of cases. In azoturia of horses and in infectious diseases, the inflammation is nearly always acute. The color of the urine, its high specific gravity and the small quantity passed are valuable symptoms to consider in the recognition of this disease. Chronic inflammation generally develops slowly and may not give rise to any very prominent symptoms at first.

The preventive treatment of nephritis consists in careful nursing of animals affected with acute infectious diseases, a clean water supply and avoiding the feeding of spoiled feeds. The curative treatment is largely careful nursing. The animal should be given comfortable, well-ventilated quarters and complete rest. Chilling of the skin should be especially guarded against by protecting the body with heavy blankets and applying roller bandages to the limbs when necessary. The diet must be of such a nature as not to increase the work of the kidneys. For the first few days the animal should receive very little feed or water. Later a sloppy diet of sweet milk, green feed and mashes should be fed. Such purgatives as aloes and Glauber's salts are indicated at a very early stage in the disease. We must encourage the elimination of waste products by way of the skin in the larger animals by vigorous rubbing, blanketing and the administration of such drugs as pilocarpine. If the animal becomes weak, general and heart tonics may be given.

CYSTITIS.—Inflammation of the bladder is not an uncommon disease of horses. It is commonly caused by retention of the urine, calculi in the bladder and chilling of the body. Irritating drugs that are eliminated from the body in the urine, and infection of the bladder by germs may cause it.

The symptoms are usually marked. The inflammation is characterized by more or less pain, depending on the degree of the inflammation, and frequent passing of urine. Only a small amount of urine is passed at each attempt, and in severe inflammation it may contain pus or blood. Colicky pains sometimes occur. The pain is usually manifested by a stiff, straddling gait and tenderness when pressure on the bladder is made by introducing the hand into the rectum or vagina, and pressing over the region of the bladder. General symptoms, such as elevation in body temperature and irregular appetite, may be manifested.

The treatment should be first directed at removing the cause. If a cystic calculus is present in the bladder it should be removed. If the retention of the urine is caused by some local condition, and this is very often the case in nervous, well-bred animals, this must first be corrected. It is best to feed green and soft feeds, such as bran mash and chopped hay, and, if the animal will take them, gruels. A physic of castor or linseed oil should be given occasionally. It is very necessary that the animal be kept quiet. Comfortable, clean quarters and a good bed should be provided. Whenever necessary the animal should be blanketed. The medicinal treatment consists in irrigating the bladder with antiseptic solutions, and administering drugs that when eliminated by way of the urine may change its composition and render it less irritating. The following mixture may be given: potassium chlorate two ounces, salol one-half ounce, and powdered nux vomica one ounce. This mixture may be divided into sixteen powders. One of the powders should be given with each feed.

RETENTION OF THE URINE.—This may be due to a variety of causes. In the ox and ram, small calculi collect in the S-shaped curvature of the urethra, or at its terminal extremity. In the horse, cystic calculi are more common than urethral. In cattle and hogs, fatty secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of the sheath of the male may accumulate, and obstruct the flow of urine from the anterior opening. The giving of feed rich in salts, concentrated urine resulting from feeding of too dry a ration, insufficient exercise and inflammation of the bladder are the direct causes of calculi.

Compression of the urethra by growths or tumors, strictures of the urethra, distended bladder, spasm of the neck of the bladder in nervous animals, paralysis of the bladder and injuries to the penis are common causes of retention of the urine.

The early symptoms in ruminants are not usually recognized until a day or two after retention of the urine has occurred. The symptoms are then quite marked. The animal acts dull, refuses to eat, rumination is stopped, and there is a constant effort to urinate, as indicated by the raising of the tail and rhythmical contractions of the urinary muscles just below the anus. Urine may dribble from the sheath or the flow may be completely suppressed. The odor of urine may be marked.

Horses show symptoms of abdominal pain. The animal may move about the stall, lie down and get up again, or make unsuccessful attempts to urinate. On examination the bladder is found to be greatly distended with urine. In the horse the retention is recognized at an earlier period than in ruminants, because of the prompt, decided symptom of pain.

Retention of the urine commonly terminates in rupture of the bladder in ruminants. When this occurs, the symptoms of pain are less evident. Death occurs from uraemic poisoning and peritonitis. The outcome is less favorable in ruminants than in solipeds.

Inflammation of the sheath can be readily recognized because of the local swelling.

The following lines of treatment are recommended: A ration or feed that favors the formation of calculi should not be fed to animals; inflammation of the sheath should receive prompt treatment—this consists in irrigating the part with warm, soapy or alkaline water, followed by an antiseptic wash; we may attempt to work the urethral calculi forward and out of the S-curve in the urethra; if this is unsuccessful, urethrotomy for their removal may be attempted.

The retention of the urine in horses, because of spasm or paralysis of certain muscles, may be treated by passing the catheter. Sometimes spreading litter under the horse and keeping it quiet may induce it to urinate. Hot packs over the region of the back may be used. The treatment for calculi is entirely surgical. The operation for the removal of cystic calculi in the horse, although difficult, is followed by good results.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the urinary apparatus.

2. Give the composition of the urine and quantity secreted in the different animals.

3. State method of determining quantity and composition of urine secreted by different domestic animals.

4. Give the causes and treatment of excessive urination.

5. Give the causes and treatment of congestion and inflammation of the kidneys.

6. Give the causes of cystitis; symptoms; treatment.

7. Give the causes and treatment of retention of the urine.



CHAPTER VII

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS

GENERAL DISCUSSION.—The study of the organs concerned with the reproduction of the species is essential in order to acquire a knowledge of their several functions. It is only through an understanding of these functions that we can prepare ourselves to correctly recognize, and successfully treat, or prevent, such diseases as may involve the organs of generation. A knowledge of the structure and function of the generative organs of the female is of greater importance from the standpoint of disease, than is a similar knowledge of the generative organs of the male. The female is concerned with the complete reproductive process, which may be divided into four stages. These are copulation, fecundation, gestation and parturition. The male is concerned only with copulation and fertilization of the ovum by the spermatozoa, while the female must protect and nourish the embryo and foetus until it has become sufficiently developed to live independently of the protection and nourishment afforded it within the womb. When the final stage of gestation is reached, birth or the act of parturition occurs.

GENITAL ORGANS OF THE FEMALE.—The female generative organs are the ovaries, fallopian tubules, uterus, vagina, vulva and mammary glands.

The ovaries are analogous to the testicles of the male. Their function is to secrete ova. This pair of glands is suspended from the superior region (sublumbar) of the abdominal cavity by folds of the lining membrane. Leading from the ovaries, but connected with the surface of these glands only during the period of oestrum or heat, are the fallopian tubules. Their function is to carry the ovum from the ovaries to the uterus.

The uterus or womb is a membranous sack situated in the sublumbar region and at the inlet to the pelvic cavity. It is held in position by numerous folds of the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity. We may divide the womb into three divisions, cornua, body and cervix.

The cornua or horns are long and cylindrical in shape. This portion of the womb is greatly developed in animals, like the sow and bitch, that give birth to several young. In the impregnated animal the wall of the cornua that contains one or several foetuses, and the body as well, becomes greatly thickened and the lining membrane more vascular.

The body is short in all domestic animals and connects the horns with the cervix or neck. The latter is represented by a narrow portion that projects backward into the vagina. In the cow the cervix is less prominent than in the mare and the tissue that forms it, quite firm. In the cow the opening in the cervix, the os, is very small.

The vagina is a musculo-membranous canal that leads from the womb. In the mare and cow it is about one foot in length. Its function is to take part in copulation and parturition.

The vulva is the external opening of the maternal passages. It shows a vertical slit enclosed by lips, and interiorly it forms a passage that is continuous with the vagina. This passage is about six inches long in the larger animals. The different features that should be noted are the clitoris, a small erectile organ located at the inferior portion of the opening, the meatus urinaris, the external opening of the urethra, situated in a depression in the floor of the vulva, and the hymen, an incomplete membranous partition that may be found separating the vulva from the vagina.

The mammary glands or udders secrete the milk that nourishes the young. The glands vary in number. The mare has two, the cow four (Fig. 17), the ewe two and animals that give birth to several young, eight or more. Each gland is surmounted by a teat or nipple. The glandular tissue consists of caecal vesicles that form grape-like clusters around the milk tubules. The milk tubules from the different portions of the gland converge and form larger tubules that finally empty into small sinuses or reservoirs at the base of the teat. Leading from these sinuses are one or several milk ducts that open at the summit of the teat.

GENITAL ORGANS OF THE MALE.—The genital organs of the male are the testicles, the ducts or canals leading from the testicles, the seminal vesicles, the glands lying along the urethra, and the penis.



The testicles are the glandular organs that secrete the spermatozoa, the essential elements of the seminal fluid. These glands are lodged in the scrotal sack, situated between the two thighs.

Lying along the superior border of the testicle is a mass of ducts, the epididymis. The vas deferens is the canal or duct that passes from the epididymis to the region of the bladder and terminates near its neck by emptying into the seminal vesicles.

The seminal vesicles are two membranous pouches situated just above the bladder. They act as receptacles for the seminal fluid. Two short ducts, the ejaculatory, carry the seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles to the urethra.

The prostate gland is situated near the origin of the urethra. Cowper's glands lie along the course of the urethra and near the origin of the penis. These glands empty their secretions into the urethra and dilute the seminal fluid.

The penis is the male organ of copulation. It originates at the arch of the ischium and extends forward between the thighs. It may be divided into fixed and free portions. The free portion is lodged in the prepuce or sheath, but at the time of erection protrudes from it.

STERILITY, IMPOTENCY.—Fecundation does not always follow intercourse of the male and female. Impotency in the male and sterility in the female frequently occur.

The causes are quite varied. A normal copulation may be impossible because of injuries to, and deformities of, the parts and tumor growths. Deformed genital organs and obstructions of the os by growths and scar tissue are causes of sterility in the female.

Failure to breed is commonly caused by faulty methods of feeding and care. Over-feeding and insufficient exercise may result in the body tissues becoming loaded with fat. This may cause a temporary sterility, but if persisted in, as is frequently the case in show animals, the sterility becomes permanent because of the genital glands failing to secrete ova and spermatozoa, or the lack of vitality of the male and female elements. Old age and debility from disease or poor care may induce loss of sexual desire and an absence of, or weakened spermatozoa in, the seminal fluid. The refusal of the male to serve certain females is sometimes noted.

Tuberculosis may affect the ovaries and cause permanent sterility. In inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb and vagina, the secretions are abnormal and may collect in the womb and the passages leading to it. These secretions destroy the vitality of the spermatozoa, and this condition may be considered a common cause of sterility in the larger animals. Many vigorous young males are made impotent by excessive copulation. The excessive use of the male at any time may result in failure to impregnate a large percentage of the females that he serves.

Barren females do not become pregnant after frequent intercourse with the male. Young sterile females may not come in heat. Sometimes unnatural periods of heat are manifested, the animal coming in heat frequently or remaining in heat for a longer period than usual. This sometimes occurs in tuberculosis of the ovaries. In chronic inflammation of the maternal passage there is more or less discharge from the vulva. Both sexes may be overly fat or weakened and debilitated by disease. Deformity of the generative organs and growths may be found on making an examination. Absence of, or lack of vitality of the spermatozoa may be determined by microscopic examination of the seminal fluid.

The treatment is largely preventive. It is very important that breeding animals be kept in proper physical condition by avoiding the feeding of too heavy or too light a ration, and allowing them sufficient exercise. The male is more often affected by the latter cause than the female. This is because the average stockman does not consider exercise given under the right conditions an important factor in maintaining the vigor of the male. Young males should not be given excessive intercourse with the female. Such practice is certain to seriously affect the potency of the animal. The excessive use of the stallion can be avoided by practising artificial impregnation of a part of the mares that he is called to serve. Sterility caused by growths and closure of the os may be corrected by an operation.

Chronic inflammation of the maternal passages should be treated by irrigating the parts with a one per cent warm water solution of lysol, or liquor cresolis compound. The parts should be irrigated daily for as long a period as necessary. Fat animals should be subjected to a rigid diet and given plenty of exercise. Following this treatment a stimulating ration may be fed for the purpose of encouraging the sexual desire. In weak and debilitated animals, the cause should first be removed and a proper ration fed. Cantharides and strychnine are the drugs most highly recommended for increasing the sexual desire.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.—The signs which characterize pregnancy are numerous and varied. For convenience we may classify the many signs of pregnancy under two heads, probable and positive. Under the head of probable signs, we may group the following symptoms of pregnancy: cessation of heat; changes in the animal's disposition; increase in the volume of the abdomen and tendency to put on fat. The positive signs are the change in the volume of the udder; the secretion of milk; the movement of the foetus and presence of the foetus in the womb, as determined by rectal examination or by the feel of the abdomen.

The probable signs are not reliable, and should be considered only in connection with some positive sign. Persons who base their opinion of the condition of an animal that is supposed to be pregnant on probable signs, are frequently mistaken. It has frequently happened that animals whose condition was not at all certain have given birth to young, without giving rise to what may be termed characteristic probable signs.

The earliest probable symptom is the cessation of heat. In the large pregnant animals, irregular heat periods may occur, but in the majority of cases we may safely consider the animal impregnated if several heat periods are passed over.

It has been generally observed that the disposition of the pregnant animal is changed. They become more quiet and less nervous and irritable. The tendency of pregnant animals to put on fat is frequently taken advantage of by the stockman, who may allow the boar to run with the herd during the latter period of fattening.

The increase in the volume of the abdomen may be considered a positive sign of pregnancy in the small animals, but in the mare and cow it can not be depended on. Animals that are pregnant for the first time, do not show as great an increase in the volume of the abdomen as do animals that have gone through successive pregnant periods. The volume of the abdomen may vary greatly in the different individuals, and can not be depended on as a positive indication of pregnancy during the first two-thirds of the period of pregnancy in the larger domestic animals.

Comparatively early in pregnancy, the presence of a foetus can be determined by feeling the uterus through the wall of the rectum. In the small domestic animals the feeling of the abdomen gives the best results. In the cow this method of diagnosis is practised during the latter periods of pregnancy. The examiner stands with his back toward the animal's head, and on the right side of the cow and the left side of the mare. The palm of the hand is applied against the abdominal wall, about eight or ten inches in front of the stifle and just below the flank. Moderate pressure is used, and if a hard, voluminous mass is felt, or if the foetus moves, it is a sure sign that the animal is pregnant. It is not uncommon for the foetus to show some movement in the morning, or after the animal drinks freely of cold water. The increase in the volume of the udder occurs at a comparatively early period in animals that are pregnant for the first time. The secretion of milk and the dropping of the muscles of the quarters indicate that parturition is near. The Abderhalden test for determining whether or not an animal is pregnant is now practised.

HYGIENE OF PREGNANT ANIMALS.—Pregnant animals that are confined in a pasture that is free from injurious weeds and not too rough or hilly, and where the animals have access to clean water and the necessary shelter, seldom suffer from an abnormal birth. Here they live under the most favorable conditions for taking exercise, securing a suitable diet and avoiding injury. It may not be possible in managing breeding animals to provide such surroundings at all times, but we should observe every possible hygienic precaution, especially if the animal has reached the later periods of pregnancy.

All pregnant animals are inclined to be lazy, but, if permitted, will take the necessary exercise. Pregnant mares are usually worked. Such exercise does no harm, providing the work is not hard or of an unusual character. Cows are usually subject to more natural conditions than other domestic animals.

Protecting pregnant animals against injuries resulting from crowding, slipping and fighting is an important part of their care. Injuries from crowding together in the sleeping quarters and about feeding-troughs, or through doors and climbing over low partitions are common causes of injury in pregnant sows. Crowding together in the stable or yard, or through doorways, fighting, and slipping on floors, or icy places sometimes results in injury. It is rare, however, for cows to abort from an injury, but parturition may not be completely free from disagreeable complications. Under the conditions mentioned retention of the fetal membranes is common.

Ewes frequently suffer from too close confinement during late winter. Sows are often subject to the most unhygienic conditions. This is shown in the heavy death-rate in sows and pigs. During the late winter and early spring the conditions may be such as not to permit of exercise. Stormy, snowy, muddy weather is common at this season of the year. Persons caring for ewes and sows should see that they take sufficient exercise. It may be necessary to drive them about for a short time each day. At such times it may be advisable to give them a laxative dose of oil, or give a laxative with the feed. When there is any indication of constipation, this should be practised.

Pregnant animals should be fed carefully. We may feed animals that are not in this condition in a careless fashion, but if pregnant, over-feeding, the feeding of a fattening ration, or spoiled feed, and sudden changes in the feed can not be practised with any degree of safety. A bulky ration of dry feed and drinking impure, or too little, water may cause constipation, acute indigestion and abortion. The ration fed should contain the necessary inorganic and organic elements for the building up of the body tissues of the foetus.

At the end of the parturition period, separate quarters should be provided. The mare or cow should be given a comfortable clean stall away from the other animals. The ewe should be provided with a warm room if the weather is cold. It is always best to give the sow a separate pen that is dry and clean, and away from the other animals. All danger from injury to the mother and young should be guarded against.

ABORTION.—The expulsion of the foetus at any time during the period of gestation, when it is not sufficiently developed to live independently of the mother, is termed abortion. Abortion may be either accidental or infectious. Accidental abortion is more commonly met with in the mare and sow than the infectious form. In ruminants the opposite holds true.

The causes of accidental abortion are faulty methods of feeding and care. Injuries, acute indigestion, mouldy, spoiled feeds, chilling resulting from exposure and drinking ice-cold water, nervousness brought on by fright, or excitement and general diseases are the common causes of abortion.

Infectious abortion is most common in cows. Other domestic animals that may be affected are the mare, sow and ewe.

It is caused by a specific germ. The Bacillus abortus of Bang is the cause of abortion in cows, but the specific germ that produces abortion in other species of animals has not been proven. In this country, Keer, Good, Giltner and others have proven that the Bang bacillus of abortion is infectious for other species of animals, and outbreaks of this disease have been said to occur among breeding ewes pastured and fed on infected premises. Its infectiousness for the females of other species has never been proven in natural outbreaks.

The disease-producing germs are present in the body of the foetus, the fetal membranes, the discharge from the maternal passages, the faeces and milk of aborting animals. The male may carry the infection in the sheath, urethra and on the penis. The natural avenues of infection are the maternal passages and digestive tract.

It is very seldom that abortion is carried from one herd to another by means other than through the breeding of animals free from abortion to animals affected by this disease. The purchase of a bull or cow from an infected herd and breeding them to animals that are free from disease, is a common method of spreading the disease. After serving the diseased animal, the male may carry the bacillus of abortion into the maternal passages of the next cow he serves. There are numerous cases on record where the bull was a permanent carrier of the Bacillus abortus and infected nearly every animal served. The distribution of the disease in the herd following the introduction of a cow, sow, or ewe that has aborted before or after being purchased, takes place through contact of the other animals with the virus that may be present on the floor, or in the manure, or by taking the virus into the digestive tract along with the feed and drinking water. Experimental evidence indicates the latter avenue of infection.

The stallion is the most common source of infectious abortion in mares. An infected stallion may distribute the disease to a large percentage of the mares that he serves. For this reason nearly all of the mares in a certain locality may abort.

In case the infection occurs at the time of service, the abortion usually takes place during the first half of the period of pregnancy. Cows that become pregnant without recovering from the inflammation of the lining membrane of the genital tract, may abort at a very early period. McFadyean and Stockman from the artificially inoculated cases of infectious abortion in cows, showed that the period of incubation averaged 126 days.

The symptoms of accidental abortion are extremely variable. Animals that abort during the early periods of pregnancy may show so little disturbance, that the animal can be treated as if nothing had happened. During the latter half of pregnancy, and especially when the accident is caused by an injury, the symptoms are more serious. Loss of appetite, dulness, restlessness, abdominal pain and haemorrhage are the symptoms commonly noted. If the foetus is dead, it may be necessary to assist the animal in expelling it. In the latter case, death of the mother may occur.

A slight falling of the flanks, swelling of the lips of the vulva and a retention of the fetal membranes, or discharge from the vulva may be the only symptoms noted at the time abortion occurs.

The symptoms of infectious abortion vary in the different periods of pregnancy. At an early period, the foetus may be passed with so little evidence of labor that the animal pays little attention to it. The recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of the abortion. All cases of abortion are followed by more or less discharge from the vulva. This is especially true if the fetal membranes are retained. In such cases, the discharge has a very disagreeable odor. In most cases the foetus is dead. When born alive, it is weak and puny, and usually dies or is destroyed within a few days. When the attendant fails to give the animal the necessary attention, or is careless in his manipulation of the parts, inflammation of the womb, caused by the decomposition of the retained membranes, or the introduction of irritating germs on the ropes, instruments and hands, may occur. Death commonly follows this complication.

It is very important that the infectious form be diagnosed early in the outbreak. For all practical purposes we are justified in diagnosing infectious abortion, if several animals in the herd abort, especially if it follows the introduction of new animals. Methods of serum diagnosis, the agglutination and complement-fixation tests, are now used in the diagnosis of this disease.

The preventive treatment of the accidental form consists in avoiding conditions that may result in this accident. Pregnant animals should not be exposed to injuries from other animals or from the surroundings. Animals which show a predisposition to abort should not be bred. We should see that all animals receive the necessary exercise and a proper ration.

If the animal indicates by her actions that abortion may take place, we should give her comfortable, quiet quarters. It is very necessary to keep her quiet, and if restless, morphine may be given. A very light diet should be fed and constipation prevented by administering a laxative. The necessary attention should be given in case abortion occurs.

The enforcement of preventive or quarantine measures is very important in the control of infectious abortion. This is especially true of breeding herds and dairy cows. Breeders do not recognize the importance of keeping their herds clean or free from disease. It is a well-known fact among stockmen that abortion and other infectious diseases have been frequently introduced into the herd through the purchase of one or more breeding animals. Because of the prevalence of infectious abortion among cows, it is advisable to subject newly purchased breeding animals, or a cow that has been bred outside of the herd, to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix with the herd. The breeding of cows from neighboring herds to the herd bull is not a safe practice. In communities where there are outbreaks of this disease, animals that abort, or show indications of aborting, should be quarantined for a period of from two to three months. The separation from the herd should be so complete as to eliminate any danger of carrying the disease to the healthy animals on the clothing and farm tools. If this method of control were practised at the very beginning of the outbreaks, the disease could be checked in the large majority of herds.

The foetus and membranes should be destroyed by burning. In case the animal does not pass the fetal membranes, they should be completely removed. In the cow, it is advisable to wait twenty-four hours before doing this. The animal's stall should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. It is very advisable to give the entire stable a thorough disinfecting. For this purpose a three or four per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used. It is advisable to apply it with a spray pump. The floor and feed troughs should be sprinkled daily with the disinfectant. All manure should be removed to a place where the animals can not come in contact with it. It is not advisable to confine the cows to a small yard. The more range they have the easier it is to control the disease.

Individual treatment is very necessary. In infectious abortion the mucous lining of the womb and the passages leading to it become inflamed. This should be treated by irrigating the parts with a warm water solution of a disinfectant that is non-irritating. This treatment should be repeated daily for a period of from two to four weeks. We must be very careful not to irritate the parts. A one-half per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used.

Animals that abort should not be bred until they have completely recovered. Small animals that have no special value as breeding animals should be marketed. Cows and mares should not be bred for a period of at least three months.

Infected males should not be used for service. The male should receive the necessary attention in the way of irrigating the sheath before and after each service.

PHYSIOLOGY OF PARTURITION.—Parturition or birth, when occurring in the mare, is designated as foaling; in the cow, calving; in the sheep, lambing; and in the sow, farrowing. A normal or natural birth occurs when no complications are present and the mother needs no assistance. When the act is complicated and prolonged, it is termed abnormal birth. The length of time required for different individuals of the same species to give birth to their young varies widely. It may require but a few minutes, or be prolonged for a day or more. The cause of this variation in the length of time required for different animals to bring forth their young, can be better understood if we study the anatomy of the parts and their functions.

Throughout the pregnant period the expulsion of the foetus is being prepared for. As the foetus develops there is a corresponding development of the muscular wall of the womb. The last period of pregnancy is characterized by the relaxation of the muscles and ligaments that form the pelvic walls, and a relaxation and dilation of the maternal passages. In addition, degenerative changes occur in the structures that attach the foetus to the womb, the normal structures being gradually destroyed by a fatty degeneration. This results in a separation between the fetal and maternal placenta. The contents of the womb begin to affect the organ in the same manner as a foreign body, irritating the nerve endings and producing contractions of the muscles. These contractions of the muscles help greatly in breaking down the attachments until finally the labor pains begin in earnest, and the foetus is gradually forced out of the womb, through the dilated os and into the vagina and vulva.

A normal birth is possible, only when the expelling power of the womb is able to overcome the resistance offered by the foetus and its membranes, the pelvic walls and the vagina and vulva.



The relative size of the foetus to the inlet of the pelvic cavity and its position are the most important factors for the veterinarian and stockman to consider (Fig. 18). On leaving the womb, the foetus passes into the vagina and vulva. This portion of the maternal passages is situated in the pelvic cavity which continues the abdominal cavity posteriorly. The pelvic walls are formed by bones and ligaments that are covered by heavy muscles. As previously mentioned, the ligaments and muscles relax toward the end of pregnancy in order to prepare the way for the passage of the foetus. Before entering the pelvis it is necessary for the foetus to be forced through the inlet to this cavity. This is the most difficult part of the birth, as the bones that form the framework of the pelvis completely enclose the entrance to it. It is only in the young mother that the pelvic bones give way slightly to the pressure on them by the foetus. It can be readily understood, that when the young is large in proportion to the diameter of the pelvic inlet, it is difficult for it to pass through. This occurs when mothers belonging to a small breed, are impregnated by a sire belonging to a large breed of animals. It may also occur if the mother is fed too fattening a ration and not permitted sufficient exercise.

The part of the foetus that presents itself for entrance into the pelvic cavity and its position are of the greatest importance in giving birth to the young. Either end of the foetus, or its middle portion may be presented for entrance. The anterior and posterior presentations may be modified by the position that the foetus assumes. It may be in a position that places the back or vertebrae opposite the upper portion of the inlet, or the floor or sides of the pelvic cavity. These positions may be modified by the position of one or both limbs, or the head and neck being directed forwards instead of backwards. In the transverse presentations, the back, or the feet and abdomen of the foetus may present themselves for entrance to the pelvic cavity. These presentations may show three positions each. The head may be opposite the upper walls of the inlet, the foetus assuming a dog-sitting position, or it may lie on either side.

In order to overcome the friction between the foetus and the wall of the maternal passages, these parts are lubricated by the fluids that escape from the "water bags." If birth is prolonged and the passages become dry, birth is retarded. The hair offers some resistance in a posterior presentation. Young mares that become hysterical have abnormal labor pains that seem to hold the foetus in the womb instead of expelling it.

CARE OF THE MOTHER AND YOUNG.—Although birth is generally easy in the different domestic animals, it may be difficult and complicated, and it is of the greatest economic importance that special attention be given the mother at this time. It is very necessary for her to be free if confined in a stall. If running in a pasture or lot, the necessary shelter from storms, cold or extreme heat should be provided. Other farm animals, such as hogs, horses and cattle, should not be allowed to run in the same lot or pasture.

When parturition commences, the mother should be kept under close observation. If the labor is difficult and prolonged, we may then examine the parts and determine the cause of the abnormal birth. Unnecessary meddling is not advisable. Before attempting this examination, the hands should be cleaned and disinfected, and the finger nails shortened if necessary. The different conditions to be determined are the nature of the labor pains, the condition of the maternal passages, and the position and presentation of the foetus. In the smaller animals this examination may be difficult. In prolonged labor the parts may be found dry and the labor pains violent and irregular, or weak. The foetus may be jammed tightly into the pelvic inlet, it may be well forward in the womb, the head and fore or hind limbs may be directed backwards, or one or more of these parts may be directed forward in such a position as to prevent the entrance of the foetus into the pelvic inlet. Sometimes the foetus is in a transverse position. The parts that present themselves at the pelvic inlet should be carefully examined and their position determined. The necessary assistance should then be given. Any delay in assisting in the birth may result in the death of the young or mother, or both. On the other hand, unintelligent meddling may aggravate the case and render treatment difficult or impossible. There is no line of veterinary work that requires the attention of a skilled veterinarian more than assisting an irregular or abnormal birth.

The attendant must guard against infecting the parts with irritating germs, or irritating and injuring them in any way. The hands, instruments, and cords must be freed from germs by washing with a disinfectant, or sterilization with heat. The quarters must be clean in order to prevent contamination of the instruments and clothing of the attendant by filth. Extreme force is injurious. For illustration, we may take a case of difficult birth caused by an unusually large foetus. Both presentation and position are normal, the forefeet and head having entered the pelvic cavity, but the shoulders and chest are jammed tightly in the inlet, and the progress of the foetus along the maternal passages is retarded. By using sufficient force, we may succeed in delivering the young, but by pulling on one limb until the shoulder has entered the pelvis, and repeating this with the opposite limb we are able to deliver the young without exposing the mother to injury. It may be necessary to change an abnormal presentation, or position, to a normal presentation, or as nearly normal as possible. This should be done before any attempt is made to remove the foetus.

Following birth the mother should not be unnecessarily disturbed. The quarters should be clean, well bedded and ventilated, but free from draughts. If the parturition has been normal, a small quantity of easily digested feed may be fed. If weak and feverish, feed should be withheld for at least twelve hours. The mare should be rested for a few weeks. The young needs no special attention if it is strong and vigorous, but if weak, it may be necessary to support it while nursing, or milk the mother and feed it by hand. If the mother is nervous and irritable, it may be necessary to remove the young temporarily to a place where she can hear and see it, until a time when she can be induced to care for it. The principal attention required for young pigs is protection against being crushed by the mother. The cutting off and ligation of the umbilical cord at a point a few inches from the abdomen, and applying tincture of iodine or any reliable disinfectant is very advisable in the colt and calf.

RETENTION OF THE FETAL MEMBRANES.—The foetus is enveloped by several layers of membranes. The external envelope, the chorion, is exactly adapted to the uterus. The innermost envelope, the amnion, encloses the foetus. Covering the external face of the amnion and lining the inner face of the chorion is a double membrane, the allantois. The envelopes mentioned are not the only protection that the foetus has against injury. It is enveloped in fluids as well. Immediately surrounding it is the liquor amnii, and within allantois is the allantoic fluid.



The placenta is a highly vascular structure spread out or scattered over the surface of the chorion and the mucous membrane of the uterus, that attaches the foetus and its envelopes to the womb (Fig. 19). It is by means of this vascular apparatus that the foetus is furnished with nourishment. The fetal and maternal placentas are made up of vascular villi and depressions that are separated only by the thin walls of capillaries, and a layer of epithelial cells. This permits a change of material between the fetal and maternal circulation. The arrangement of the placenta differs in the different species. In the mare and sow, the villi are diffused. In ruminants, the villi are grouped at certain points. These vascular masses are termed cotyledons. The maternal cotyledons or "buttons" form appendages or thickened points that become greatly enlarged in the pregnant animal.

Toward the end of the pregnant period, the attachments between the fetal and maternal placentulae undergo a fatty degeneration and finally separate. This results in contractions of the muscular wall of the uterus, and the expulsion of the foetus and its envelopes. In the mare, it is not uncommon for the colt to be born with the covering intact. This does not occur in the cow. Usually the envelopes are not expelled until a short time after birth in all animals, and it is not uncommon for them to be retained. This complication is most commonly met with in the cow.

In the mare the retention of the fetal envelopes or "afterbirth" is commonly due to the muscles of the womb not contracting properly following birth. Abortion, especially the infectious form, is commonly complicated by a retention of the fetal membranes. Any condition that may produce an inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb may result in retention of the "after-birth." Injuries to the uterus resulting from the animal slipping, fighting and becoming crowded are, no doubt, common causes of failure to "clean" in cows.

The symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. A portion of the membranes is usually seen hanging from the vulva, and the tail and hind parts may be more or less soiled. The latter symptom is especially prominent if the membranes have been retained for several days, and decomposition has begun. In such case, the discharge from the vulva is dark in color, contains small pieces of the decomposed membrane and has a very disagreeable odor. In the mare, acute inflammation of the womb may result if the removal of the "after-birth" is neglected. Loss of appetite, abnormal body temperature, weakness and diarrhoea may follow. Such cases usually terminate in death. Retention of the fetal membranes is a very common cause of leucorrhoea.

The treatment consists in removing the fetal envelopes before there is any opportunity for them to undergo decomposition. In the mare, this should be practised within a few hours after birth has occurred, and in other animals, from one to forty-eight hours. In warm stables and during the warm weather, treatment should not be postponed later than twenty-four hours. The only successful method of treatment is to introduce the hand and arm into the uterus, and break down the attachments with the fingers. In the larger animals, the use of the arm must not be interfered with by clothing. Every possible precaution should be taken to prevent infection of the genital organs with irritating germs. It is advisable in most cases to flush out the womb with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound after the removal of the fetal envelopes.

LEUCORRHOEA.—This is a chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the genital tract, that is associated with more or less of a discharge from the vulva. It is common in animals that abort, or retain the "after-birth."

The discharge may be white, sticky, albuminous, and without odor, or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. In chronic inflammation of the womb the discharge is intermittent. In mild cases the health of the animal is in no way impaired. Sterility is common. Loss of appetite and unthriftiness occur in severe cases.

Treatment.—Mild cases readily yield to treatment. This consists in irrigating the maternal passages with a one-half per cent warm water solution of liquor cresolis compound. This treatment should be repeated daily and continued for as long a time as necessary.

MAMMITIS.—Inflammation of the mammary gland or udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. In all animals it is most frequently met with during the first few weeks after birth.

A predisposing cause in the development of mammitis is a high development of the mammary glands. The following direct causes may be mentioned: incomplete milking, or milking at irregular intervals; injury to the udder by stepping on the teat; blows from the horns and pressure caused by lying on a rough, uneven surface; chilling of the udder by draughts and lying on frozen ground; and infection of the glandular tissue by irritating germs. The latter cause produces the most serious, and, sometimes, a very extensive inflammation. This form of inflammation may spread from one cow to another, causing the milk to be unfit for food, and bringing about the loss of one or more quarters of the udder.

The symptoms occurring in the different forms of mammitis differ. The inflammation may involve one or more of the glands, and may affect either the glandular or the connective tissue. In some cases the gland may appear congested for a few days before the inflammatory changes occur. The part becomes hot, swollen, tender and reddened. It may feel doughy or hard. If the connective tissue is involved (interstitial form), there is apt to be a high body temperature, the udder may be much larger than normal, is tender and pits on pressure. Loss of appetite usually accompanies this form of mammitis. Very little or no milk is secreted. Sometimes, the milk is greatly changed in appearance, is foul smelling and contains pus. In congestion of the udder and rupture of the capillary vessels, the milk may contain blood.

Mild inflammation of the udder responds readily to treatment. The interstitial form may terminate in abscesses and gangrene. The replacement of the glandular tissue by fibrous tissue in one or more quarters is not uncommon. Death seldom occurs.

The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may favor or cause an inflammation of the gland. Animals that have highly developed mammary glands should be fed a light diet just before and following parturition. Following parturition, a dose of Epsom or Glauber's salts may be given. If the young does not take all the milk, the udder should be milked out as clean as possible. Massaging the udder by kneading or stroking may be practised.

The following treatment is recommended: The application of a thick coating of antiphlogistin once or twice daily is a useful remedy. If the udder becomes badly swollen, it should be supported with a bandage. Extensive inflammation may be treated by the application of cold in the form of packs of cracked ice. Irrigating the gland with a four per cent water solution of boric acid is an important treatment for certain forms of mammitis. Abscess formation or suppuration should be promptly treated by opening and treating the abscesses. If gangrene occurs, it may be necessary to remove a part, or the whole of the udder.

The giving of milk discolored with blood may be treated by applying camphorated ointment twice daily.

SORE AND WARTY TEATS.—Irritation to the teats by filth, cold, moisture and injuries cause the skin to become inflamed, sore and scabby.

Preventive treatment is the most satisfactory. Sore teats may be treated by applying the following ointment after each milking: vaseline ten parts and oxide of zinc one part. Pendulous warts may be clipped off with a sharp pair of scissors. Castor oil applied to the wart daily by rubbing may be used for the removal of flat warts.

"MILK-FEVER" OR POST-PARTUM PARALYSIS.—This is a disease peculiar to cows, especially heavy milkers that are in good condition. It most commonly occurs after the third, fourth and fifth calving. The disease usually appears within the first two or three days after calving, but it has been known to occur before, and as late as several weeks after calving. The cause is not certainly known. The Schmidt theory is that certain toxins are formed in the udder, owing to the over activity of the cells of the glandular tissue.



The symptoms are characteristic of the disease. At the very beginning of the attack the cow stops eating and ruminating, becomes uneasy, switches the tail, stamps the feet, trembles, staggers when forced to walk and finally falls and is unable to get up. At first she may lie in a natural position; later, as the paralytic symptoms become more pronounced, the head is laid against the side of the body and the animal seems to be in a deep sleep (Fig. 20). In the more severe form the cow lies on her side, consciousness is lost and the paralysis of the muscles is marked. The different body functions are interfered with; the urine is retained, bloating occurs, respirations are slow, pulse weak and temperature subnormal or normal.

Preventive treatment, such as feeding a spare diet during the latter period of pregnancy, is not always advisable. Heavy milkers should be given one-half pound of Glauber's salts a day or two before calving, and the dose repeated when the cow becomes fresh. Cows affected with milk-fever seldom die if treated promptly.

The treatment consists in emptying the udder by milking and injecting air or oxygen gas into the gland until it is completely distended (Fig. 21). The milk-fever apparatus should be clean, and the air injected filtered. Before introducing the milking tube into the milk duct, the udder should first be washed with a disinfectant, and a clean towel laid on the floor for the gland to rest on. After injecting the quarter, strips of muslin or tape should be tied around the ends of the teats to prevent the escape of the air. If the cow does not show indications of recovery in from four to five hours, the treatment should be repeated.



It is very necessary to give the cow a comfortable stall and protect her from any kind of exposure. No bulky drenches should be administered. If she lies stretched out, the fore parts should be raised by packing straw under her. This is necessary in order to prevent pneumonia, caused by regurgitated feed entering the air passages and lungs. It is very advisable to give her the following mixture for a few days after the attack: tincture of nux vomica two ounces, and alcohol six ounces. One ounce of this mixture may be given four times daily in a little water.

QUESTIONS

1. Name the generative organs of the female.

2. Name the generative organs of the male.

3. Give the causes of sterility or impotency in the male and female.

4. Give the treatment of impotency in the male and female.

5. Describe the probable signs of pregnancy; positive signs of pregnancy.

6. Describe the hygienic care of the pregnant female in a general way.

7. Name the different forms of abortion; give the causes.

8. Describe the preventive treatment of infectious abortion.

9. Give a general discussion of the physiology of parturition.

10. What are the common causes of difficult birth?

11. What parts of the foetus may present themselves at the inlet of the pelvic cavity? What are the different positions of the foetus?

12. What attention should be given the mother at the time of parturition?

13. What attention should be given the young immediately after birth?

14. Give the causes of retention of the fetal membranes; state the method of removing them.

15. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation of the udder.

16. Give the cause of milk-fever; give the treatment.



CHAPTER VIII

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS

GENERAL DISCUSSION.—The respiratory apparatus may be divided into two groups of organs, anterior and posterior. The anterior group, the nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx and trachea, is situated in the region of the head and neck. The posterior group, the bronchial tubes and lungs, is situated in the chest or thoracic cavity.

The nostrils are the anterior openings of the air passages. The nasal cavities are situated in the anterior region of the head, and extend the entire length of the face. Each cavity is divided into three long, narrow passages by the two pairs of turbinated bones. The lining membrane is the nasal mucous membrane, the lower two-thirds or respiratory portion differing from the upper one-third, in that the latter possesses the nerve endings of the olfactory nerve and is the seat of smell. The five pairs of head sinuses communicate with the nasal cavities. Posteriorly and near the superior extremity of the nasal passages, are two large openings, the guttural, that open into the pharyngeal cavity.

The pharynx is a somewhat funnel-shaped cavity. The walls are thin and formed by muscles and mucous membrane. This is the cross-road between the digestive and respiratory passages. In the posterior portion of the cavity there are two openings. The inferior opening leads to the larynx and the superior one to the oesophagus. All feed on its way to the stomach must pass over the opening into the larynx. It is impossible, however, for the feed to enter this opening, unless accidentally when the animal coughs. The cartilage closing this opening is pressed shut by the base of the tongue when the bolus of feed is passed back and into the oesophageal opening.

The larynx may be compared to a box open at both ends. The several cartilages that form it are united by ligaments. It is lined by a mucous membrane. The posterior extremity is united to the first cartilaginous ring of the trachea. The anterior opening is closed by the epiglottis. Just within is a V-shaped opening that is limited laterally by the folds of the laryngeal mucous membrane, the vocal chords.

The trachea is a cylindrical tube originating at the posterior extremity of the larynx, and terminating within the chest cavity at a point just above the heart in the right and left bronchial tubes. It is formed by a series of cartilaginous rings joined together at their borders by ligaments and lined by a mucous membrane.

The bronchial tubes resemble the trachea in structure. They enter the lungs a short distance from their origin, where they subdivide into branches and sub-branches, gradually decreasing in calibre and losing the cartilaginous rings, ligaments and muscular layer until only the thin mucous membrane is left. They become capillary in diameter, and finally open into the infundibula of the air cells of the lungs.

The lungs take up all of the space in the thoracic cavity not occupied by the heart, blood-vessels and oesophagus. This cavity resembles a cone in shape that is cut obliquely downwards and forward at its base. The base is formed by the diaphragm which is pushed forward at its middle. It is lined by the pleura, a serous membrane, that is inflected from the wall over the different organs within the cavity. The median folds of the pleura divide the cavity into right and left portions. A second method of describing the arrangement of the pleura is to state that it forms two sacks, right and left, that enclose the lungs. The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. The tissue that forms them is light, will float in water, is elastic and somewhat rose-colored. Each lung is divided into lobes, and each lobe into a great number of lobules by the supporting connective tissue. The lobule is the smallest division of the lung and is formed by capillary bronchial tubes, air cells and blood-vessels. It is here that the external respiration or the exchange of gases between the capillaries and the air cells occurs.

VENTILATION.—It is agreed by all persons who have investigated the subject, that unventilated stable air is injurious to animals. At one time it was believed that the injurious effects resulting from the breathing of air charged with gases and moisture from the expired air and the animal's surroundings, were due to a deficiency in oxygen. It is now believed that the ill-effects are mainly due to the stagnation of air, the humid atmosphere, and the irritating gases emanating from the body excretions.

The common impurities found in stable air are carbonic and ammonia gas, moisture charged with injurious matter and dust from the floor and bodies of the animals. As a rule, the more crowded and filthy the stable, the more impurities there are in the air. If any of the animals are affected with an infectious disease, such as tuberculosis or glanders, the moisture and dust may act as carriers of the disease-producing germs. Infectious diseases spread rapidly in crowded, poorly ventilated stables. The two factors responsible for this rapid spread of disease are the lowered vitality of the animal, due to breathing the vitiated air, and the greater opportunity for infection, because of the comparatively large number of bacteria present in the air.

The purpose of stable ventilation is to replace the stable air with purer air. The frequency with which the air in the stable should be changed depends on the cubic feet of air space provided for each animal, and the sanitary conditions present. The principal factor in stable ventilation is the force of the wind. In cold weather it is very difficult to properly ventilate a crowded stable without too much loss of animal heat and creating draughts.

For practical purposes, the need of ventilation in a stable can be determined by the odor of the air, the amount of moisture present and the temperature. It is impossible to keep the air within the stable as pure as the atmosphere outside.

All dangers from injury by breathing impure air, or by draughts can be eliminated by proper stable construction, attention to the ventilation and keeping the quarters clean.



CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD).—Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities that usually extends to the membrane lining of the sinuses of the head. It may be acute or chronic. The inflammation very often extends to the pharynx and larynx. Cold in the head is more common in the horse than in any of the other animals (Fig. 22).

The most common causes of "colds" are standing or lying in a draught, becoming wet, and exposure to the cold. "Colds" are common during cold, changeable weather. Horses that are accustomed to warm stables, are very apt to take "cold" if changed to a cold stable and not protected with a blanket. Most animals are not affected by the cold weather if given dry quarters and a dry bed. Irritation to the mucous membrane by dust, gases and germs is a common cause. Influenza and colt distemper are characterized by an inflammation of the respiratory mucous membranes. In the horse, chronic catarrh is commonly caused by diseased teeth, and injuries to the wall of the maxillary sinus. In sheep, the larvae of the bot-fly may cause catarrh.

The early symptoms usually pass unnoticed by the attendant. The lining membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red. During this stage sneezing is common. In a few days a discharge appears. This is watery at first, but may become catarrhal, heavy, mucous-like and turbid. In severe cases it resembles pus. The lining membrane of the eyelids appears red and tears may flow from the eye. Sometimes the animal acts dull and feverish, but this symptom does not last longer than one or two days unless complicated by sore throat.

Inflammation of the throat is a common complication of "colds." It is characterized by difficulty in swallowing and partial, or complete loss of appetite. Drinking or exercising causes the animal to cough. If the larynx as well as the pharynx is inflamed, distressed and noisy breathing may occur. Pressure over the region of the throat causes the animal pain.

Common "cold" terminates favorably within a week. Chronic catarrh may persist until the cause is removed and the necessary local treatment applied. Inflammation of the pharynx and larynx may persist for several weeks unless properly treated. Abscesses may form in the region of the throat. Horses frequently become thick winded as a result of severe attacks of sore throat.

The treatment is both preventive and curative. "Colds" and sore throat can be largely prevented by good care, exercise and properly ventilated stables. Mild cases require a light diet, comfortable quarters and a dry bed. Allowing the animal to inhale steam three or four times daily is useful in relieving the inflammation. Easily digested feeds, and in case the animal has difficulty in swallowing, soft feeds and gruels, should be given. The throat may be kept covered with a layer of antiphlogistin and bandaged. Glycoheroin may be given in from teaspoonful to tablespoonful doses, depending on the size of the animal. Chlorate of potassium may be given in the drinking water.

If the animal becomes run down in flesh, as sometimes occurs in chronic catarrh, bitter tonics should be given. In the latter disease, it is sometimes necessary to trephine and wash out the sinus or sinuses affected with an antiseptic solution. It may be necessary to continue this treatment for several weeks.

BRONCHITIS.—Inflammation of the bronchial tubes may be either acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is especially common in the horse, while the chronic form is more often met with in the smaller animals, especially hogs. This disease is most common among horses during the changeable seasons of the years. It is caused by warm, close stables or stalls, and irritating gases emanating from the floor, or manure in the stall. In general, the causes are about the same as in cold in the head. In young animals and hogs, the inhalation of dust, and bronchial and lung worms commonly cause it. Verminous bronchitis usually becomes chronic.

In the acute form of the disease the symptoms come on very quickly, the fever is high and the pulse beats and respirations are rapid. Chilling of the body occurs, and the animal may appear dull and refuse to eat. The animal coughs frequently. Recovery occurs within a few days, unless complicated by sore throat and pneumonia. In the horse, bronchitis is not a serious disease, but in other animals recovery is delayed and complications are more common.

In chronic bronchitis in the horse, the animal coughs frequently, there is more or less discharge from the nostrils and the respirations may become labored when exercised. The animal is usually weak, in poor flesh and unfit for work. In other cases, symptoms of broken wind are noticed. Severe coughing spells on getting up from the bed, or on moving about are characteristic of bronchitis in hogs. Verminous bronchitis in calves and lambs is characterized by severe spells of coughing, difficult and labored breathing and a weak, emaciated condition.

The preventive treatment is the same as for "colds." In the acute form the treatment consists largely in careful nursing. Properly ventilated, clean quarters that are free from dust should be provided. The animal should be covered with a light or heavy blanket, depending on the temperature of the stable, and the limbs bandaged. A light diet should be fed for a few days. It is advisable to give the animal a physic of oil. The inhalation of steam every few hours during the first few days should be practised. Glycoheroin may be given three or four times a day.

Animals affected with chronic bronchitis should not be exercised or worked. We should guard against their taking cold, give nourishing feeds, and a tonic if necessary.

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS.—Pulmonary congestion is generally due to overexertion and exposure to extreme heat or cold. It may occur if the animal is exercised when sick or exhausted. Hogs that are heated from exercise and allowed access to cold water, may suffer from a congestion or engorgement of the lungs. It may be present at the beginning of an attack of pneumonia or pleurisy.

The symptoms are difficult breathing and the animal fights for its breath. The body temperature may be several degrees above the normal. In the mild form, the above symptoms are not so marked. The onset and course of the disease are rapid, recovery, pneumonia, or death often occurring within twenty-four hours.

Pulmonary haemorrhage is not uncommon. The discharge from the nostrils may be slightly tinged with blood, or there may be an intermittent discharge of blood from the nostrils or mouth. The mucous membranes are pale, the animal trembles and shows marked dyspnoea.

The preventive treatment consists in using the proper judgment in caring for, and in working or exercising animals. This is especially true if the animal is affected with acute or chronic disease. At the very beginning, bleeding should be practised. Hot blankets renewed frequently and bandages to the limbs is a very necessary part of the treatment. In case of severe pulmonary haemorrhage, treatment is of little use.

PNEUMONIA.—Inflammation of the lungs is more common in horses than in any of the other domestic animals. The croupous form is the most common. The inflammation may affect one or both lungs, one or more lobes, or scattered lobules of lung tissue. The inflammation may be acute, subacute or chronic.

The causes are very much the same as in other respiratory diseases. Exposure to cold and wet, stable draughts, becoming chilled after perspiring freely and washing the animal with cold water are the common causes of pneumonia. Inflammation of the lungs is especially apt to occur if the animal is not accustomed to such exposure. Animals affected with other respiratory diseases are predisposed to pneumonia. Drenching animals by way of the nostril and irritating drenches, or regurgitated feed passing into the air passages and lungs are the traumatic causes of pneumonia.

The symptoms vary in the different forms of pneumonia. In case pneumonia occurs secondarily, the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the primary disease. The first symptoms noticed may be a high body temperature, as indicated by chills, and refusing to eat. The visible mucous membranes are red and congested, the nostrils dilated, the respirations quickened and difficult, the expired air hot and the pulse beats accelerated. The animal coughs, and in the horse, a rusty discharge may be noticed adhering to the margins of the nostrils. The horse refuses to lie down if both lungs are inflamed. In severe cases the expression of the face indicates pain, the respirations are labored, the general symptoms aggravated, and the animal stands with the front feet spread apart. Cattle are inclined to lie down, unless the lungs are seriously affected. Hogs like to burrow under the litter.

The course of croupous pneumonia is typical, and unless it terminates fatally in the first stage, the periods of congestion, hepatization and resolution follow each other in regular manner. Auscultation of the lungs is of great value in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease. It is more difficult to determine the character of the lung sounds in the horse and cow than it is in the small animals. This is especially difficult if the animal is fat. During the period of congestion which lasts about a day, one can hear both healthy and crepitating sounds. The period of hepatization is characterized by an absence of sound over the diseased area. The inflammatory exudates become organized at the beginning of this stage, and the air can not enter the air cells. This period lasts several days. Resolution marks the beginning of recovery or convalescence. Toward the end of the second period, the inflammatory exudate in the air cells has begun to degenerate. In the last stage, these exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed, or expelled by coughing, in from seven days to two weeks, depending on the extent of the inflammation and the general condition of the animal.

In the subacute form the symptoms are mild and may subside within a week. Sometimes abscesses form in the lung. Gangrenous inflammation of the lung can be recognized by the odor of the expired air and the severity of the symptoms. This form of pneumonia terminates fatally. If the larger portion of the lung tissue is inflamed, death from asphyxia may occur in the second stage.

The success in the treatment of pneumonia depends largely on the care. Properly ventilated, clean, comfortable quarters and careful nursing are highly important. Large animals should be given a roomy box stall. Cold does not aggravate pneumonia, providing the animal's body is well protected with blankets and the limbs bandaged. Wet, damp quarters and draughts are injurious. Hogs should be given plenty of bedding to burrow in. A light, easily digested diet should be fed. Very little roughage should be fed. If the animal does not eat well, it may be given eggs and milk. Weak pulse beats should be treated by giving digitalis and strychnine. Counterirritation to the chest wall is indicated. During convalescence, bitter tonics may be given. Constipation should be treated by giving the animal castor or linseed oil.

PLEURISY.—Inflammation of the pleura is most common in horses. It occurs in all farm animals and is frequently unilateral. There are two forms of pleurisy, acute and chronic. Pleuropneumonia is common when the cause is a specific germ. This occurs in tuberculosis, pleuropneumonia of horses and pneumococcus infection.

The common causes are exposure to cold, chilling winds, draughty, damp quarters, and drinking cold water when perspiring. Injuries to the costal pleura by fractured ribs and punctured wounds may cause it to become inflamed.

The early symptoms of acute pleurisy are chills, rise in body temperature, pain and abdominal breathing. The most characteristic symptom is the ridge extending along the lower extremities of the ribs (pleuritic ridge). The animal does not stand still as in pneumonia, but changes its position occasionally, its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt. Pressure on the wall of the chest causes the animal to flinch and show evidence of severe pain. Large animals rarely lie down. The cough is short and painful. On placing the ear against the wall of the chest and listening to the respirations, we are able to hear friction sounds. After a few days effusion occurs in the pleural cavity. Although the animal may have refused to eat up to this time, it now appears greatly relieved and may offer to eat its feed. This relief may be only temporary. If the fluid exudate forms in sufficient quantity to cause pressure on the heart and lungs and interfere with their movement, the pulse beat is weak, the respirations quick and labored, the elbows are turned out and the feet are spread apart. All of the respiratory muscles may be used. The expression of the face may indicate threatened asphyxia. We may determine the extent of the pleural exudate by auscultation. There is no evidence of respiratory sounds in that portion of the chest below the surface of the fluid. Dropsical swellings may occur on the under surface of the breast and abdomen.

In subacute cases evidence of recovery is noted in from four to ten days. Acute pleurisy very often terminates fatally. Under the most favorable conditions, recovery takes place very slowly, sometimes extending over a period of several months. It is not uncommon for the horse to continue having "defective wind."

The treatment consists in good care, well ventilated quarters and careful nursing, the same as recommended in the treatment of pneumonia. At the very beginning, the pain may be relieved by the administration of small doses of morphine. If the conditions in the stable permit, a hot blanket that has been dipped in hot water and wrung out as dry as possible, may be applied to the chest wall and covered with a rubber blanket. This treatment should be continued during the first few days of the inflammation. These applications may be reinforced by occasionally applying mustard paste to the sides of the chest.

The animal should be allowed to drink but a limited amount of water. The feed must be highly nutritious. Milk and eggs should be given if necessary. A laxative dose of oil should be given. Calomel, aloes, and digitalis are recommended when the effusion period approaches in order to increase the elimination of fluid, and lessen its entrance into the body cavity. If the amount of effusion is large, puncture of the thoracic cavity with a trocar and cannula may be practised. This operation should be performed carefully, and all possible precautions used against infection of the wound. During the later period of the disease iodide of potassium, iron and bitter tonics should be given.

BROKEN-WIND, HEAVES.—The terms broken-wind and heaves are used in a way to include a number of different diseases of the respiratory organs of the horse. The term heaves is applied almost wholly to an emphysematous condition of the lungs. Broken-wind may include the following diseased conditions: obstruction of the nasal passages by bony enlargements and tumors; tumors in the pharynx; enlarged neck glands; collection of pus in the guttural pouches and paralysis of the left, or both recurrent nerves (roaring).

The common causes of heaves are pre-existing diseases of the respiratory organs, severe exercise when the animal is not in condition and wrong methods of feeding. Heaves is more common in horses that are fed heavily on dusty timothy and clover hay and allowed to drink large quantities of water after feeding, than in horses that are fed green feeds, graze on pastures or receive prairie hay for roughage. Chronic indigestion seems to aggravate the disease. Over-distention of the stomach and intestines due to feeding too much roughage and grain interferes with respiration. Severe exercise when in this condition may result in over-distention, dilation and rupture of the air cells. This is the most common structural change met with in the lungs of horses affected with heaves. It is termed emphysema.

The common symptoms noted are the double contraction of the muscles of the flank with each expiration, a short, dry cough and the dilated nostrils. The frequent passage of gas is a prominent symptom in well-established cases of heaves. Chronic indigestion is commonly present in heavy horses that are not well cared for, or are given hard work. This condition aggravates the distressed breathing.

Heaves is a permanent disorder, but it may be relieved by climatic changes and careful attention to the animal's diet.

The following preventive treatment is recommended: Dusty hay should not be fed to horses. Clover hay is not a safe feed for horses that are worked hard. When starting on a drive after feeding, the horse should not be driven fast, but allowed to go slowly for a few miles.

The symptoms can be greatly relieved by careful attention to the diet. A limited quantity of roughage should be fed, and this should be good in quality and fed in the evening. During the warm weather, the animal should be watered frequently. After quitting work in the evening the animal may be allowed to drink as much water as it wants. Plenty of grain, soft feed and roots may be fed. A small handful of flaxseed meal given with the feed helps in keeping down constipation. Fowler's solution of arsenic may be given twice daily with the feed, in half-ounce doses for a period of ten days or two weeks. Chronic indigestion should be combated by digestive tonics.

QUESTIONS

1. Name the organs that form the anterior and posterior air passages.

2. To what conditions are the injurious effects of keeping animals in a poorly ventilated stable due?

3. State the purpose of ventilation. How can the need of ventilation be determined in a stable?

4. State the causes of "cold" in the head; give the treatment.

5. State the cause of bronchitis; give the treatment.

6. What are the causes of pneumonia? Describe the symptoms and treatment.

7. What symptoms are characteristic of pleurisy? Give the treatment for pleurisy.

8. Give the causes and treatment of "heaves."



CHAPTER IX

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS

GENERAL DISCUSSION.—The circulatory organs are the heart, arteries, veins and lymphatics. The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system (Fig. 23). Its function is to force the blood through the blood-vessels. It is situated in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, and enclosed by a special fold of the pleura, the pericardial sack. There are two kinds of blood-vessels, arteries and veins. The arteries leave the heart and carry the blood to the many different organs of the body. The veins return to the heart and carry the blood from the body tissues. The capillaries are small blood-vessels, microscopic in size, that connect the arteries with the veins. The arteries carry the pure blood. The opposite is true, however, of the lesser or pulmonary system. The pulmonary artery carries the impure blood to the lungs, and the pulmonary veins carry the pure blood back from the lungs. The lymphatic vessels carry a transparent or slightly colored fluid and chyle from the tissues and alimentary canal. This system of vessels empties into the venous system.



The functions of the blood are to nourish the body tissues; furnish material for the purpose of the body secretions; supply the cells of the body with oxygen; convey from the tissues injurious substances produced by the cellular activity; and destroy organisms that may have entered the body tissues. The cellular and fluid portions of the blood are not always destructive to disease-producing organisms. In certain infectious diseases, the fluid portion of the blood may contain innumerable organisms, and destruction of the blood cells occurs.

In inflammation of tissue the circulation of the blood in the inflamed part undergoes certain characteristic changes. At the beginning there is an increase in the blood going to the part. This is followed by a slowing of the blood stream in the small vessels, and the collecting of the blood cells in the capillaries and veins. These circulatory changes are followed by the migration of the blood cells, and the escape of the fluid portion of the blood into the surrounding tissue. The character of the above circulatory changes depends on the extent of the injury to the tissue.

PALPITATION.—This disturbance in domestic animals seems to be purely functional. It may occur independent of any organic heart disease. A highly nervous condition, excitement, over-exertion, debility from disease and the feeding of an improper ration are the common causes.

The heart beats are so violent and tumultuous as to shake the body, and be noticed when standing near the animal. The heart sounds are louder than normal and the pulse beats small and irregular. It may be differentiated from spasm of the diaphragm by determining the relationship of the heart beats to the abrupt shocks observed in the costal and flank regions.