We read of the "chained books" of the Middle Ages, and I think there is a popular belief that this referred to the fact that the Bible was kept in the priest's hands, and chained so that the people should not be able to read it for themselves and become familiar with every part of it. This, however, is a mistake. It was the books in the libraries which were chained, so that dishonest people should not make way with them! In one Chapter Library, there occurs a denunciation of such thieves, and instructions how to fasten the volumes. It reads as follows: "Since to the great reproach of the Nation, and a greater one to our Holy Religion, the thievish disposition of some who enter libraries to learn no good there, hath made it necessary to secure the sacred volumes themselves with chains (which are better deserved by those ill persons, who have too much learning to be hanged, and too little to be honest), care shall be taken that the chains should neither be too long nor too clumsy, more than the use of them requires: and that the loops whereby they are fastened to the books may be rivetted on such a part of the cover, and so smoothly, as not to gall or graze the books, while they are moved to or from their respective places. And forasmuch as the more convenient way to place books in libraries is to turn their backs out showing the title and other decent ornaments in gilt work which ought not to be hidden, this new method of fixing the chain to the back of the book is recommended until one more suitable shall be contrived."

Numerous monasteries in England devoted much time to scriptorium work. In Gloucester may still be seen the carrels of the scribes in the cloister wall, and there was also much activity in the book making art in Norwich, Glastonbury, and Winchester, and in other cities. The two monasteries of St. Peter and St. Swithin in Winchester were, the chronicler says, "so close packed together,... that between the foundation of their respective buildings there was barely room for a man to pass along. The choral service of one monastery conflicted with that of the other, so that both were spoiled, and the ringing of their bells together produced a horrid effect."

One of the most important monasteries of early times, on the Continent, was that conducted by Alcuin, under the protection of Charlemagne. When the appointed time for writing came round, the monks filed into the scriptorium, taking their places at their desks. One of their number then stood in the midst, and read aloud, slowly, for dictation, the work upon which they were engaged as copyists; in this way, a score of copies could be made at one time. Alcuin himself would pass about among them, making suggestions and correcting errors, a beautiful example of true consecration, the great scholar spending his time thus in supervising the transcription of the Word of God, from a desire to have it spread far and wide. Alcuin sent a letter to Charlemagne, accompanying a present of a copy of the Bible, at the time of the emperor's coronation, and from this letter, which is still preserved, it may be seen how reverent a spirit his was, and how he esteemed the things of the spiritual life as greater than the riches of the world. "After deliberating a long while," he writes, "what the devotion of my mind might find worthy of a present equal to the splendour of your Imperial dignity, and the increase of your wealth,—at length by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, I found what it would be competent for me to offer, and fitting for your prudence to accept. For to me inquiring and considering, nothing appeared more worthy of your peaceful honour than the gifts of the Sacred Scriptures... which, knit together in the sanctity of one glorious body, and diligently amended, I have sent to your royal authority, by this your faithful son and servant, so that with full hands we may assist at the delightful service of your dignity." One of Alcuin's mottoes was: "Writing books is better than planting vines: for he who plants a vine serves his belly, while he who writes books serves his soul."

Many different arts were represented in the making of a mediaeval book. Of those employed, first came the scribe, whose duty it was to form the black even glossy letters with his pen; then came the painter, who must not only be a correct draughtsman, and an adept with pencil and brush, but must also understand how to prepare mordaunts and to lay the gold leaf, and to burnish it afterwards with an agate, or, as an old writer directs, "a dogge's tooth set in a stick." After him, the binder gathered the lustrous pages and put them together under silver mounted covers, with heavy clasps. At first, the illuminations were confined only to the capital letters, and red was the selected colour to give this additional life to the evenly written page. The red pigment was known as "minium." The artist who applied this was called a "miniator," and from this, was derived the term "miniature," which later referred to the pictures executed in the developed stages of the art. The use of the word "miniature," as applied to paintings on a small scale, was evolved from this expression.



The difficulties were numerous. First, there was climate and temperature to consider. It was necessary to be very careful about the temperature to which gold leaf was exposed, and in order to dry the sizing properly, it was important that the weather should not be too damp nor too warm. Peter de St. Audemar, writing in the late thirteenth century, says: "Take notice that you ought not to work with gold or colours in a damp place, on account of the hot weather, which, as it is often injurious in burnishing gold, both to the colours on which the gold is laid and also to the gilding, if the work is done on parchment, so also it is injurious when the weather is too dry and arid." John Acherius, in 1399, observes, too, that "care must be taken as regards the situation, because windy weather is a hindrance, unless the gilder is in an enclosed place, and if the air is too dry, the colour cannot hold the gold under the burnisher." Illumination is an art which has always been difficult; we who attempt it to-day are not simply facing a lost art which has become impossible because of the changed conditions; even when followed along the best line in the best way the same trials were encountered.

Early treatises vary regarding the best medium for laying leaf on parchment. There are very few vehicles which will form a connecting and permanent link between these two substances. There is a general impression that white of egg was used to hold the gold: but any one who has experimented knows that it is impossible to fasten metal to vellum by white of egg alone. Both oil and wax were often employed, and in nearly all recipes the use of glue made of boiled-down vellum is enjoined. In some of the monasteries there are records that the scribes had the use of the kitchen for drying parchment and melting wax.

The introductions to the early treatises show the spirit in which the work was undertaken. Peter de St. Audemar commences: "By the assistance of God, of whom are all things that are good, I will explain to you how to make colours for painters and illuminators of books, and the vehicles for them, and other things appertaining thereto, as faithfully as I can in the following chapters." Peter was a North Frenchman of the thirteenth century.

Of the recipes given by the early treatises, I will quote a few, for in reality they are all the literature we have upon the subject. Eraclius, who wrote in the twelfth century, gives accurate directions: "Take ochre and distemper it with water, and let it dry. In the meanwhile make glue with vellum, and whip some white of egg. Then mix the glue and the white of egg, and grind the ochre, which by this time is well dried, upon a marble slab; and lay it on the parchment with a paint brush;... then apply the gold, and let it remain so, without pressing it with the stone. When it is dry, burnish it well with a tooth. This," continues Eraclius naively, "is what I have learned by experiment, and have frequently proved, and you may safely believe me that I shall have told you the truth." This assurance of good faith suggests that possibly it was a habit of illuminators to be chary of information, guarding their own discoveries carefully, and only giving out partial directions to others of their craft.

In the Bolognese Manuscript, one is directed to make a simple size from incense, white gum, and sugar candy, distempering it with wine; and in another place, to use the white of egg, whipped with the milk of the fig tree and powdered gum Arabic. Armenian Bole is a favourite ingredient. Gum and rose water are also prescribed, and again, gesso, white of egg, and honey. All of these recipes sound convincing, but if one tries them to-day, one has the doubtful pleasure of seeing the carefully laid gold leaf slide off as soon as the whole mixture is quite dry. Especially improbable is the recipe given in the Brussels Manuscript: "You lay on gold with well gummed water alone, and this is very good for gilding on parchment. You may also use fresh white of egg or fig juice alone in the same manner."

Theophilus does not devote much time or space to the art of illuminating, for, as he is a builder of everything from church organs to chalices, glass windows, and even to frescoed walls, we must not expect too much information on minor details. He does not seem to direct the use of gold leaf at all, but of finely ground gold, which shall be applied with its size in the form of a paste, to be burnished later. He says (after directing that the gold dust shall be placed in a shell): "Take pure minium and add to it a third part of cinnibar, grinding it upon a stone with water. Which, being carefully ground, beat up the clear white of an egg, in summer with water, in winter without water," and this is to be used as a slightly raised bed for the gold. "Then," he continues, "place a little pot of glue on the fire, and when it is liquefied, pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it." This is to be painted on to the gesso ground just mentioned, and when quite dry, burnished with an agate. This recipe is more like the modern Florentine method of gilding in illumination.

Concerning the gold itself, there seem to have been various means employed for manufacturing substitutes for the genuine article. A curious recipe is given in the manuscript of Jehan de Begue, "Take bulls' brains, put them in a marble vase, and leave them for three weeks, when you will find gold making worms. Preserve them carefully." More quaint and superstitious is Theophilus' recipe for making Spanish Gold; but, as this is not quotable in polite pages, the reader must refer to the original treatise if he cares to trace its manufacture.

Brushes made of hair are recommended by the Brussels manuscript, with a plea for "pencils of fishes' hairs for softening." If this does not refer to sealskin, it is food for conjecture!

And for the binding of these beautiful volumes, how was the leather obtained? This is one way in which business and sport could be combined in the monastery, Warton says, "About the year 790, Charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting to the Abbot and monks of Sithiu, for making... of the skins of the deer they killed... covers for their books." There is no doubt that it had occurred to artists to experiment upon human skin, and perhaps the fact that this was an unsatisfactory texture is the chief reason why no books were made of it. A French commentator observes: "The skin of a man is nothing compared with the skin of a sheep.... Sheep is good for writing on both sides, but the skin of a dead man is just about as profitable as his bones,—better bury him, skin and bones together."

There was some difficulty in obtaining manuscripts to copy. The Breviary was usually enclosed in a cage; rich parishioners were bribed by many masses and prayers, to bequeath manuscripts to churches. In old Paris, the Parchment Makers were a guild of much importance. Often they combined their trade with tavern keeping, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Rector of the University was glad when this occurred, for the inn keeper and parchment maker was under his control, both being obliged to reside in the Pays Latin. Bishops were known to exhort the parchment makers, from the pulpit, to be honest and conscientious in preparing skins. A bookseller, too, was solemnly made to swear "faithfully to receive, take care of, and expose for sale the works which should be entrusted to him." He might not buy them for himself until they had been for sale a full month "at the disposition of the Masters and Scholars." But in return for these restrictions, the bookseller was admitted to the rights and privileges of the University. As clients of the University, these trades, which were associated with book making, joined in the "solemn processions" of those times; booksellers, binders, parchment makers, and illuminators, all marched together on these occasions. They were obliged to pay toll to the Rector for these privileges; the recipe for ink was a carefully guarded secret.

It now becomes our part to study the books themselves, and see what results were obtained by applying all the arts involved in their making.

The transition from the Roman illuminations to the Byzantine may be traced to the time when Constantine moved his seat of government from Rome to Constantinople. Constantinople then became the centre of learning, and books were written there in great numbers. For some centuries Constantinople was the chief city in the art of illuminating. The style that here grew up exhibited the same features that characterized Byzantine art in mosaic and decoration. The Oriental influence displayed itself in a lavish use of gold and colour; the remnant of Classical art was slight, but may sometimes be detected in the subjects chosen, and the ideas embodied. The Greek influence was the strongest. But the Greek art of the seventh and eighth centuries was not at all like the Classic art of earlier Greece; a conventional type had entered with Christianity, and is chiefly recognized by a stubborn conformity to precedent. It is difficult to date a Byzantine picture or manuscript, for the same severe hard form that prevailed in the days of Constantine is carried on to-day by the monks of Mt. Athos, and a Byzantine work of the ninth century is not easily distinguished from one of the fifteenth. In manuscripts, the caligraphy is often the only feature by which the work can be dated.

In the earlier Byzantine manuscripts there is a larger proportion of Classical influence than in later ones, when the art had taken on its inflexible uniformity of design. One of the most interesting books in which this classical influence may be seen is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, being a work on Botany, by Dioscorides, written about 400 A. D. The miniatures in this manuscript have many of the characteristics of Roman work.

The pigments used in Byzantine manuscripts are glossy, a great deal of ultramarine being used. The high lights are usually of gold, applied in sharp glittering lines, and lighting up the picture with very decorative effect. In large wall mosaics the same characteristics may be noted, and it is often suggested that these gold lines may have originated in an attempt to imitate cloisonne enamel, in which the fine gold line separates the different coloured spaces one from another. This theory is quite plausible, as cloisonne was made by the Byzantine goldsmiths.

M. Lecoy de la Marche tells us that the first recorded name of an illuminator is that of a woman—Lala de Cizique, a Greek, who painted on ivory and on parchment in Rome during the first Christian century. But such a long period elapses between her time and that which we are about to study, that she can here occupy only the position of being referred to as an interesting isolated case.

The Byzantine is a very easy style to recognize, because of the inflexible stiffness of the figures, depending for any beauty largely upon the use of burnished gold, and the symmetrical folds of the draperies, which often show a sort of archaic grace. Byzantine art is not so much representation as suggestion and symbolism. There is a book which may still be consulted, called "A Byzantine Guide to Painting," which contains accurate recipes to be followed in painting pictures of each saint, the colours prescribed for the dress of the Virgin, and the grouping to be adopted in representing each of the standard Scriptural scenes; and it has hardly from the first occurred to any Byzantine artist to depart from these regulations. The heads and faces lack individuality, and are outlined and emphasized with hard, unsympathetic black lines; the colouring is sallow and the expression stolid. Any attempt at delineating emotion is grotesque, and grimacing. The beauty, for in spite of all these drawbacks there is great beauty, in Byzantine manuscripts, is, as has been indicated, a charm of colour and gleaming gold rather than of design. In the Boston Art Museum there is a fine example of a large single miniature of a Byzantine "Flight into Egypt," in which the gold background is of the highest perfection of surface, and is raised so as to appear like a plate of beaten gold.

There is no attempt to portray a scene as it might have occurred; the rule given in the Manual is followed, and the result is generally about the same. The background is usually either gold or blue, with very little effort at landscape. Trees are represented in flat values of green with little white ruffled edges and articulations. The sea is figured by a blue surface with a symmetrical white pattern of a wavy nature. A building is usually introduced about half as large as the people surrounding it. There is no attempt, either, at perspective.

The anatomy of the human form was not understood at all. Nearly all the figures in the art of this period are draped. Wherever it is necessary to represent the nude, a lank, disproportioned person with an indefinite number of ribs is the result, proving that the monastic art school did not include a life class.

Most of the best Byzantine examples date from the fifth to the seventh centuries. After that a decadence set in, and by the eleventh century the art had deteriorated to a mere mechanical process.

The Irish and Anglo-Saxon work are chiefly characterized in their early stages by the use of interlaced bands as a decorative motive. The Celtic goldsmiths were famous for their delicate work in filigree, made of threads of gold used in connection with enamelled grounds. In decorating their manuscripts, the artists were perhaps unconsciously influenced by this, and the result is a marvellous use of conventional form and vivid colours, while the human figure is hardly attempted at all, or, when introduced, is so conventionally treated, as to be only a sign instead of a representation.

Probably the earliest representation of a pen in the holder, although of a very primitive pattern, occurs in a miniature in the Gospels of Mac Durnam, where St. John is seen writing with a pen in one hand and a knife, for sharpening it, in the other. This picture is two centuries earlier than any other known representation of the use of the pen, the volume having been executed in the early part of the eighth century.

Two of the most famous Irish books are the Book of Kells, and the Durham Book. The Book of Kells is now in Trinity College, Dublin. It is also known as the Gospel of St. Columba. St. Columba came, as the Chronicle of Ethelwerd states, in the year 565: "five years afterwards Christ's servant Columba came from Scotia (Ireland) to Britain, to preach the word of God to the Picts."



The intricacy of the interlacing decoration is so minute that it is impossible to describe it. Each line may be followed to its conclusion, with the aid of a strong magnifying glass, but cannot be clearly traced with the naked eye. Westwood reports that, with a microscope, he counted in one square inch of the page, one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of bands, each being of white, bordered on either side with a black line. In this book there is no use of gold, and the treatment of the human form is most inadequate. There is no idea of drawing except for decorative purposes; it is an art of the pen rather than of the brush—it hardly comes into the same category as most of the books designated as illuminated manuscripts. The so-called Durham Book, or the Gospels of St. Cuthbert, was executed at the Abbey of Lindisfarne, in 688, and is now in the British Museum. There is a legend that in the ninth century pirates plundered the Abbey, and the few monks who survived decided to seek a situation less unsafe than that on the coast, so they gathered up their treasures, the body of the saint, their patron, Cuthbert, and the book, which had been buried with him, and set out for new lands. They set sail for Ireland, but a storm arose, and their boat was swamped. The body and the book were lost. After reaching land, however, the fugitives discovered the box containing the book, lying high and dry upon the shore, having been cast up by the waves in a truly wonderful state of preservation. Any one who knows the effect of dampness upon parchment, and how it cockles the material even on a damp day, will the more fully appreciate this miracle.

Giraldus Cambriensis went to Ireland as secretary to Prince John, in 1185, and thus describes the Gospels of Kildare, a book which was similar to the Book of Kells, and his description may apply equally to either volume. "Of all the wonders of Kildare I have found nothing more wonderful than this marvellous book, written in the time of the Virgin St. Bridget, and, as they say, at the dictation of an angel. Here you behold the magic face divinely drawn, and there the mystical forms of the Evangelists, there an eagle, here a calf, so closely wrought together, that if you look carelessly at them, they would seem rather like a uniform blot than like an exquisite interweavement of figures; exhibiting no perfection of skill or art, where all is really skill and perfection of art. But if you look closely at them with all the acuteness of sight that you can command, and examine the inmost secrets of this wondrous art, you will discover such delicate, such wonderful and finely wrought lines, twisted and interwoven with such intricate knots and adorned with such fresh and brilliant colours, that you will readily acknowledge the whole to have been the work of angelic rather than human skill."

At first gold was not used at all in Irish work, but the manuscripts of a slightly later date, and especially of the Anglo-Saxon school, show a superbly decorative use both of gold and silver. The "Coronation Oath Book of the Anglo-Saxon Kings" is especially rich in this exquisite metallic harmony. By degrees, also, the Anglo-Saxons became more perfected in the portrayal of the human figure, so that by the twelfth century the work of the Southern schools and those of England were more alike than at any previous time.



In the Northern manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries it is amusing to note that the bad characters are always represented as having large hooked noses, which fact testifies to the dislike of the Northern races for the Italians and Southern peoples.

The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be considered to stand for the "Golden Age" of miniature art in all the countries of Europe. In England and France especially the illuminated books of the thirteenth century were marvels of delicate work, among which the Tenison Psalter and the Psalter of Queen Mary, both in the British Museum, are excellent examples. Queen Mary's Psalter was not really painted for Queen Mary; it was executed two centuries earlier. But it was being sent abroad in 1553, and was seized by the Customs. They refused to allow it to pass. Afterwards it was presented to Queen Mary.

At this time grew up a most beautiful and decorative style, known as "ivy pattern," consisting of little graceful flowering sprays, with tiny ivy leaves in gold and colours. The Gothic feeling prevails in this motive, and the foliate forms are full of spined cusps. The effect of a book decorated in the ivy pattern, is radiant and jewelled as the pages turn, and the burnishing of the gold was brought to its full perfection at this time. The value of the creamy surface of the vellum was recognized as part of the colour scheme. With the high polish of the gold it was necessary to use always the strong crude colours, as the duller tints would appear faded by contrast. In the later stages of the art, when a greater realism was attempted, and better drawing had made it necessary to use quieter tones, gold paint was generally adopted instead of leaf, as being less conspicuous and more in harmony with the general scheme; and one of the chief glories of book decoration died in this change.



The divergences of style in the work of various countries are well indicated by Walter de Gray Birch, who says: "The English are famous for clearness and breadth; the French for delicate fineness and harmoniously assorted colours, the Flemish for minutely stippled details, and the Italian for the gorgeous yet calm dignity apparent in their best manuscripts." Individuality of facial expression, although these faces are generally ugly, is a characteristic of Flemish work, while the faces in French miniatures are uniform and pretty.

One marked feature in the English thirteenth and fourteenth century books, is the introduction of many small grotesques in the borders, and these little creatures, partly animal and partly human, show a keen sense of humour, which had to display itself, even though inappropriately, but always with a true spirit of wit. One might suppose on first looking at these grotesques, that the droll expression is unintentional: that the monks could draw no better, and that their sketches are funny only because of their inability to portray more exactly the thing represented. But a closer examination will convince one that the wit was deliberate, and that the very subtlety and reserve of their expression of humour is an indication of its depth. To-day an artist with the sense of caricature expresses himself in the illustrated papers and other public channels provided for the overflow of high spirits; but the cloistered author of the Middle Ages had only the sculptured details and the books belonging to the church as vehicles for his satire. The carvings on the miserere seats in choirs of many cathedrals were executed by the monks, and abound in witty representations of such subjects as Reynard the Fox, cats catching rats, etc.; inspired generally by the knowledge of some of the inconsistencies in the lives of ecclesiastical personages. The quiet monks often became cynical.

The spirit of the times determines the standard of wit. At various periods in the world's history, men have been amused by strange and differing forms of drollery; what seemed excruciatingly funny to our grandparents does not strike us as being at all entertaining. Each generation has its own idea of humour, and its own fun-makers, varying as much as fashion in dress.

In mediaeval times, the sense of humour in art was more developed than at any period except our own day. Even-while the monk was consecrating his time to the work of beautifying the sanctuary, his sense of humour was with him, and must crop out. The grotesque has always played an important part in art; in the subterranean Roman vaults of the early centuries, one form of this spirit is exhibited. But the element of wit is almost absent; it is displayed in oppressively obvious forms, so that it loses its subtlety: it represents women terminating in floral scrolls, or sea-horses with leaves growing instead of fins. The same spirit is seen in the grotesques of the Renaissance, where the sense of humour is not emphasized, the ideal in this class of decoration being simply to fill the space acceptably, with voluptuous graceful lines, mythological monstrosities, the inexpressive mingling of human and vegetable characteristics, grinning dragons, supposed to inspire horror, and such conceits, while the attempt to amuse the spectator is usually absent.

In mediaeval art, however, the beauty of line, the sense of horror, and the voluptuous spirit, are all more or less subservient to the light-hearted buoyancy of a keen sense of fun. To illustrate this point, I wish to call the attention of the reader to the wit of the monastic scribes during the Gothic period. Who could look at the little animals which are found tucked away almost out of sight in the flowery margins of many illuminated manuscripts, without seeing that the artist himself must have been amused at their pranks, and intended others to be so? One can picture a gray-hooded brother, chuckling alone at his own wit, carefully tracing a jolly little grotesque, and then stealing softly to the alcove of some congenial spirit, and in a whisper inviting his friend to come and see the satire which he has carefully introduced: "A perfect portrait of the Bishop, only with claws instead of legs! So very droll! And dear brother, while you are here, just look at the expression of this little rabbit's ears, while he listens to the bombastic utterance of this monkey who wears a stole!"



Such a fund of playful humour is seldom found in a single book as that embodied in the Tenison Psalter, of which only a few pages remain of the work of the original artist. The book was once the property of Archbishop Tenison. These few pages show to the world the most perfect example of the delicacy and skill of the miniaturist. On one page, a little archer, after having pulled his bow-string, stands at the foot of the border, gazing upwards after the arrow, which has been caught in the bill of a stork at the top of the page. The attitude of a little fiddler who is exhibiting his trick monkeys can hardly be surpassed by caricaturists of any time. A quaint bit of cloister scandal is indicated in an initial from the Harleian Manuscript, in which a monk who has been entrusted with the cellar keys is seen availing himself of the situation, eagerly quaffing a cup of wine while he stoops before a large cask. In a German manuscript I have seen, cuddled away among the foliage, in the margin, a couple of little monkeys, feeding a baby of their own species with pap from a spoon. The baby monkey is closely wrapped in the swathing bands with which one is familiar as the early trussing of European children. Satire and wrath are curiously blended in a German manuscript of the twelfth century, in which the scribe introduces a portrait of himself hurling a missile at a venturesome mouse who is eating the monk's cheese—a fine Camembert!—under his very nose. In the book which he is represented as transcribing, the artist has traced the words—"Pessime mus, sepius me provocas ad iram, ut te Deus perdat." ("Wicked mouse, too often you provoke me to anger—may God destroy thee!")

In their illustrations the scribes often showed how literal was their interpretation of Scriptural text. For instance, in a passage in the book known as the Utrecht Psalter, there is an illustration of the verse, "The words of the Lord are pure words; as silver tried in the furnace, purified seven times." A glowing forge is seen, and two craftsmen are working with bellows, pincers, and hammer, to prove the temper of some metal, which is so molten that a stream of it is pouring out of the furnace. Another example of this literal interpretation, is in the Psalter of Edwin, where two men are engaged in sharpening a sword upon a grindstone, in illustration of the text about the wicked, "who whet their tongue like a sword."

There is evidence of great religious zeal in the exhortations of the leaders to those who worked under them. Abbot John of Trittenham thus admonished the workers in the Scriptorium in 1486: "I have diminished your labours out of the monastery lest by working badly you should only add to your sins, and have enjoined on you the manual labour of writing and binding books. There is in my opinion no labour more becoming a monk than the writing of ecclesiastical books.... You will recall that the library of this monastery... had been dissipated, sold, or made way with by disorderly monks before us, so that when I came here I found but fourteen volumes."

It was often with a sense of relief that a monk finished his work upon a volume, as the final word, written by the scribe himself, and known as the Explicit, frequently shows. In an old manuscript in the Monastery of St. Aignan the writer has thus expressed his emotions: "Look out for your fingers! Do not put them on my writing! You do not know what it is to write! It cramps your back, it obscures your eyes, it breaks your sides and stomach!" It is interesting to note the various forms which these final words of the scribes took; sometimes the Explicit is a pathetic appeal for remembrance in the prayers of the reader, and sometimes it contains a note of warning. In a manuscript of St. Augustine now at Oxford, there is written: "This book belongs to St. Mary's of Robert's Bridge; whoever shall steal it or in any way alienate it from this house, or mutilate it, let him be Anathema Marantha!" A later owner, evidently to justify himself, has added, "I, John, Bishop of Exeter, know not where this aforesaid house is, nor did I steal this book, but acquired it in a lawful way!"

The Explicit in the Benedictional of Ethelwold is touching: the writer asks "all who gaze on this book to ever pray that after the end of the flesh I may inherit health in heaven; this is the prayer of the scribe, the humble Godemann." A mysterious Explicit occurs at the end of an Irish manuscript of 1138, "Pray for Moelbrighte who wrote this book. Great was the crime when Cormac Mac Carthy was slain by Tardelvach O'Brian." Who shall say what revelation may have been embodied in these words? Was it in the nature of a confession or an accusation of some hitherto unknown occurrence? Coming as it does at the close of a sacred book, it was doubtless written for some important reason.

Among curious examples of the Explicit may be quoted the following: "It is finished. Let it be finished, and let the writer go out for a drink." A French monk adds: "Let a pretty girl be given to the writer for his pains." Ludovico di Cherio, a famous illuminator of the fifteenth century, has this note at the end of a book upon which he had long been engaged: "Completed on the vigil of the nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, on an empty stomach." (Whether this refers to an imposed penance or fast, or whether Ludovico considered that the offering of a meek and empty stomach would be especially acceptable, the reader may determine.)

There is an amusing rhymed Explicit in an early fifteenth century copy of Froissart:

"I, Raoul Tanquy, who never was drunk (Or hardly more than judge or monk,) On fourth of July finished this book, Then to drink at the Tabouret myself took, With Pylon and boon companions more Who tripe with onions and garlic adore."

But if some of the monks complained or made sport of their work, there were others to whom it was a divine inspiration, and whose affection for their craft was almost fanatic, an anecdote being related of one of them, who, when about to die, refused to be parted from the book upon which he had bestowed much of his life's energy, and who clutched it in his last agony so that even death should not take it from him. The good Othlonus of Ratisbon congratulates himself upon his own ability in a spirit of humility even while he rejoices in his great skill; he says: "I think proper to add an account of the great knowledge and capacity for writing which was given me by the Lord in my childhood. When as yet a little child, I was sent to school and quickly learned my letters, and I began long before the time of learning, and without any order from my master, to learn the art of writing. Undertaking this in a furtive and unusual manner, and without any teacher, I got a habit of holding my pen wrongly, nor were any of my teachers afterwards able to correct me on that point." This very human touch comes down to us through the ages to prove the continuity of educational experience! The accounts of his monastic labours put us to the blush when we think of such activity. "While in the monastery of Tegernsee in Bavaria I wrote many books.... Being sent to Franconia while I was yet a boy, I worked so hard writing that before I had returned I had nearly lost my eyesight. After I became a monk at St. Emmerem, I was appointed the school-master. The duties of the office so fully occupied my time that I was able to do the transcribing I was interested in only by nights and in holidays.... I was, however, able, in addition to writing the books that I had myself composed, and the copies which I gave away for the edification of those who asked for them, to prepare nineteen missals, three books of the Gospels and Epistles, besides which I wrote four service books for Matins. I wrote in addition several other books for the brethren at Fulda, for the monks at Hirschfeld, and at Amerbach, for the Abbot of Lorsch, for certain friends at Passau, and for other friends in Bohemia, for the monastery at Tegernsee, for the monastery at Preyal, for that at Obermunster, and for my sister's son. Moreover, I sent and gave at different times sermons, proverbs, and edifying writings. Afterward old age's infirmities of various kinds hindered me." Surely Othlonus was justified in retiring when his time came, and enjoying some respite from his labours!

Religious feeling in works of art is an almost indefinable thing, but one which is felt in all true emanations of the conscientious spirit of devotion. Fra Angelico had a special gift for expressing in his artistic creations is own spiritual life; the very qualities for which he stood, his virtues and his errors,—purity, unquestioning faith in the miraculous, narrowness of creed, and gentle and adoring humility,—all these elements are seen to completeness in his decorative pictures. Perhaps this is because he really lived up to his principles. One of his favourite sayings was "He who occupies himself with the things of Christ, must ever dwell with Christ."

It is related that, in the Monastery of Maes Eyck, while the illuminators were at work in the evening, copying Holy Writ, the devil, in a fit of rage, extinguished their candles; they, however, were promptly lighted again by a Breath of the Holy Spirit, and the good work went on! Salvation was supposed to be gained through conscientious writing. A story is told of a worldly and frivolous brother, who was guilty of many sins and follies, but who, nevertheless, was an industrious scribe. When he came to die, the devil claimed his soul. The angels, however, brought before the Throne a great book of religious Instructions which he had illuminated, and for every letter therein, he received pardon for one sin. Behold! When the account was completed, there proved to be one letter over! the narrator adds naively, "And it was a very big book."



Perhaps more than any books executed in the better period, after the decline had begun, were the Books of Hours, containing the numerous daily devotions which form part of the ritual of the Roman Church. Every well appointed lady was supposed to own a copy, and there is a little verse by Eustache Deschamps, a poet of the time of Charles V., in which a woman is supposed to be romancing about the various treasures she would like to possess. She says:

"Hours of Our Lady should be mine, Fitting for a noble dame, Of lofty lineage and name; Wrought most cunningly and quaint, In gold and richest azure paint. Rare covering of cloth of gold Full daintily it shall enfold, Or, open to the view exposed, Two golden clasps to keep it closed."

John Skelton the poet did honour to the illuminated tomes of his day, in spite of the fact that the aeesthetic deterioration had begun.

"With that of the boke lozende were the clasps The margin was illumined all with golden railes, And bice empictured, with grasshoppers and waspes With butterflies and fresh peacock's tailes: Englosed with... pictures well touched and quickly, It wold have made a man hole that had be right sickly!"

But here we have an indication of that realism which rung the death knell of the art. The grasshoppers on a golden ground, and the introduction of carefully painted insect and floral life, led to all sorts of extravagances of taste.

But before this decadence, there was a very interesting period of transition, which may be studied to special advantage in Italy, and is seen chiefly in the illuminations of the great choral books which were used in the choirs of churches. One book served for all the singers in those days, and it was placed upon an open lectern in the middle of the choir, so that all the singers could see it: it will be readily understood that the lettering had to be generous, and the page very large for this purpose. The decoration of these books took on the characteristics of breadth in keeping with their dimensions, and of large masses of ornament rather than delicate meander. The style of the Italian choral books is an art in itself.

The Books of Hours and Missals developed during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into positive art galleries, whole pages being occupied by paintings, the vellum being entirely hidden by the decoration. The art of illumination declined as the art of miniature painting progressed. The fact that the artist was decorating a page in a book was lost sight of in his ambition to paint a series of small pictures. The glint of burnished gold on the soft surface of the vellum was no longer considered elegant, and these more elaborate pictures often left not even a margin, so that the pictures might as well have been executed on paper and canvas and framed separately, for they do not suggest ornaments in a book after this change had taken place. Lettering is hardly introduced at all on the same page with the illustration, or, when it is, is placed in a little tablet which is simply part of the general scheme.



Among the books in this later period I will refer specifically to two only, the Hours of Ann of Brittany, and the Grimani Breviary. The Hours of Ann of Brittany, illuminated by a famous French artist of the time of Louis XII., is reproduced in facsimile by Curmer, and is therefore available for consultation in most large libraries. It will repay any one who is interested in miniature art to examine this book, for the work is so excellent that it is almost like turning the leaves of the original. The Grimani Breviary, which was illuminated by Flemish artists of renown, was the property of Cardinal Grimani, and is now one of the treasures of the Library of St. Marc in Venice. It is impossible in a short space to comment to any adequate extent upon the work of such eminent artists as Jean Foucquet, Don Giulio Clovio, Sano di Pietro, and Liberale da Verona; they were technically at the head of their art, and yet, so far as taste in book decoration is to be considered, their work would be more satisfactory as framed miniatures than as marginal or paginal ornament.

Stippling was brought to its ultimate perfection by Don Giulio Clovio, but it is supposed to have been first practised by Antonio de Holanda.

One of Jehan Foucquet's assistants was Jehan Bourdichon. There is an interesting memorandum extant, relating to a piece of illumination which Bourdichon had accomplished. "To the said B. for having had written a book in parchment named the Papalist, the same illuminated in gold and azure and made in the same nine rich Histories, and for getting it bound and covered, thirty crowns in gold."

At the time of the Renaissance there was a rage for "tiny books," miniature copies of famous works. M. Wuertz possessed a copy of the Sonnets of Petrarch, written in italics, in brown ink, of which the length was one inch, and the breadth five-eighths of an inch, showing fifty lines on a page. The text is only visible through a glass. It is in Italian taste, with several miniatures, and is bound in gold filigree.

The value of illuminated books is enormous. An Elector of Bavaria once offered a town for a single book; but the monks had sufficient worldly wisdom to know that he could easily take the town again, and so declined the exchange!

With the introduction of printing, the art of illumination was doomed. The personal message from the scribe to the reader was merged in the more comprehensive message of the press to the public. It was no longer necessary to spend a year on a work that could be accomplished in a day; so the artists found themselves reduced to painting initial letters in printed books, sometimes on vellum, but more often on paper. This art still flourishes in many localities; but it is no more illumination, though it is often so designated, than photography is portrait painting. Both are useful in their departments and for their several purposes, but it is incorrect to confound them.



Once, while examining an old choral book, I was particularly struck with the matchless personal element which exists in a book which is made, as this was, by the hand, from the first stroke to the last. The first page showed a bold lettering, the sweep of the pen being firm and free. Animal vigour was demonstrated in the steady hand and the clear eye. The illuminations were daintily painted, and the sure touch of the little white line used to accentuate the colours, was noticeable. After several pages, the letters became less true and firm. The lines had a tendency to slant to the right; a weakness could be detected in the formerly strong man. Finally the writing grew positively shaky. The skill was lost.

Suddenly, on another page, came a change. A new hand had taken up the work—that of a novice. He had not the skill of the previous worker in his best days, but the indecision of his lines was that of inexperience, not of failing ability. Gradually he improved. His colours were clearer and ground more smoothly; his gold showed a more glassy surface. The book ended as it had begun, a virile work of art; but in the course of its making, one man had grown old, lost his skill, and died, and another had started in his immaturity, gained his education, and devoted his best years to this book.

The printing press stands for all that is progressive and desirable; modern life and thought hang upon this discovery. But in this glorious new birth there was sacrificed a certain indescribable charm which can never be felt now except by a book lover as he turns the leaves of an ancient illuminated book. To him it is given to understand that pathetic appeal across the centuries.

THE END.



BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INDEX

Aachen, 16 Abbeville, 265 Abbo, 57 Absalom, 299 Acherius, J., 335 Adam, 28 Adam, Abbot, 21 Adaminus, 222 Adelard, 229 Aelfled, 199 Aelst, 172 Agatho, 281 Agnelli, Fra, 226 Agnese, St., 14, 316 Agnolo, B., 303 Ahab, 276 Aignan, St., 354 Aix-la-Chapelle, 98, 287 Albans, St., 114, 186, 207, 250 Alberti, L., 131 Aleuin, 14, 278, 332 Aldobrandini, 131 Alfred, King, 4, 64, 67, 94, 199 Alford, Lady, 188, 303 Alicante, 167 Almeria, 183 Aloise, 20 Alwin, Bp., 252 Alwyn, H. F., 25 Amasia, Bp. of, 191 America, 25 Amiens, 65, 144, 230, 233, 236, 238, 240, 244, 265 Anastatius, 201, 281 "Anatomy of Abuses," 26 Ancona, 224 "Ancren Riwle," 75 Angers, 164, 208 Anglo-Saxons, 49, 92, 95, 100, 111, 159, 184, 294, 343 Anne of Bohemia, 65, 135 Anne of Brittany, 174, 211, 361 Anne of Cleves, 206 Anquetil, 230 Antelami, 221 Anthemius, 316 Anthony, St., 254 Antwerp, 116 Apollinaire, St., 316 Apollonius, 319 Apulia, 182 Arabia, 5, 14, 147 Arles, 18, 192, 229 Arnant, A., 292 Arnolfo di Cambio, 227 Armour, 121-132 Arphe, H. d' and J. d', 24, 25 Arras, 20, 165, 166, 167, 171 Arrigo (see Peselli) Arthur, Prince, 205 Artois, 166 Asser, 4 Asterius, St., 192 Atlas, 9 Athelmay, 4 August the Pious, 245 Augustine, St., 279, 354 Aurelian, 180 Auquilinus, 230 Austin, W., 129 Auxene, 162 Aventin, St., 231 Avernier, A., 265 Avignon, M. de, 33

"Babee's Book," 39 Bakes, J., 171 Balbastro, 130 Baldini, B., 34 Baldovinetto, 322 Ballin, C., 35 Bamberg, 258 Baptist, John, 65 Barbarossa, 16 Barcheston, 171 Bargello, 281 Barnwell, 330 Bartholomew Anglicus, 4, 81, 83, 110, 149 Basilewski, 291 Basle, 23 Basse-taille, 103 Bataille, 166 Bavaria, 165, 266, 295, 362 Bayeux Tapestry, 154-159 Bazinge, A. de, 207 Beauchamp, R., 144 Becket, T. a, 28, 46, 54, 61 Bede, 110, 145 Begue, J. de, 338 Bells, 145 Benedict, St., 4, 329 Benedictional of Ethelwold, 355 Benet, J., 250 Bergamo, 308 Bernard, M., 167 Bernard, St., 21, 22, 270, 287 Bernward, Bp., 16-20, 136, 140, 229, 317 Berquem, L., 74 Bess of Hardwick, 211 Bethancourt, J. de, 33 Beverly, 257, 274 Bezaleel, 1, 25 Bezold, H. van, 268 Bianchini, 324 Billiard Balls, 295 Birch, W. de G., 349 Biscornette, 113 Black Prince, 135 "Blandiver, Jack," 152 Bloet, Bp., 246 Blois, 174 Boabdil, 127 Boileau, E., 217 Boleyn, A., 78 Bologna, 224, 308 Bolognese, M. S., 337 Boningegna, G., 98 Boston Art Museum, 342 Bosworth, 66 Botticelli, 190 Boudichon, J., 361 Boulin, A., 265 Boutellier, J. le, 237 Bradshaw, 170 Brandenburgh, 295 Bridget, St., 53, 346 Briolottus, 222 Brithnoth, 160 British Museum, 292, 345 Bronze, 132-149 Brooches, 50-56 Browning, R., 258 Brunelleschi, 305 Brussels, 172 Brussels, M. S., 337 Burgundy, 194 Byzantine style, 13, 22, 24, 49, 63, 84, 87, 92, 97, 103, 183, 191, 199, 220, 224, 340 "Byzantine Guide," 342

Cadwollo, 134 Caffi, M., 307 Cambio, A. del, 301 Cambridge, 37, 364 Camerino, J., 321 Cameos, 85-90 Cano, A., 268 Canterbury, 54, 135, 176, 243 Canute (see Knut) Canozio, 305 Caradosso, 8 Caramania, 168 Carazan, 5 Carlencas, 218 Carovage, 151 Carpentras, Bp. of, 37 Carrara, 221 Carter, J., 106, 251, 290 Casati, 90 Cassiodorus, 327 Castel, G. van, 268 Castiglione, Count, 308 Cecilia, St., 186 Celestine III., Pope, 18 Cellini, Benvenuto, xii, 7-13, 43, 56, 68-71, 91, 96, 105, 127, 132, 304 Celtic style, 50-54, 92, 343 Centula, 317 Chained Books, 330 Chalices, 29 Champleve, 94, 103 Charlemagne, 14, 15, 23, 62, 98, 124, 146, 181, 203, 224, 294, 328, 332, 338 Charles I., 212 Charles V., 40, 70, 165, 209, 265, 295, 359 Charles the Bold, 15 Chartres, 107, 145, 219, 229, 231, 234, 237, 238, 242, 312 Chaucer, 169, 181, 193 Chelles, J. de, 240 Cherio, L. de, 355 Chester, 170, 273 Chichester, 242 Chilperic, 38 Chinchintalas, 187 Christin of Margate, 207 Cid, The, 128 Claudian, 278 Clement le Brodeur, 207 Clement, Pope, 9, 56, 89 Clemente, St., 321 Clermont, 314 Clocks, 150 Clothaire II., 157 Clovio, G., 361 Clovis II., 62 Cluny, 14 Cockayne, W., 44 Coinsi, Prior, 270 Colaccio, M., 305 Cola di Rienzi, 204 Coldingham, 249 Cologne, 98, 115, 145 Columba, St., 220, 327, 344 Columbkille, 52 Constantine, 13, 313, 316, 340 Constantinople, 57, 84, 86, 97, 136, 181, 225, 316, 317, 318, 340 Constanza, Sta., 314 Coquille, G. de, 32 Cordova, 25 Coro, D. del, 299 Cosmati Mosaic, 310 Coula, 53 Courtray, 152 Coventry, 201 Cozette, 177 Cracow, 266 Crete, 276 Crest, H., 33 Crivelli, C., 183 Croisetes, J. de, 166 Cromwell, O., 29 Crown Jewels, 66 Croyland, 147, 164, 192, 200 Crumdale, R., 250 Cunegonde, 207 Cunegunda, Queen, 2, 24 Cups, 44 Curfew, 147 Curmer, 361 Cuserius, 315 Cuthbert, St., 53, 145, 199, 345 Cynewulf, 149 Cyzicus, L. de, 279, 341

Dagobert, 62, 162 Damascening, 126 Damiano, Fra, 308 Davenport, 287 Davenport, C., 86 Davi, J., 236 Day, Lewis, 183 Decker, H., 259 Delhi, 57 Delphyn, N., 255 Delobel, 196 Denis, St., 20, 22, 58, 83, 162, 230, 232 Deschamps, E., 359 Diamonds, 71-74 Diane of de Poictiers, 107 Didier, Abbe, 318 Didron, 18, 140 Dijon, 152, 194, 229 Dipoenus, 276 Dioscorides, 341 Domenico of the Cameos, 88 Donatello, xiii, 227 Donne, Dr., 79 Dourdan, 166 Drawswerd, 255 Dresden, 85 Dublin, 27, 344 Ducarel, 159 Dunstan, St., 75, 110, 182 Duerer, A., 132, 258, 266, 268 Durham, 53, 148, 172, 197, 250, 252, 288, 318 "Durham Book," 344 Durosne, 33 Duval, J., 173

Ebony, 307 Ecclesiasticus, 81 Edinburgh, 130 Edgitha, 193 Edith, Queen, 159 Edrisi, 167 Edward, goldsmith, 28, 36 Edward I., 75 Edward II., 168, 199 Edward III., 36, 66, 193 Edward IV., 37, 117 Edward the Confessor, 26, 28, 75, 156, 193, 224, 251 Egebric, 147 Eginhard, 282 Egyptians, 1 Eleanor, Queen, 117, 135, 144, 165, 249 Elfen, 309 Elizabeth, Queen, 26, 129, 211 Eloi, St., 22, 57-62, 111 Ely, 159, 195, 200, 249 Embroideries, 179-212 Emesa, 65 Emma, Queen, 200, 251 Enamels, 91-108 England, 2, 4, 23, 135, 164, 214 Eraclius, 336 Essex, William of, 107 Etheldreda, St., 249 Explicit, 354 Exodus, 1 Ezekiel, 276

Fairill, 53 Falkland, Viscount, 211 Farcy, L., 189, 203 Ferdinand I., 302 Ferdinand II., 302 Fereol, St., 328 Ferucci, F., 302 Filigree, 12 Finger-rings, 74-78 Finiguerra, M., 34, 101 Flagons, 37 Flanders, 165 Florence, xii, 26, 34, 88, 115, 136, 147, 176, 224, 264, 298, 301, 303, 319, 322 Florence, Jean of, 165 Florent, St., 163 Fontaine, E. la, 23 Foucquet, J., 361 Fowke, F. R., 155 Fra Angelico, 357 France, 2, 3, 5, 23, 162, 164, 214-216, 257, 262, 291, 325 Francia, 34, 183 Francis I., 11, 105, 107, 133, 152, 177 Fremlingham, R. de, 250 Froissart, 131, 152, 356 Fuller, 189, 201

Gaddi, G. and A., 319-320, 322 Gaegart, 114 Gale, P., 207 Gall, St., 124, 145, 263, 285 Galla Placida, 315 "Gammer Gurton's Needle," 188 Gandesheim, 19 Garlande, J. de, 62 Garnier, 230 Gaunt, J. of, 35, 55 Gautier, R., 207 Gendulphus, St., 288 Genesis, 160 Genevieve, St., 3, 239 Genoa, 12, 180 Gerbert, 150 Germany, 5, 16, 17, 114, 130, 139, 141, 185, 198, 214, 257, 262, 291 George II., 186 George IV., 75 Gerona, 160 Ghent, 130 Ghiberti, xii, 34, 71, 136, 227 Ghirlandajo, 33, 322 Giacomo, Maestro, 306 Gifford, G., 29 Gilles, St., 229 Giralda, 135 Giraldus, Cambriensis, 335 Girard d'Orleans, 265 Giotto, 264, 322 "Giovanni of the Camelians," 88 Giudetto, Maestro, 296 Glastonbury, 110, 152, 220, 331 Gloucester, 327, 331 Gloucester, John of, 248 Gobelins Tapestry, 160, 164, 176 Godemann, 355 Gold Leaf, 335 Gontran, 229 Gothic style, 24, 29 Gouda, 299 Granada, 183 Gregory, St., 221, 277 Gresham, Sir T., 25 Gres, H. de, 292 Grimani Breviary, 361 Grosso, N., 116 Grotesques, 235-243, 273, 349, 353 Grove, D. van, 268 Guerrazzar, Treasure of, 63 Guillaume, Abbot, 229 Gutierez, 167

Haag, J., 240 Hall Mark, 3 Hankford, Sir W., 36 Hampton Court, 171 Hannequin, 32 Harleian MS., 352 Harrison, 193 Harold, 157, 158 Hasquin, J. de, 33 Hatfield, 171 Hayes, S. L., 156 Headlam, C., 268 Hebrides, 196 Hebrews, 1 Heliot, 292 Hennequin de Liege, 240 Henry I., 23, 155 Henry II., 83, 107, 197 Henry III, 27, 28, 36, 38, 86, 117, 135, 144, 207, 248, 287, 311 Henry V., 252 Henry VI., 185 Henry VII., 102, 181, 206, 253, 254, 257, 268 Henry VIII., 131, 175, 195, 209, 254 Henry the Pious, 23 Herlin, F., 266 Herman, 74 Herodias, 65 Hezilo, 20 Hildesheim, xii, 16-20, 116, 136, 139, 140, 258, 285, 286, 309, 317 Holanda, A. de, 361 Holderness, 273 Honorius, Pope, 316 Hudd, A., 255 Huberd, R., 251 Hugh, St., 246 Hughes, Abbot, 229 Husee, 37-78 Hust, A., 265

Il Lasca, 305 Illumination, 326-364 Imber, L., 255 Inlay, 296-309 Innocent IV., 200 Iona, 220 Ireland, 342-345 Iron, 109-121 Isaiah, 1 Isidore, 316 Isle of Man, 77 Islip, Abbot, 102, 275 Italy, 5, 21, 92, 141 Ivan III, 283 Ivory carving, 275-295 "Ivy Pattern," 347

Jackson, H., 307 Jacob of Breslau, 328 Jacobus, Fra, 319 James, 315 James I., 56, 176 Jeanne, Queen, 173 Jeanne of Navarre, 68 John, King, 66, 105, 207 John XII., 111 John IV., 316 Johnson, R., 117 Joinville, Sirede, 194 Jones, Sir E. B., 203 Jouy, B. de, 314 Justinian, 220, 221, 315

Katherine, Queen, 252 Katherine of Aragon, 209 Keepe, H., 241 Kells, Book of, 49, 344 Kent, Fair Maid of, 196 Keys, 119 Kildare, Gospels of, 345 Kirton, Ed., 241 "Kleine Heldenbuch," 189 Knight, 210 Knut, King, 200, 252 Kohinoor, 71 Kraft, A., 141, 213, 258, 259, 261, 266 Krems, 115

Laach, 262 Labenwolf, 143 Labarte, 302 Laborde, 74 Labraellier, J., 295 Lacordaire, 160 Lagrange, 168 Lambspring, B., 129 Lamoury, S., 166 Lateran, The, 205, 316, 321 Laura, 193 Lawrence, St., 315 Lead, 149 Lebrija, 269 Leighton, T. de, 117 Leland, 206 Leo III., 203 Leo X., 172 Leon, 25 Leopardi, 302 "Les Maitres Mosaites," 323 Lethaby, W. R., 252, 311 Lewis, 293 Lewis, H., 117 Liberale da Verona, 361 "Liber Eliensis," 200 Lille, 166 Limoges, 24-57, 103, 107, 144 Lincoln, 244, 246, 274 Lincoln Imp, 247 Lindisfarne, 53, 345 Limousin, E. and L., 107 Lisle, Lord, 35, 55 Little Gidding, 212 Locks, 120 Lombards, The, 18, 63, 220, 277 London, 25, 26, 44, 182, 185, 206, 248, 288 Lothaire, 38 Louis VI., 21 Louis VII., 21 Louis XII., 174, 361 Louis XIV., 197 Louis, Prince, 20 Louis, St., 22, 194, 232, 240, 253 Louvre, The, 270, 292 Luebke, xi Lucca, 221, 296 Luca della Robbia, 213 Ludlow, 273 Luini, B., 307 Luna, de, 306

MacDurnam, 344 "Mad Meg," 130 Madrid, 177-270 Maes Eyck, 358 Magaster, 278 Maiano, B. de, 304 Maitland, 14 Maitani, L., 227 Malaga, 269 Malmsbury, W. of, 65, 75, 220 Malvezzi, M., 308 Manne, P., 33 Mantegna, 101 Mantreux, J. de, 32 Manuello, 302 Mapilton, Master, 252 "Mappae Claviculae," 276 Marcel, St., 238 Marcellus, 65 Marche, L. de la, 341 Maretta, G., 8 Mariana, Queen, 270 Mark's, St., 318, 323, 361 Marten, 66 Martin, St., 17, 87 Martyr, Bp., 240 Mary, Queen of Scots, 210 Maskell, A. and W., 32, 186, 294 Massari, A., 306 Matilda, Queen, 155 Matsys, Q., 118, 141 Matteo da Siena, 300 Maximian, 282 Medici, The, 85, 176, 211, 254, 301 Memlinc, 166 Mexicans, 18 Michael, St., 18, 19 Michelangelo, 9, 90, 116, 254, 303 Milan, 281, 307 Mildmay, H., 67 Minella, P. de, 299 Miniato, San, 298 Miserere Stalls, 271-275 "Mons Meg," 130 Monte Cassino, 318 Montereau, J. de, 240 Montfort, S. de, 63 Montarsy, P. de, 35 Monza, 23, 63, 221 Monzon, 146 Moore, Charles, xi, 234 Moorish style, 24 Moreau, J., 241 Morel, B., 135 Mortlake, 178 Morris, Wm., v, x, 248 Moryson, F., 26 Mt. Athos, 341 Moeser, L., 266 Mosaic, 309-327

Nantes, 314 Nassaro, M. dal, 88 Naumberg, 259 Navagiero, 183 Nevers, Count of, 194 Nicolas, J., 33 Niello, 49, 99-102 Nomenticum, 166 Norfolk, 31 Norman style, 29 Norton, C. E., 219, 226 Norwich, 45, 196, 331 Notre Dame, Paris, 218, 234, 238, 240 Noyon, 58, 60 Nueremberg, 141, 152, 258, 259, 266, 292, 309

Oath Book of the Saxon Kings, 346 Odericus, 311 Odo, goldsmith, 14, 27 Odo, Abbot, 115 Olivetans, 307-308 Orcagna, 34, 140, 183, 227 Orebsc, S. M., 24 Orghet, J., 166 Oriental, 24, 84 Orleans, 33 Orso Magister, 222 Orviedo, 278 Orvieto, 33, 227, 244, 302, 310 Osmont, 204 Othlonus, 356 Otho, 230, 286 Otto III., Emperor, 16 Oudenardes, 169 Ouen, St., 58 Oxford, 168, 210, 248, 255, 354

Pacheco, 25 Padua, 305 Pala d'Oro, 23, 97, 98 Palermo, 311 "Pancake Man" 245 Paris, 2, 17, 20-23, 26, 37, 52, 69, 86, 113, 149, 166, 186, 200, 218, 229, 234, 238, 239, 240, 339 Paris, Matthew, 27, 180, 207 Parma, 221 Patras, L., 139 Patrick, St., 2, 49, 52, 145, 238 Paul the Deacon, 221 Paulus, 315 Pausanias, 121 Pavia, 221 Pembroke, Earl, 67 Penne, 208 Perseus, 134 Persia, 55 Perugia, 224, 298 Peselli, 322 Peter Albericus, 224 Peter Amabilis, 224 Peter the Great, 295 Peter de St. Andeman, 335 Peter Orfever, 224 Peter of Rome, 310 Peter of Spain, 241 Petrarch, 192, 362 Philip IV., 167 Philip the Bold, 165 Philip the Good, 165 Philippa, Queen, 194 Philostratus, 91, 103 Philoxenus, 277 Picardie, 317 Pickering, W., 129 Pietra Dura, 301 Piggigny, J. de, 32 Pinturicchio, 300 Pirckheimer, W., 132 Pisa, 221, 225, 298 Pisani, The, 71, 216, 221, 225, 234, 244 Pistoja, 298 Pitti Palace, 101, 177, 301, 302 Pius II., 67 Pliny, 2, 110, 143 Poitiers, 162, 163 Pollajuolo, xiii, 34, 195 Polo, Marco, 5, 55, 71, 184, 187, 278 Pordenone, 323 Portland Vase, 87 Poucet, J. de and B., 241 Poulligny, G. de, 207 Poussin, N., 33 Precious Stones, 77-83 Prior and Gardner, 244 Probus, 277 "Properties of Things," 4 Psalter of Edwin, 353 Ptolemies, The, 83 Pudenziana, St., 314 Pugin, 120, 153

Quentin, St., 60 "Queen Mary's Psalter," 347

Rabanus, 278 Rabotin, L., 33 Raffaelo da Brescia, 308 Ralph, Brother, 250 Ramsay, W., 250 Raphael, 166, 172, 323 Rausart, J. de, 166 Ravenna, 216, 224, 282, 283, 312, 314, 315 Redgrave, R., xi, 47 Ree, J. P., 259 Reformation, The, 29, 31, 209 Reggio, 305 Renaissance, 32, 88, 117, 135, 141, 164, 192, 205, 227, 239, 268, 271, 362 Rene of Anjou, 33, 164, 173, 208, 241 Renoy, J., 237 Reynolds, Sir J., 139 Rheims, 150, 162, 229, 238, 239, 300 Richard II., 37, 135 Richard III., 66 Ripon, 273 Robert, King, 150, 229 Rock, Dr., 155, 183, 191, 197, 210 Rome, 17, 19, 24, 136, 187, 264, 278, 283, 310, 316, 321, 322 Romanesque style, 18, 29, 219, 220, 258 Romulus and Remus, 299 Rosebeque, 131, 167 Rossi, 314 Rothenburg, 266 Rouen, 60, 236, 265 Roze, Abbe, 236 Ruskin, J., v, 144, 221, 222, 226, 227, 235, 265, 298

Salinas, 130 Salisbury, 243 Salisbury, Earl, 35 Salt-cellars, 43 Salutati, B., 195 Sand, G., 323 Sandwich, 30 Sansovino, xii Sano di Pietro, 361 Saumur, 162, 241 Sauval, 114 Savonarola, 195 Schuelein, H., 266 Scillis, 276 Scholastico, A., 295 Schutz, C., 185 Scott, W., 51 Sculpture, 213 Selsea, 242 Senlis, H. de, 292 Seville, 24, 25, 128, 132, 209 Sewald, 165 Shakespeare, 77 Shoreditch, J. of, 168 Shrewsbury, 211 Siena, 225, 298-300, 302 Silk, 179 Siries, L., 302 Sithiu, 339 Skelton, J., 359 Smyrna, 168 Soignoles, J. de, 240 Solignac, 58 Sophia, Sta., 316 South Kensington Museum, 19, 170, 177, 197, 198, 303, 226 Spain, 24, 102, 110, 117, 120, 127-8, 130, 211, 258, 278, 294, 306 Spoons, 39 "Squire of Low Degree," 197 Staley, E., 134 Statius, 315 Stauracius, 136 Stengel, H., 309 Stephanus, 315 Stephen IV., 187 Stevens, T., 144 Strasburg, 259 Stoss-Veit, 258-266 Stubbes, 25 Stubbs, Charles, 249 Stump Work, 212 Sturgis, R., vii, 218, 307 Suger, Abbot, 20-23, 230, 318 Suinthila, 23, 63 Sumercote, J. de, 207 "Swineherd of Stowe," 246 Sylvester II., 151 Sylvester, Bp., 314 Symmachus, 279 Symonds, J. A., 139 Syon Cope, 201 Syrlin, J., 266

Tali, A., 319-320 Tanagra, 213 Tancho, 146 Tapestry, 154-178 Tapicier, G. le, 168 Tappistere, J. le, 168 Tara Brooch, 50, 83 Tartary, 184 Tassach, 53 Tasso, D. and G., 303, 304 Taugmar, 17 Tegernsee, 357 Temple Church, 248 Tenison Psalter, 347, 352 Texier, Abbe, xiii Textiles, 154 Thebes, 181 Thergunna, 196 Theodolinda, Queen, 221, 277 Theodora, 315 Theodoric, 221, 222, 327 Theophilus the Monk, 5, 6, 7, 74, 81, 85, 95, 99, 100, 110, 185, 276, 337 Theophilus, Emperor, 14, 317 Thillo, 58 Thomson, M. G., 165, 171 Tintoretto, 323 Titian, 323 Toledo, 24, 25, 63, 125, 209, 270 Tonquin, J., 114 Topf, J., 129 Torcello, 112, 319 Torel, W., 144, 249, 250 Torpenhow, 31 Torregiano, 254, 264 Torriti, J., 321 Touraine, 194 Tours, 17, 162, 173, 314 "Treatises" of Cellini, 11 Trittenham, J. of, 354 Trophimes, St., 229 Troupin, J., 265 Troyes, 170 Tucher, A., 268 Tudela, B. of, 57, 181 Tudor, 29 Tuscany, 5 Tutilon, or Tutilo, 229, 263

Ubaldo, St., 204 Ugolino of Siena, 33 Ulm, 266 Ulpha, St., 233 Urbino, 306 Utrecht Psalter, 156, 353

Valence, A. de, 144, 233 Valencia, 146 Valerio Vincentino, 89 Van Eyck, 166 Vasari, G., 34, 85, 89, 106, 116, 191, 254, 302, 320, 322 Vatican, 204 Velasquez, 25, 167 Venice, 84, 97, 136, 223, 312, 318, 322, 323, 361 Verocchio, 33, 34 Verona, 88, 117, 222 Villant, P. de, 208 Vinci, L. da, 33 Viollet-le-Duc, 52, 218 Virgil, 228 Vischer, Peter, 141-143, 266 Vischer, Peter, Jr., 268 Vitel, 314 Vitruvius, 187 Vivaria, 327 Vopiscus, F., 166

Wallois, H., 166 Walpole, H., 148 Walsingham, A. de, 248 Walter of Colchester, 250 Walter of Durham, 250 Ware, R. de, 311 Warwick, 144 Waquier, 207 Wechter, F. de, 166 Welburne, J., 275 Wells, 152, 244 Wendover, R. de, 180 Westminster, 66, 102, 117, 144, 156, 165, 224, 233, 240, 241, 243, 249-255, 268, 275, 311, 331 Westwood, O., 344 Weyden, van der, 169 Willaume, 166 William the Conqueror, 155, 232 Williams of Sens, 243 Wilton, Countess of, 157, 172 Winchester, 149, 165, 199, 272 Windsor, 118, 131, 268 Wire-drawing, 184 Withaf, King, 192 Withers, G., 67 Wolsey, Card., 175 Wood-carving, 262-275 Wood, 66 Woolstrope, 29 Worsted, 196 Wyckham, W., 102

Ypres, 166 York, 181, 275, 285

Zamborro, M., 322 Zuccati, The, 323-325

THE END