The modern languages taught in schools of commerce should be by the direct method, and always with the vocational end clearly before the student. Actual business transactions, such as selling to a foreign customer in the foreign language, correspondence, newspapers, catalogues and other documents of business, should be the supplementary reading and exercise material of the class. Facility in conversation and writing should be developed as rapidly as possible, and the grasp of the methodical rules should follow. It would probably be presumptuous to take a strong position here on the question of teaching modern languages, but experience with commercial students has clearly indicated that greatest progress can be made if the language is taught by a conversation or direct method from the very start, and if paradigms and rules of syntax are evolved after some vocabulary has been developed and some facility in speech has been acquired. We may say here, incidentally, that it seems wise to teach the spoken language for a while before taking up the problem of the written language, especially where the foreign language assigns different phonetic values to the printed symbols from those assigned in English.

While the various technical subjects offer different problems because of differences in their character, we may say in general that the aim of the school should always be to keep in touch with the actual practice in the business world; to have the lecturer use material which is up to the minute, and, where possible, to give the students the advantage of field work or at least to take them on tours of inspection in the different houses engaged in this or that line of business.

The curriculum of any good commercial college or university department of business includes courses in Economics, Commercial Geography, Industrial History, Business Management, and similar subjects. No doubt other chapters of this book discuss methods of teaching these subjects. But it may not be out of place here to indicate that the best approach to the study of Economics is through practical business courses in Accountancy, Commercial Law, and Practical Management. Economics is the Philosophy of Business, and it cannot be understood by one who is unfamiliar with the facts of business. Certainly it cannot be related to real business life by the academic student. It would seem, therefore, best to reserve the course in Economic Theory for the senior year of a business course and precede it with courses in Accounting, Law, Industrial History, and Management. Then, when it is taught, it should be presented through practical problems from which the general principles may, by induction, be derived.

Relations with the business world

It is important that commercial education should not grow academic and remote from the real world of affairs. Therefore schools of business should keep in close contact with merchants' associations, chambers of commerce, and such other bodies of business men as may be in the neighborhood of the school. Committees from such associations should have either a voice in the conduct of the school, or at least have very strong advisory representation on committees. In France, Germany, and in fact most European countries, colleges of commerce were directly established by chambers of commerce and associations of merchants, and the work is to a large extent conducted under their direction. Whether the college of commerce in America be a private institution or one supported by the public, it should form some sympathetic contact with the leading business organizations. Of course certain business associations have their own technical schools of training. The American Bankers' Association conducts its own courses, drawing upon various universities for lecturers in some subjects and drawing upon experts in business for other kinds of technical work. So also various corporations have their corporation schools which seek to develop business executives by progressive courses of training for those in the lower ranks.

Nevertheless, the collegiate institutions offering organized courses in commerce will do well to keep in touch with business men. Another way in which such schools and colleges can keep abreast of the times is to employ lecturers who do not make teaching their main business of life but who are expert in certain particular fields. Indeed, it is almost impossible to teach certain of the very advanced and specialized courses without employing men of this sort. They are attracted to teaching not by the pay but by the honor of being connected with an institution of learning, and by sincere desire to contribute something to the development of the work in which they are interested. These men, of course, can be scheduled only for a relatively few hours a week, and sometimes they can be had only for evening lectures, but in any event they are very much worth while. Obviously the director of studies in the college should give these men all possible assistance of a pedagogical sort, so that their advantages as experts in business will not be offset by deficiencies as teachers.

Evening work in commercial courses

This brings us to another consideration which is very important. It seems to the writer that the ideal training for a student who has reached the stage of entrance to college and who wishes to go into business is as follows:

He should enroll in the college course which is preparatory for business training and pursue his modern languages, Mathematics, English, and the Social Sciences, and also take up such accounting and technical work as he can have the first two years of his course. Then he should enter the world of business itself, be in a business house during the day, and continue his studies at night. It seems very desirable that this parallel progress, in organized theory and instruction, on the one hand, and in actual business with its difficulties which arise almost haphazard, should be carried on. The relationship is very helpful. Of course a substitute for this is the cooperative plan, in which the student spends a part of his time in college and a part of the time in a business house. Another alternative in institutions which have the three-term year is to put two terms in at college and one term in at business. The calendar arrangement of any institution will suggest variations of this suggested arrangement, the purpose of which will be to insure progressive development in business practice and also in collegiate instruction.

Recent developments

It is to be noticed that in the last few years business has become more and more intense. The developments are in two directions. The first direction is saving and efficiency through organization. This tends to keep down cost. The other direction is in the stimulation of the market and in perfecting advertising and selling methods. Naturally there have been developments in the recording, accounting, and clerical ends of the business, but scientific management in production on the one hand, and scientific selling on the other, are the two great developments. In both, engineering plays a prominent part and dictates a close correlation of the business and the engineering curricula of a college or university seeking to give most effective training either to the student of business or the student of engineering. On the selling side we are having the further developments which come with the growth of foreign trade.

In order to meet the demand for men competent to organize production wisely and from a business viewpoint, more courses will be given in what we may call production management or commercial engineering. Furthermore, the sales engineer must be trained. The curriculum of the course of collegiate grade should be made up somewhat as follows:

A two years' prescribed course in the general sciences and in general principles of business, followed by a two or three year curriculum in technical business management, on the one hand, including especially accounting, cost accounting, wage systems, employment management, and some branch of engineering on the other hand. The engineering course should be general but thorough. It should not go up into specialized fields of design, but it should include all the fundamental courses of engineering—of mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering. A combination course in engineering and business management is needed also to prepare men for places in banks as investment managers. The banks must advance funds to industrial concerns, and such loans cannot be made wisely save upon the advice of one who is thoroughly acquainted with plant management, equipment, and mechanical operations as well as costs of production and market possibilities. In addition, such a man must be well acquainted with systems of accounting and methods of preparing financial statements. In the field of salesmanship, engineering training is growing in importance. In short, the highly organized state of modern production and the tremendous part played by engineering in modern industry indicate the need for a close coordination of business and engineering education.

In conclusion we may say that business education is now at the stage where it has its own technology, is in close touch with other fields of technology, and is making its contribution to the general fund of modern culture. Texts and scientific treatises in the field of business are increasing, the pedagogy of the various included subjects is receiving satisfactory attention, and schools of collegiate and university grade are keeping abreast of the demands of the business world for adequate general and specific training in business.

FREDERICK B. ROBINSON College of the City of New York

BIBLIOGRAPHY

COOLEY, E. G. Vocational Education in Europe. Commercial Club of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 1912. Chapters on Vocational Education in General, Commercial Schools, and the Conclusion.

FARRINGTON, F. E. Commercial Education in Germany. The Macmillan Company, 1914.

HERRICK, C. A. Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education, and other works in the Macmillan Commercial Series, 1904. There is an excellent bibliography on the whole subject of commercial education as an appendix to Herrick's Commercial Education.

HOOPER, FREDERICK, and GRAHAM, JAMES. Commercial Education at Home and Abroad. The Macmillan Company, 1901.

There are numerous contributions on particular aspects and general methods and special methods in commercial subjects. The best printed bibliography of these is in the back of Herrick's book. A typical work on methods is Klein and Kahn's Methods in Commercial Education.



INDEX

Accountancy. See Business Education

Adapting course of study, 95-97, 202, 244, 480, 572

Adler, Felix, 323, 325

AEsthetic aim, in teaching, 52, 92; in music, 470

Aims, in teaching, 48-51; modified for different students, 54; in organization of knowledge, 65; in teaching biology, 88-94; in teaching mathematics, 172; in physical education, 184-190; in teaching economics, 217-220; in teaching American history, 218; in teaching political science, 282-287; in teaching philosophy, 304; in teaching ethics, 320-328; in teaching psychology, 337; in teaching English literature, 380-384, 422-423; in teaching classics, 405; in teaching Romance languages, 426-427; in teaching music, 460-462, 467; of art instruction, 478; in teaching engineering subjects, 508-511; in teaching mechanical drawing, 525-527; in business education, 559. See Civic, Disciplinary, Utilitarian

Allen, J. T., 411

Angell, J. B., 30

Application of knowledge, 72

Art, 475-497

Art instruction, 475

Athletics. See Physical education

Author's life, in literary study, 385

Biological basis of education, 85-87, 94, 364

Biology, 85-109

Brown, E. E., 358

Brown University, 5

Business education, 555-577

Butler, N. M., 30, 404

Calkins, Mary W., 339

Canby, H. S., 42

Case method, in political science, 292; in philosophy, 316; in ethics, 329; in psychology, 338-340; in commercial law, 572-573

Cattell, J. M., 30

Chemistry, 108-125

Chronological viewpoint in history, 257

Citizenship, training for, 282

Civic aim in economics, 219

Classics, 404-423; in Colonial colleges, 5-6; status in college teaching, 404; through the vernacular, 418; through ancient authors, 421

Coeducation, 18-21

College teaching, why ineffective, 46-48

Collegiate Institute, 4

Colonial period, 3

Columbia University, 5, 8

Commercial education. See Business education

Commercial law, 571-572

Committee on standards of American universities, 42

Comparisons in teaching, 70

Composition and journalism, 546

Composition teaching, status of, 390. See English

Correlation, 70, 151, 156-157, 297, 295-297, 314

Course of study, 477, 481-485, 486-490; in biology, 95-98; logical and psychological, 103; in chemistry, 111; in physics, 134-137, 138-139; in geology, 153-156, 158; in hygiene and physical training, 206; in economics, 225; in sociology, 244-246; determined by community, 246; in American history, 259-262; in European history, 269-276; in political science, 280-281; in philosophy, 312-314; in education, 353; in English literature, 386; in classics, 410; in Romance languages, 431-436; in German, 442-453; in engineering, 502-504; in mechanical drawing, 526-530; in business education, 559-567

Cultural aim, 220, 336, 348, 382-384

Dartmouth College Case and college development, 8-9

Democracy, 259

Descriptive geometry, 530

Design in engineering, 517

Development method, 73, 75-76 See Recitation

Dewey, J., 362-364

Dexter, E. G., 30, 355

Differentiated courses, 504-508

Direct method, 444

Disciplinary aim, 51-52; in physics, 126-127; in geology, 143-150; in history, 264; in psychology, 336; in education, 349; in literature, 382-384; in Romance languages, 424; in music, 467-468

Draper, A. S., 30

Duggan, S. P., 353

Economic viewpoint in history, 257

Economics, 58, 217-240

Education as college subject, 347-376

Educational and instructional aim, 50-51

Elective system, 11-14

Elementary language courses as college courses, 426

Eliot, Charles W., 11

Emotional reaction in literature, 384

Engineering subjects, 501-524

English, teaching of, 49, 379-388, 389-403. See Composition, Literature

Equipment for art instruction, 490

Ethics, 320-333

Evening session for business education, 573

Examination, 80. See Tests

Experimental work in psychology, 342. See Laboratory method

Expressional limitations of college students, 545

Field work, 254, 298, 517

Finance, teaching of. See Business education

Flexner, A., 30, 42

Foster, W. T., 30

Functional aspect in teaching, 292

Geology, 142-160

German, 440-453

German influence on American college, 14

Gradation of subject matter, 56, 387

Graduate schools, 14-15

Graves, 353

Habits, 91, 199. See Aims, Disciplinary aim

Handschin, C. H., 42

Harper, W. R., 30

Hart, 355

Harvard, 3

Health instruction, 197. See Physical education

Heuristic method. See Development method, Recitation

High school preparation, in physical education, 190; in music, 469, 485

History, of American college, 3; of college mathematics, 167; of sociology, 241; of music as college subject, 357; of teaching of journalism, 533-539; of business education in the college, 555-557

Holliday, C., 42

Horne, H. H., 36, 42

Illustrations, 243

Immigration and status of English teaching, 394.

Informal aim in teaching, 51

Informal examination, 308

Introductory course, in ethics, 328; in political science, 288, 298; in philosophy, 307, 315; in psychology, 334; in mechanical drawing, 527-528

Jefferson and founding of American college, 7

Johns Hopkins University, 32

Journalism as college subject, 24, 533-554

Junior college, 26-27

King's College, 5

Kingsley, C. D., 30

Laboratory method, 73, 78; in chemistry, 62, 114; in biology, 99; in physics, 132; in geology, 157; in psychology, 343; in engineering, 516

Language as index of mentality, 388

Law, 17; commercial, 571-572

Lecture method, 73; in chemistry, 113-114; in physics, 131, 133; in mathematics, 175; in economics, 227, 231-235; in sociology, 242; in history, 260, 265; in philosophy, 308-310; in psychology, 340-341; in classics, 419-421; in engineering, 511-513; in commercial education, 568-572

Length of periods in accountancy, 569

Literary analysis, 386

Literary appreciation, 380. See Aims, Cultural, AEsthetic

Literary style, 386

Literature and the classics, 407-408, 415. See English

Logical association, 63-64

MacLean, G. E., 30

Mathematics, 59, 161-182

Mechanical drawing, 525-532

Medicine, 17

Mental development and acquisition of language, 388

Methods of teaching conditioned by aims, 98. See Aims

Mezes, S. F., 48

Modern languages, when introduced, 7; in business education, 571

Modern literature and the classics, 412

Monroe, P., 353

Morrill Act, 10

Motivation in teaching, 55-56

Municipal research, 298. See Laboratory method, Sociology, Political science

Music in secondary schools, 465

Natural method in classics, 411, 416-417

Newspaper English, 541-542

Non-sectarianism in American colleges, 7

Notebook of students, 356

Oberlin and coeducation, 20

Oral composition in German, 447

Oral reading and English literature, 384

Ordinance of 1787, 9

Organization of subject matter, 62-66

Outlines in biology, 102

Parker, S. C., 355

Pennsylvania University, 4

Philosophy, 57, 70-71, 123, 127, 302-319

Physical education, 22, 183-314

Physics, 126-141

Pitkin, W. B., 46-50

Place in curriculum, of political science, 287; of ethics, 328; of psychology, 334, 344; of history of education, 351; of educational theory, 359; of German, 440; of art education, 475

Point of contact in teaching, 57-62

Political science, 279-301

Preparatory training, in chemistry, 109; in physics, 129; in mathematics, 164, 176-178; in physical education, 190; in German, 448; for journalism, 549

Problem method, in economics, 228, 231-235; in sociology, 248-251

Professional preparation, for women, 20; through political science, 283

Prose composition and the classics, 414

Psychology, 57, 334-346, 364

Public service, training for, 284

Quiz, how to conduct, 118

Recitation, 118, 174, 513-516, 568-572

Reduction of college course, 27

Reference reading, 73, 76, 267, 514

Relating course to students, 128, 370; in chemistry, 120; in sociology, 245; in philosophy, 309; in ethics, 321-327, 331-332; in psychology, 338; in music, 459; in business education, 572. See Adapting course of study

Relative importance in organization of knowledge, 64

Religious character of American college, 5-7, 22

Reporting, teaching art of, 547

Research, 285. See Reference reading, Problem method, Seminar

Research scholars as teachers, 105-106, 124, 137, 178

Robinson, M. L., 42

Romance languages, 424-428

Scholarship as preparation for teaching, 38

Science, teaching of, 61-64; place of, in journalism course, 552

Scientific methods, in political science, 298; in psychology, 343

Scope of course in educational theory, 361

Self-activity, 72

Self-government, 24

Seminar, 76

Senior college, 26-28

Sequence of courses in political science, 289

Skill to be developed in biology, 90

Smith, F. W., 55

Snow, L. F., 30

Social museum, the, 254

Social sciences, place in journalism course, 550

Sociology, 241-255

Socratic method. See Recitation, Development method

Stanley, A. A., 465

Student Army Training Corps, 335

Summaries in teaching, 66

Teacher, as scholar, 105. See Research, Teacher training

Teacher training, 18, 31, 37-39, 256-257, 436, 468-470

Technical subjects in college curriculum, 16, 25-26, 479, 504-508

Technique, as aim in teaching, 52

Testing results of instruction, 136; in economics, 244; in history, 261, 268; in psychology, 343; in music, 473; in art, 493-496; in engineering subjects, 519-522

Textbook, in geology, 158; in mathematics, 179; in economics, 228, 231-235; in sociology, 253; in history, 259; in ethics, 330

Theology, in separate school, 16

Thoroughness, 66-72, 104

Thwing, C. F., 30

Time to be given to subjects, 345, 486. See Place in curriculum

Topical method in history, 266

Types of instruction, 396-398

Undergraduate and graduate teaching, 388

Unified courses, 59, 302

Utilitarian aim, 217; of physics, 126; of geology, 142; of political science, 286; of psychology, 337; of history of education, 348

Values, 355. See Aims

Vernacular, in teaching German, 445

Viewpoint in teaching, a new, 69

Virginia, University of, 7

West, A. F., 30

William and Mary, 4

Wolfe, A. B., 36, 42

Women, education of, 18-21. See Coeducation

World War, effect on curriculum, 183

Yale, 4



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Transcriber's Notes:

Passages in italics indicated by underscore italics.

Sidenotes indicated by sidenote.

The note between footnotes 65 and 66 refers to footnotes 61-65.

The original text's usage of the Greek letter Sigma in a formula has been trancribed in this text as "S".

Misprints corrected: missing "By" added (Table of Contents) "Asisstant" corrected to "Assistant" (Table of Contents) "is is" corrected to "is" (page 198) missing "to" added to sidenote (page 400) "scupltors" corrected to "sculptors" (page 479) "Cooperaton" corrected to "Cooperation" (page 496) missing hyphens added as necessary

Additional spacing after some of the quotations is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.