FLAT EFFECTS.—If the board is flat it may be shaded, as shown in Fig. 131, in which the lines are all of the same thickness, and are spaced farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.



THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT.—Now, in drawing, we must observe another thing. Not only does the light always come from above, but it comes also from the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, one within the other. All the lines are of the same thickness. Can you determine by means of such a drawing what the inner square represents? Is it a block, or raised surface, or is it a depression?

RAISED SURFACES.—Fig. 133 shows it in the form of a block, simply by thickening the lower and the right-hand lines.

DEPRESSED SURFACES.—If, by chance, you should make the upper and the left-hand lines heavy, as in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear depressed, and would need no further explanation.

FULL SHADING,—But, in order to furnish an additional example of the effect of shading, suppose we shade the surface of the large square, as shown in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only is the effect emphasized, but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show. In like manner, in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the inner square, and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface conformation.



ILLUSTRATING CUBE SHADING.—In Fig. 137 I show merely nine lines joined together, all lines being of equal thickness.

As thus drawn it may represent, for instance, a cube, or it may show simply a square base (A) with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.

SHADING EFFECTS.—Now, to examine it properly so as to observe what the draughtsman wishes to express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three diverging lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, and the cube appears plainly. On the other hand, in Fig. 139, the thickening of the lines (D, E, F) shows an entirely different structure.



It must be remembered, therefore, that to show raised surfaces the general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right vertical lines. (See Fig. 133.)

HEAVY LINES.—But there is an exception to this rule. See two examples (Fig. 140). Here two parallel lines appear close together to form the edge nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, line is heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, the second line from the right is heaviest. These examples show plain geometrical lines, and those from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.



PERSPECTIVE.—A perspective is a most deceptive figure, and a cube, for instance, may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length, and also be equidistant from each other. Or all the lines may be of the same length and have the distances between them vary. Supposing we have two cubes, one located above the other, separated, say, two feet or more from each other. It is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not be the same to a camera, because, if they were photographed, they would appear exactly as they are, so far as their positions are concerned, and not as they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye as having six equal sides. The camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so far as measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore, that the position of the eye, relative to the cube, is what determines the angle, or $the relative$ angles of all the lines.



A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF A CUBE.—Fig. 142 shows a true perspective—that is, it is true from the measurement standpoint. It is what is called an isometrical view, or a figure in which all the lines not only are of equal length, but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same distances from each other.

ISOMETRIC CUBE.—I enclose this cube within a circle, as in Fig. 143. To form this cube the circle (A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line (B). This forms the starting point for stepping off the six points (C) in the circle, using the dividers without resetting, after you have made the circle. Then connect each of the points (C) by straight lines (D). These lines are called chords. From the center draw two lines (E) at an angle and one line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. You will see from the foregoing that the chords (D) form the outline of the cube—or the lines farthest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F) are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are looking at the block at a true diagonal—that is, from a corner at one side to the extreme corner on the opposite side.



Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, with the cube which is placed higher up, viewed from the same standpoint.

FLATTENED PERSPECTIVE.—Fig. 144 shows the new perspective, in which the three vertical lines (A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six angularly disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but shorter than the lines A. The only change which has been made is to shorten the distance across the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) are the same in length as the corresponding lines in Fig. 143. Notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of the same size, as, in fact, they really are.



In forming a perspective, therefore, it would be a good idea for the boy to have a cube of wood always at hand, which, if laid down on a horizontal support, alongside, or within range of the object to be drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.

TECHNICAL DESIGNATIONS.—As all geometrical lines have designations, I have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy, each figure being accompanied by its proper definition.



Before passing to that subject I can better show some of the simple forms by means of suitable diagrams.

Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention to the body (G), formed by the line (D) across the circle. This body is called a segment. A chord (D) and a curve comprise a segment.

SECTOR AND SEGMENT.—Now examine the shape of the body formed by two of the radial lines (E, E) and that part of the circle which extends from one radial line to the other. The body thus formed is a sector, and it is made by two radiating lines and a curved line. Learn to distinguish readily, in your mind, the difference between the two figures.

TERMS OF ANGLES.—The relation of the lines to each other, the manner in which they are joined together, and their comparative angles, all have special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to the isometric cube, in Fig. 145, the angle formed at the center by the lines (B, E) is different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). The angle formed by B, E is called an exterior angle; and that formed by E, F is an interior angle. If you will draw a line (G) from the center to the circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G form an equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you draw a chord (A) from C to C, the lines H, E, F will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a right-angled triangle.

CIRCLES AND CURVES.—Circles, and, in fact, all forms of curved work, are the most difficult for beginners. The simplest figure is the circle, which, if it represents a raised surface, is provided with a heavy line on the lower right-hand side, as in Fig. 146; but the proper artistic expression is shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand side is shaded in rings running only a part of the way around, gradually diminishing in length, and spaced farther and farther apart as you approach the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.



IRREGULAR CURVES.—But the irregular curves require the most care to form properly. Let us try first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The proper thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called the "major axis." On this axis we mark for our guidance two points (B, B). With the dividers find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross line (D). This is called the "minor axis." If we choose to do so we may indicate two points (E, E) on the minor axis, which, in this case, for convenience, are so spaced that the distance along the major axis, between B, B, is twice the length across the minor axis (D), along E, E. Now find one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F, and with a compass pencil make a half circle (G). If, now, you will set the compass point on the center mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on B, and measure along the minor axis (D) on both sides of the major axis, you will make two points, as at H. These points are your centers for scribing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding to strike the curved lines (J), draw a diagonal line (K) from H to each marking point (F). Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce these lines so they cross the curved lines (G). When you ink in your ellipse do not allow the circle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a mechanical ellipse.

ELLIPSES AND OVALS.—It is not necessary to measure the centering points (F) at certain specified distances from the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines. We may take any point along the major axis, as shown, for instance, in Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at random. Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also, arbitrarily, take any point, as, for instance, D on the minor axis E, and by drawing the diagonal lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which are the meeting lines for the large curve (H), with the small curve (C). In this case we have formed an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon make perfect in following out these directions.

FOCAL POINTS.—The focal point of a circle is its center, and is called the focus. But an ellipse has two focal points, called foci, represented by F, F in Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.

A produced line is one which extends out beyond the marking point. Thus in Fig. 148 that part of the line K between F and G represents the produced portion of line K.



SPIRALS.—There is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a circle pen than a spiral. In Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line (A, B), respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection a small circle (C) is formed. This now provides for four centering points for the circle pen, on the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines. If you will now set the point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and the pencil point of the compass at D, and make a curved mark one-eighth of the way around, say, to the radial line (E), then put the point of the compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the compass so it coincides with the curved line just drawn, and then again make another curve, one-eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the entire circle of marking points, successively, you will produce a spiral, which, although not absolutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a circle pen. To make this neatly requires care and patience.



PERPENDICULAR AND VERTICAL.—A few words now as to terms. The boy is often confused in determining the difference between perpendicular and vertical. There is a pronounced difference. Vertical means up and down. It is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls straight toward the center of the earth. The word perpendicular, as usually employed in astronomy, means the same thing, but in geometry, or in drafting, or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose you put a square upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the roof, and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In this case the projecting leg is perpendicular to the roof. Never use the word vertical in this connection.

SIGNS TO INDICATE MEASUREMENTS.—The small circle ( deg.) is always used to designate degree. Thus 10 deg. means ten degrees.

Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two closely allied marks " are for inches. Thus five feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A large cross (x) indicates the word "by," and in expressing the term six feet by three feet two inches, it should be written 6' x 3'2".

The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be acquired, and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing intelligible work; but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go into the more refined phases of the subject.

DEFINITIONS.—The following figures show the various geometrical forms and their definitions:



151. Abscissa.—The point in a curve, A, which is referred to by certain lines, such as B, which extend out from an axis, X, or the ordinate line Z.

152. Angle.—The inclosed space near the point where two lines meet.

153. Apothegm.—The perpendicular line A from the center to one side of a regular polygon. It represents the radial line of a polygon the same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle.

154. Apsides or Apsis.—One of two points, A, A, of an orbit, oval or ellipse farthest from the axis, or the two small dots.

155. Chord.—A right line, as A, uniting the extremities of the arc of a circle or a curve.

156. Convolute (see also Involute).—Usually employed to designate a wave or folds in opposite directions. A double involute.

157. Conic Section.—Having the form of or resembling a cone. Formed by cutting off a cone at any angle. See line A.

158. Conoid.—Anything that has a form resembling that of a cone.

159. Cycloid.—A curve, A, generated by a point, B, in the plane of a circle or wheel, C, when the wheel is rolled along a straight line.

160. Ellipsoid.—A solid, all plane sections of which are ellipses or circles.

161. Epicycloid.—A curve, A, traced by a point, B, in the circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls on the convex side of a fixed circle, D.

162. Evolute.—A curve, A, from which another curve, like B, on each of the inner ends of the lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C represent a thread at different positions. The thread has a marker, E, so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker E makes the evolute line A.

163. Focus.—The center, A, of a circle; also one of the two centering points, B, of an ellipse or an oval.

164. Gnome.—The space included between the boundary lines of two similar parallelograms, the one within the other, with an angle in common.

165. Hyperbola.—A curve, A, formed by the section of a cone. If the cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line, A, the curve is a hyperbola. See Parabola.



167. Hypothenuse.—The side, A, of a right-angled triangle which is opposite to the right angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular triangle.

168. Incidence.—The angle, A, which is the same angle as, for instance, a ray of light, B, which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is the perpendicular.

169. Isosceles Triangle.—Having two sides or legs, A, A, that are equal.

170. Parabola.—One of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone so that the cut line, A, is not vertical. See Hyperbola where the cut line is vertical.

171. Parallelogram.—A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are parallel and consequently equal.

172. Pelecoid.—A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped, bounded by a semicircle, A, and two inverted quadrants, and equal to a square, C.

173. Polygons.—Many-sided and many with angles.

174. Pyramid.—A solid structure generally with a square base and having its sides meeting in an apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.

175. Quadrant.—The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a circle. A horizontal line, A, and a vertical line, B, make the four quadrants, like C.

176. Quadrilateral.—A plane figure having four sides, and consequently four angles. Any figure formed by four lines.

177. Rhomb.—An equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the opposite sides, B, B, parallel.

178. Sector.—A part, A, of a circle formed by two radial lines, B, B, and bounded at the end by a curve.

179. Segment.—A part, A, cut from a circle by a straight line, B. The straight line, B, is the chord or the segmental line.

180. Sinusoid.—A wave-like form. It may be regular or irregular.

181. Tangent.—A line, A, running out from the curve at right angles from a radial line.

182. Tetrahedron.—A solid figure enclosed or bounded by four triangles, like A or B. A plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles.

183. Vertex.—The meeting point, A, of two or more lines.

184. Volute.—A spiral scroll, used largely in architecture, which forms one of the chief features of the Ionic capital.



CHAPTER IX

MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK

MOLDINGS.—The use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of antiquity, and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which the Ph[oe]necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced. If you analyze the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs which go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets and domes which are represented in the various types of architecture.

THE BASIS OF MOLDINGS.—Suppose we take the base type of moldings, and see how simple they are and then, by using these forms, try to build up or ornament some article of furniture, as an example of their utility.

THE SIMPLEST MOLDING.—In Fig. 185 we show a molding of the most elementary character known, being simply in the form of a band (A) placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to the article on which it is placed three distinct lines, C, D and E. If you stop to consider you will note that the molding, while it may add to the strength of the article, is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce shadows, and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.

THE ASTRAGAL.—Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone molding, technically called the Astragal. This form is round, and properly placed produces a good effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding.



THE CAVETTO.—Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round type. Its proper use gives a delicate outline, but it is principally applied with some other form of molding.

THE OVOLO.—Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a quarter round molding with the lobe (A) projecting downwardly. It is distinguished from the astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below.

THE TORUS.—Fig. 189, known as the torus, is a modified form of the ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects out horizontally instead of downwardly.

THE APOPHYGES (Pronounced apof-i-ges).—Fig. 190 is also called the scape, and is a concaved type of molding, being a hollowed curvature used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the fillet.



THE CYMATIUM.—Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived from the word cyme), meaning wave-like. This form must be in two curves, one inwardly and one outwardly.

THE OGEE.—Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most useful of all moldings, for two reasons: First, it may have the concaved surface uppermost, in which form it is called ogee recta—that is, right side up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with the concaved surface below, and is then called ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the appearance. Second, because the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the outlines of nearly all the other types. The only advantage there is in using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your work better than by using only one simple form.



You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium, the difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the ogee, and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee. It is capable of use with other moldings, and may be reversed with just as good effect as the ogee.

THE REEDY.—Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or the bead—that is, it is made up of reeds. It is a type of molding which should not be used with any other pronounced type of molding.

THE CASEMENT (Fig. 195).—In this we have a form of molding used almost exclusively at the base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and like work.



Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, let us examine a Roman-Doric column, one of the most famous types of architecture produced. We shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce grace, lights and shadows and artistic effects.

THE ROMAN-DORIC COLUMN.—In Fig. 196 is shown a Roman-Doric column, in which the cymatium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are used, together with the fillets, bases and caps, and it is interesting to study this because of its beautiful proportions.



The pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the entablature and capital. The entablature is but slightly narrower than the pedestal; and the length of the column is, approximately, four times the height of the pedestal. The base of the shaft, while larger diametrically than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically. There is a reason for this. The eye must travel a greater distance to reach the upper end of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while it is in reality longer. For this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base of a shaft, and it is also smaller in diameter.

It will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful blending of the various forms of moldings, but because it will impress you with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea of how simple lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work.

LESSONS FROM THE DORIC COLUMN.—As an example, suppose we take a plain cabinet, and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding described, and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be carried.

APPLYING MOLDING.—Let Fig. 197 represent the front, top and bottom of our cabinet; and the first thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a cap (B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we utilize the simplest form of molding, the band.

This we may make of any desired width, as shown in Fig. 198. On this band we can apply the ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.

But for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed, as in Fig. 200. This will afford us something else to think about and will call upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or edge of the ogee reversa.



If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, we may use the cavetto, or the ovolo (Fig. 202); but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a convex molding like the cavetto at one base, and a convex molding, like the torus or the ovolo, at the other base.

In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings are used with the ogee as the principal structure.

BASE EMBELLISHMENTS.—In like manner (Fig. 204) the base may have the casement type first attached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the astragal added, as in Fig. 203.



STRAIGHT-FACED MOLDINGS.—Now let us carry the principle still further, and, instead of using various type of moldings, we will employ nothing but straight strips of wood. This treatment will soon indicate to you that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of whatever he finds at hand.

Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), and below the cap (A) place a narrow strip (B), the lower corner of which has been chamfered off, as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), vertically disposed, and about two-thirds its width. The lower corner of this is also chamfered, as at F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the corner, and you have an embellished top that has the appearance, from a short distance, of being made up of molding.

PLAIN MOLDED BASE.—The base may be treated in the same manner. The main strip (4) has its upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this is nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The upper part or molded top, in this case, has eleven distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of molding strips.



DIVERSIFIED USES.—For a great overhang you may use the cavetto, or the apophyges, and below that the astragal or the torus; and for the base the casement is the most serviceable molding, and it may be finished off with the ovolo or the cymatium.

Pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the diversification available with different types.

SHADOWS CAST BY MOLDINGS.—Always bear in mind that a curved surface makes a blended shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does not, and it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces, brought out by moldings, become so important.



A little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex, a concave or a flat surface, and a corner or corners should be arranged relatively to each other; how much one should project beyond the other; and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should be. An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.



CHAPTER X

AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING

In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an example was given of the particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some details to the subject, as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly belong to the laying out of work.

WHERE MORTISES SHOULD BE USED.—Most important of all is a general idea of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to. There are four ways in which different members may be secured to each other. First, by mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt; third, by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and grooving.

DEPTH OF MORTISES.—When a certain article is to be made, the first consideration is, how the joint or joints shall be made. The general rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each other, as in the following figure.

RULE FOR MORTISES.—Fig. 206 shows such an example. You will notice this in doors particularly, as an example of work.



The next consideration is, shall the mortises be cut entirely through the piece? This is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of the tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth finish is required, the mortise should not go through the member. In a door, however, the tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and are, therefore, seen, so that we must apply some other rule. The one universally adopted is, that where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively thin, or where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than its width, the mortise should go through from edge to edge.

The reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly true, and usually the job is turned out something like the illustration shows. The side of the rail (B) must be straight with the side of the stile. If the work is done by machinery it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.



TRUE MORTISE WORK.—The essense of good joining work is the ability to sink the chisel true with the side of the member. More uneven work is produced by haste than by inability. The tendency of all beginners is to strike the chisel too hard, in order the more quickly to get down to the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work follows.

STEPS IN CUTTING MORTISES.—Examine Fig. 208, which, for convenience, gives six successive steps in making the mortise. The marks a, b designate the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The chisel (C) is not started at the marking line (A), but at least an eighth of an inch from it. The first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the next cut or placement of the chisel. When the second cut (B) has thus been made, the chisel should be turned around, as in dotted line d, position C, thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise, line e, so that when the fourth cut has been made along line f, we are ready for the fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position D, which leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then turn the chisel to the position shown at F, and cut down the last end of the mortise square, as shown in G, and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on the marking lines (a, b). The particular reason for cleaning out the mortise before making the finish cuts is, that the corners of the mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch stock still remaining protects the corners.

THINGS TO AVOID IN MORTISING.—You must be careful to refrain from undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines a, b, because if you commit this error you will make a bad joint.

As much care should be exercised in producing the tenon, although the most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder. This should be a trifle undercut.



See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.

LAP-AND-BUTT JOINT.—The lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members which is most generally used to splice together timbers, where they join each other end to end.



Bolts are used to secure the laps.

But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet work. It is of great service in paneling.

A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel, and a molding is then secured to the other side on the panel, to hold the latter in place.

SCARFING.—This method of securing members together is the most rigid, and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step diagonally cut (B), the two steps being on different planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, and as each point or terminal has a blunt end, the members are so constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction. The overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold the joint rigidly.



THE TONGUE AND GROOVE.—This form of uniting members has only a limited application. It is serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means.



BEADING.—This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may or may not be used in connection with rabbeting.

Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, runs through the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also serve to hide the joints of the boards.



ORNAMENTAL BEAD FINISH.—These figures show how the bead may be used for finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B) is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of projecting members.

Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off.



THE BEAD AND RABBET.—A more amplified form of work is available where the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes together will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and molding effects.

Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round or concaved moulding (E).

SHADING WITH BEADS AND RABBETS.—You will see from the foregoing, that these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows; and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which this class of work requires.



CHAPTER XI

HOUSE BUILDING

House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are employed.

There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.

THE HOUSE AND EMBELLISHMENTS.—The refined arts, such as sculpture and painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and convenience, but fitting in an artistic and aesthetic sense. It is just as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy proportioned structure.

BEAUTY NOT ORNAMENTATION.—The boy, in his early training, should learn this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world are very plain. Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be put.

PLAIN STRUCTURES.—A house with a plain facade, having a roof properly pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or pretensions of the house.

COLONIAL TYPE.—For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is concentrated or massed at one point.

The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this period of architecture.

Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in which you are interested.

THE ROOF THE KEYNOTE.—Now, there is one thing which should, and does, distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian types. In those the facade or the columns and cornices predominate over everything else.

BUNGALOW TYPES.—If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat, with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities and should, if possible, be legally prohibited.

I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to this phase of the question, and as you proceed in your studies and your work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing observations.

GENERAL HOUSE BUILDING.—We are to treat, generally, on the subject of house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines.

BUILDING PLANS.—We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide up the space into the proper divisions.

THE PLAIN SQUARE FLOOR PLAN will first be taken up, as it is such an easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain.

Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom.



The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms.

THE RECTANGULAR PLAN.—In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course.



There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is accommodated.



ROOM MEASUREMENTS.—We must now determine the dimensions of each room, and then how we shall build the roof.

In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out in detail the sizes, the locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit conditions and the taste of the designer.



FRONT AND SIDE LINES.—From the floor diagram, and the door and window spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226.



THE ROOF.—The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is determined as follows:

ROOF PITCH.—In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.

In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch."



Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the building.

THE FOUNDATION.—This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its dimensions should be at least 1-1/2 inches further out than the sill.

THE SILLS.—We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and, first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" x 6", or 2" x 8" joists, as in Fig. 229.

THE FLOORING JOIST.—The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig. 230). These should extend clear across the house from side to side, if possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place the studding.



THE STUDDING.—The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" x 4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window openings. 4" x 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the frame.

SETTING UP.—First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them. Cut a top plate for each side you are working on.



THE PLATE.—As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more lengths of 2" x 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231).

Then set up the 4" x 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows, and for the partition walls.

The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then put on and spiked to the 4" x 4" posts.

INTERMEDIATE STUDDING.—It will then be an easy matter to put in the intermediate 2" x 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16 inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath.



WALL HEADERS.—When all the studding are in you will need headers above and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing.

CEILING JOISTS.—We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are, usually, 2" x 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16 inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor joist.

It should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on with reference to the roof.

Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists.

BRACES.—It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding serves as a system of bracing.



THE RAFTERS.—These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may be desired. They should be of 2" x 4" scantling.

THE GUTTER.—In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter, in which is placed the floor and a side. This floor piece is raised at one end to provide an incline for the water.

A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project one inch below the base.



This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket.

A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped notch is also cut in the rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces. The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then applied.



In Fig. 234a the roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of structure for the roof.

SETTING DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES.—The next step in order is to set the door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is laid.

PLASTERING AND INSIDE FINISH.—Next in order is the plastering, then the base-boards and the casing; and, finally, the door and windows should be fitted into position.

Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some details, how to proceed with the work.



CHAPTER XII

BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES

BRIDGES.—Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge construction which the carpenter should master.

SELF-SUPPORTING ROOFS.—In putting up, for instance, self-supporting roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge principle of trussed members should be understood.

The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch.



COMMON TRUSSES.—One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of these forms are equally well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports.

THE VERTICAL UPRIGHT TRUSS.—This form of truss naturally develops into a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms.



THE WARREN GIRDER.—Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction.

This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring strength with small weight.



THE BOWSTRING GIRDER.—Only one other form of bridge truss need be mentioned here, and that is the bowstring shown in Fig. 240.

In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the chords act merely as suspending members.

FUNDAMENTAL TRUSS FORM.—In every form of truss, whether for building or for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a specified weight.

There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to your knowledge to give this subject earnest study.



CHAPTER XIII

THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER

In this place consideration will be given to some of the features relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather than to their uses.

THE BEST WOODS.—The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition.

SOFT WOODS.—It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does, and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together. Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft wood.

Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a western product.

HARD WOODS.—Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.

THE MOST DIFFICULT WOODS.—Ash is by far the most difficult wood to work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the mortise.

THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.—This peculiarity of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast.

THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.—The same thing may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in walnut.

Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.

Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most creditable variety of useful articles.

Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of pine.

DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.—Different woods are not worked with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood known to plane.

Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it.

FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.—One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the saw should be held more nearly vertical.

These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of intelligence before you commence work.



CHAPTER XIV

WOOD TURNING

ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.—This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not available.

SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.—A very simple turning lathe may be made by following these instructions:

THE RAILS.—Procure two straight 2" x 4" scantling (A), four feet long, and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown, and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2" x 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross gain (3).

THE LEGS.—Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4" x 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" x 4", 14-1/2 inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7).



CENTERING BLOCKS.—Next provide a 4" x 4" piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F.



Then make a block (H) 2" x 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C).

Another block (I), 2" x 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches apart at that end.

THE TAIL STOCK.—This part of the structure is made of the following described material:

Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" x 4", 24 inches long, the upper end of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole (15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and 1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.

A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" x 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may be bolted to the upright (J).

Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" x 2" material, 10 inches long. This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to 1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock.

THE TOOL REST.—This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the lathe.

Select a good 4" x 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig. 243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and 1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.

Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one edge, and a wedge (P).



A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in.

MATERIALS.—Then procure the following bolts:

4-3/8" bolts, 10" long. 8-3/8" '' 6" '' 20-3/8" '' 5" '' 5-3/8" '' 9" ''

THE MANDREL.—A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center (1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end.

On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel whenever they wear.



The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing.

FLY-WHEEL.—It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel, and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample speed for your purposes.

The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.

Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make the modifications suitable to his purpose.

The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work.

THE TOOLS REQUIRED.—A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.

A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on one side only, and B with a bevel on each side.

C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the rounded side only.

D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage.



It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones should be used.



CHAPTER XV

ON THE USE OF STAINS

As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work yourself to a limited extent.

SOFT WOOD.—As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to accommodate them.

USE OF STAINS.—Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself.

STAINS AS IMITATIONS.—It will be well to remember one thing as to stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small addition of vermilion.

By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture, you will readily see the value of this suggestion.

GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.—Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.

Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining in imitation of oak.

GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.—Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish.

STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.—Then, again, do not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be the result produced.

On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined.

HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.—It would be better to use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs of some other material.

These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article.

NATURAL EFFECTS.—If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining, you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing effects.

NATURAL WOOD STAINS.—It should be said, in general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.

POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.—If, on the other hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar.

When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embellish the article.

As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.



CHAPTER XVI

THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT

A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A profession is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical, agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his energies. A trade is defined as an occupation "which a person has learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions.

Opportunity is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves.

This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops, it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field.

A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction, and what the different methods are for doing things.

The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws pertaining to buildings.

Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to him.

It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man, to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance.

Do well that which you attempt to do. Don't do it in that manner because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade, the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply those reasons.

So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance, you must be alert. Know for yourself the reasons for things, and you will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and contribute to your success.



CHAPTER XVII

USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE

As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show how to do the things, and not to draw a picture in order to write a description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding pages.



This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick, the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each margin.



This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" x 12", and the legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" x 10" and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.



A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box, and illustrates how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box. The box itself is 14" x 16" in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the legs 5 inches in height. In order to give strength to the legs, the bottom has its corners cut out, to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in the recesses thus formed.



This is a convenient form of easel, made of four uprights. The main front uprights are of strips 5/8" x 1-1/4", and the rear uprights are of 1/2" x 1" material. A thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for the upper end. The rest is made of two strips, each 1/2" x 1", nailed together to form an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the rest in any desired position. The front uprights should be at least 5 feet long.

A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in Fig. 251. The two vertical strips are each 4 inches wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four shelves are provided, each 3/4 inch thick, 9 inches wide and 4 feet long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side, so as to permit it to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each hinge is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to the shelf, to support it in a horizontal position.



A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig. 252, is another simple form of structure. It may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, or the uprights may have holes at their upper ends, by means of which it can be suspended on a wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom to top, and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 inches wide. All the material is, preferably, 3/4-inch stock.



Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be adapted for coal. For wood it should be 2 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches high. It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood to be stored in it, and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion of the top should be hinged, so that the entire top can be opened for filling purposes.



A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. The dimensions of this will vary, and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it; but a size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, and the distance between the bars 16 inches. This gives ample room for the exercises required. The length between the posts along the bars should be at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made of soft wood, except the bars, which should be of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be made of 2" x 2" material, and the braces 2" x 1". The base pieces, both longitudinal and transverse, should also be of 2" x 2" material.



Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use. All the posts, braces and horizontal bars are of 2" x 2" material, secured to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs are 27 inches high up to the table top, and the narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The most convenient size for the top is 26" x 48". The top boards may be 1 inch thick and the shelf the same thickness, or even 3/4 inch. It is well braced and light, and its beauty will depend largely on the material of which it is made.



The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the framework, showing how simple the structure is. The bars are all of 1-1/2" x 1-1/2" material, secured together by mortises and tenons.

Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match the desk (Fig. 255), and should be made of the same material. The posts are all of 2" x 2" material. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, and the rear posts should extend up above the seat at least 18 inches.



Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style. The framework only is shown. The frame is 12" x 12", and 5 feet high, and made up of 2" x 2" material. When neatly framed together, it is a most attractive article of furniture. The top may be covered in any suitable way, showing a roof effect. The opening for the dial face of the clock should be at one of the gable ends.

A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 259, in which the frame is made up wholly of 2" x 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as ledges to support the shelves. This may be lined interiorly and backed with suitable casing material, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and the front provided with doors. Our only object is to show the framework for your guidance, and merely to make suggestions as to structural forms.



Another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle (Fig. 260). This should be made of 1-inch boards, and the size of the door, which carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" x 16" in size. From this you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself, the exterior dimensions of which are 15" x 20", so that when the 1-inch top is placed on, it will be 21 inches high. The case from front to rear is 12 inches, and the shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 10 inches above the top of the case. This is a most useful box for culinary articles, if not needed for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal scuttle, can be used to place utensils on, and when the door is opened all the utensils are exposed to view, and are, therefore, much more accessible than if stored away in the case itself.



A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate than the chair shown in Fig. 257, but it is the same in general character, and is also made of 2" x 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from the floor, and the rear posts are 28 inches high. The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A chair of this character should have ample seat space, so the seat is 18" x 18".

The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a dwelling, is 24 inches square, and 18 inches high to the eaves of the roof. The opening in front is 8" x 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening.



Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under shelf. The seat is 16 inches from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back extends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower shelf is midway between the floor and seat, and is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be upholstered, dependent on the character of the material of which it is made. If upholstered, the boards may be of second-class material, preferably of pine or other light, soft wood.

A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article in the kitchen. The roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The top piece is 2-1/2 inches wide and 21 inches long. The vertical bars are each 1-1/2 inches wide and 9 inches long. The brackets are 1-1/2 inches wide and made of 3/4-inch material.

Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, the seat of which is 16 inches high, the front posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 18 inches. The posts are of 3" x 3" material. This makes a very rigid article of furniture, if mortised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat is 6 feet long, but it may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be placed. It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).



CHAPTER XVIII

SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES

In the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple tools, but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given, an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now on the market.

BIT AND LEVEL ADJUSTER.—It is frequently necessary to bore holes at certain angles. This can be done by using a bevel square, and holding it so one limb will show the boring angle. But this is difficult to do in many cases.



This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back edges. The shank of the bit will lie in these slots, as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or at an angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with the utmost accuracy. It may be attached to a Carpenter's square, thus making it an accurate plumb or level.

MITER BOXES.—The advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent, when accurate work is required.

The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool of this kind, in which the entire frame is in one solid casting. The saw guide uprights are clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold the saw without play, and this will also counteract a saw that runs out of true, due to improper setting or filing.



A second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw.

The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in holes placed on the under side of the base. The edge of the base is graduated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel arm can be set and automatically fastened at any degree desired.



The uprights, front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches, and movable stops can be set, by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the cut desired.

Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, in which the numbers designate the various parts: 101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104 frame leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109 stock guide plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw; 113 index clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch; 116 index clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete; 123 T-base; 124-1/2 uprights; 126 saw guide cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right side guide stop and screw; 135 saw guide stop spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide cylinder plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever (front); 141 leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.



ANGLE DIVIDERS.—This is another tool, which does not cost much and is of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are applied at odd angles.

To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of dividers and a second handling of the bevel, making three operations.

THE "ODD JOB" TOOL.—A most useful special tool, which combines in its make-up a level, plumb try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl, depth gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, and a one-foot rule. To the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an article which should be obtained.



Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and how it is applied in use.

BIT BRACES.—These tools are now made with so many improved features that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools.

The illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of the tools. Fig. 271 shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, as its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing.

D represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the ratchet, and, being in line with the bit, makes it more convenient in handling than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts are entirely enclosed, thus keeping out moisture and dirt, retaining lubrication and protecting the users' hands.

The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and may be taken apart by removing one screw. The two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is backed by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. When locked, ten teeth are in engagement, while five are employed while working at a ratchet. It has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal workers.

In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing head, with the wood screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working loose. This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, and this shows the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle, and encased, so that the user's hands are protected from the teeth.

The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for taper shanks, hold up to No. 2 Clark's expansion, and are therefore particularly adapted for carpenter's use.



In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no ball thrust. The head is screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws. The open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed. This has alligator jaws (J), and will hold all ordinary size taper shank bits, also small and medium round shank bits or drills.



STEEL FRAME BREAST DRILL.—These drills are made with both single and double speed, each speed having three varieties of jaws. The single speed is very high, the ratio being 4-1/2 to 1, which makes it desirable to use for small drills, or for use in wood.

A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to maintain a horizontal position in boring. Each of the forms shown has a ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The breast plate may be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw. The spindle is kept from turning while changing drills, by means of the latch mounted on the frame, and readily engaging with the pinion. The crank is pierced in three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps, depending on the character of the work.

Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only single speed. Figure 275 has an interlocking jaw, and is provided with double speed gearing. Figure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.

PLANES.—The most serviceable planes are made in iron, and it might be well to show a few of the most important, to bring out the manner employed to make the adjustments of the bits.

In order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a plane, examine Figure 277. The parts are designated as follows: 1A is the double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron cap; 3 cap screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw; 6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting lever; 8 adjusting nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 12 plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob bolt and nut; 15 plane handle screw; 16 plane bottom; 44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46 frog adjusting screw.



RABBETING, MATCHING AND DADO PLANES.—Figure 278 shows a useful form of plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons, adapted to cut rabbets.

The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the various parts, as well as the bits which belong to it. 1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the lever cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the fence thumb screw; 61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable depth gage; 71 the depth gage which goes through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.

MOLDING AND BEADING PLANE.—A plane of the character shown in Fig. 279 will do an immense variety of work in molding, beading and dado work, and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, for filletsters and for match planing. The regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two cutters.



As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock (A), which carries the cutter adjustment, a handle, a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter, and slides on arms secured to the main stock.

This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, in addition to allowing the use of cutters of different widths, cutters can be used having one edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock.



The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be adjusted for width or depth, fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a screw, for extra fine work. The four small cuts in the corners show how the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters, and the great importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not run.

The samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be turned out with the plane.



DOVETAIL TONGUE AND GROOVE PLANE.—This is a very novel tool, and has many features to recommend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it is used. It is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the groove.

It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty degrees flare, where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of an inch thick, and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters of an inch. The tongue and groove are cut separately, and can be made with parallel or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is very simple.



ROUTER PLANES.—This is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the work.

The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 281, which has a closed throat, and the other, Fig. 282, with an open throat. Both are serviceable, but the latter is preferable. These planes will level off bottoms of depression, very accurately, and the tool is not an expensive one.

DOOR TRIM PLANE.—This is a tool for making mortises for butts, face plates, strike plates, escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16, and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in the plane is the method of mounting the cutter, which can be instantly set to work from either end of the plane or across it.



The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned by a spring which prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried. A fence regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being parallel. The depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop. By removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw, instead of using the spring, a very superior router plane is obtained.



CHAPTER XIX

ROOFING TRUSSES

The chapter on Bridge Building gives some suggestions as to form of trusses, the particular types there shown being principally for wide spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose only, namely, to take great weight, and they were, as a consequence, so constructed as to provide strength.

But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the accumulated materials, such as snow and ice, likely to be deposited there, is of such a design, principally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. This remark has reference to such types as dispense with the cross, or tie beam, which is the distinguishing feature in bridge building.

The tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses, where ornamentation is not required, or in such structures as have the roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, or where the space between the roofs is used for storage purposes.

In England, and on the Continent of Europe, are thousands of trusses structured to support the roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of them are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, beaded surfaces, and the carved outlines of the soffits, of the arches, and of the purlins, are wonderful in detail.

The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while very simple in structure, as compared with many others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, struts and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized that the effect is most pleasing to the eye, and its very appearance gives the impression of grandeur and strength.

Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from mediaeval times, when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the wooden prototypes.

Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty to the interior.

A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity, but the same plain outlines, or lack of ornamentation, in the ceiling of a square or rectangular building would be painful to view, hence, the braces, beams, plates, and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental parts, and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds his inspiration.

Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation, it might be well to develop these roof forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay.



The Gambrel Roof, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, (A), as shown, but the space above the beam is free of all obstructions, and gives a large storage space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), and of different pitch, the lower rafters (B) having a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the upper ones (C), about 45 degrees.

A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each of the rafters (B, C) and another tie bar (E) joins the middle part of the rafter (B), and the supporting post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes the span, and a little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon the other.



The Purlin Roof is a type of structure used very largely throughout the United States, for wide barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the purlin posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters; and (E, E) the supporting braces.

The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance from the eaves to the comb being too great for single length rafters, and the purlin plates are not designed to make what is called a "self-supporting" roof, but merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters.

The Princess Truss, on the other hand, is designed to act as a support for the different lengths of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for holding the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide spans.



The main truss is made up of the cross beam (D), rafters (E, E) and thrust beam (F). Purlin posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates (H, H) support the roof rafters (A, B, C); I, I are the vertical tie rods.

This type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes, and it has been modified in many ways, the most usual modification being the substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).

Following out the foregoing forms, we may call attention to one more type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree, although it still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam itself was the feature on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by elaborating it.

This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss. It is a very old type, samples of which have been found which take it back to a very remote age.



The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in two sections, properly tied together, and sometimes the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the middle, something in the form shown by the dotted line (B).

The Mansard is what may be called a double-mounted roof, and it will be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types. It will be noted that the simple truss formed by the members (A, B, C) is merely superposed on the leaning posts, the tie beam also being necessary in this construction.



But the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.

The simplest form known is called the Scissors Beam, illustrated in Fig. 289. This has been utilized for small spaces, and steep pitches. Each rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), springing from its base, to the opposite rafter (A), to which it is joined, midway between its ends, as at C.

Where the two braces (B) cross each other they are secured together, as at D. As a result, three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it possesses remarkable strength.



BRACED COLLAR BEAM.—This is a modification of the last type, but is adapted for thick walls only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be brought down low to give a good bracing action, and this arrangement is capable of considerable ornamentation.

The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace posts (B, B) which were supported by the top of the wall. This form is not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate how the development was made into the succeeding types.



THE RIB AND COLLAR TRUSS, Fig. 291, is the first important structural arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to embellishment. The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are called Hammer Beams. They were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in the Braced Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) were placed beneath as supports.



The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as the member to receive the thrust and stress of the curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most graceful type of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite ornamentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs only.



The acme of all constructions, in which strength, beauty, and capacity for ornamentation are blended, is the Hammer Beam Truss. Here the hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure, and has a deeper bracket (B), and this also extends down the pendant post (C) a greater distance.

The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, is not ribbed, as in the Rib and Collar Truss, but instead, is provided with openwork (not shown herein), together with beadings and moldings, and other ornamental characteristics, and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in existence are in this type of roof.

What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes used in connection with the Hammer Beam Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, is found to be absolutely necessary.



CHAPTER XX

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS

In uniting two or more elements, some particular type of joint is necessary. In framing timbers, in making braces, in roof construction and supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other places, where strength is required, the workman should have at his command a knowledge of the most serviceable methods.

Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types; but the sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are working with. Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the name by which each is known.