(M1158) In this day of calamity a hero and deliverer was needed. The feeble Gratian, who ruled in the West, cast his eyes upon an exile, whose father, an eminent general, had been unjustly murdered by the emperor Valentinian. This man was Theodosius, then living in modest retirement on his farm near Valladolid, in Spain, as unambitious as David among his sheep, as contented as Cincinnatus at the plow. Even Gibbon does not sneer at this great Christian emperor, who revived for a while the falling empire. He accepted the sceptre of Valens, A.D. 370, and the conduct of the Gothic war, being but thirty-three years of age. One of the greatest of all the emperors, and the last great man who swayed the sceptre of Trajan, his ancestor, he has not too warmly been praised by the Church, whose defender he was—the last flickering light of an expiring monarchy,—although his character has been assailed by modern critics of great respectability.

(M1159) As soon as he was invested with the purple, he took up his residence in Thessalonica, and devoted his energies to the task assigned him by the necessities of the empire. He succeeded in putting a stop to the progress of the Goths, disarmed them by treaties, and allowed them to settle on the right bank of the Danube, within the limits of the empire. He invited the aged Athanaric to his capital and table, who was astonished by his riches and glory. Peace was favored by the death of Fritagern, and forty thousand Goths were received as soldiers of the empire,—an impolitic act.

(M1160) At this period the Goths settled in Moesia were visited by Uphilas, a Christian missionary and Arian bishop, who translated the Bible, and had great success in the conversion of the barbarians to a nominal faith. This is the earliest instance of the reception of the new faith by the Germanic races.

(M1161) While Theodosius was restoring the eastern empire, Gratian relapsed into indolent pleasures at Milan, which provoked a revolution. Maximus was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, and invaded Gaul. Gratian fled, with a retinue of three hundred horse, and was overtaken and slain. Theodosius recognized the claims of the usurper, unwilling to waste the blood of the enfeebled soldiers in a new civil war, provided that Italy and Africa were secured to Valentinian II., the younger brother of Gratian. The young emperor made himself unpopular by espousing Arianism, and for being governed by his mother Justina, and four years after was obliged to flee to Thessalonica, on an invasion of Italy by Maximus, and invoke the aid of Theodosius, who responded to his call, won by the charms of the princess Galla, whom he married. Maximus was defeated, put to death, and Valentinian II. was replaced upon his throne.

(M1162) It was when Maximus was triumphant in Gaul that the celebrated Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, was sent to the usurper's camp to demand the dead body of the murdered Gratian. But this intrepid prelate made himself still more famous for his defense of orthodoxy against the whole power of Valentinian II. and his mother. He is also immortalized for the chastisement he inflicted upon Theodosius himself for the slaughter of Thessalonica. The emperor was in Milan when intelligence arrived of a sedition in the city, caused by factions of the circus, during which Boderic, the commander of the imperial troops, was killed. This outrage was revenged by the wanton massacre of seven thousand people. The news of this barbarity filled Ambrose with horror, and he wrote a letter to the emperor, which led to his repentance; but as he was about to enter the basilica, the prelate met him at the door, and refused admission until he had expiated his crime by a rigorous penance, and the emperor submitted to the humiliation—an act of submission to the Church which was much admired—an act of ecclesiastical authority which formed a precedent for the heroism of Hildebrand.

(M1163) Under the influence of the clergy, now a great power, Theodosius the same year promulgated an edict for the suppression of all acts of pagan worship, private and public, under heavy penalties, and the Church, in turn, became persecuting. At this lime the corruption of the Church made rapid progress. Pretended miracles, pious frauds, the worship of saints, veneration of relics, ascetic severities, monastic superstitions, the pomp of bishops, and a secular spirit marked the triumph of Christianity over paganism. The Church was united to the State, and the profession of the new faith was made a necessary qualification for the enjoyment of civil rights. But the Church was now distinguished for great men, who held high rank, theologians, and bishops, like Augustine, Ambrose, Chrysostom, Gregory, Nazianzin, Basil, Eusebius, and Martin of Tours.

(M1164) Theodosius died in Milan, in the arms of Ambrose, A.D. 395, and with him the genius of Rome expired, and the real drama of the fall of the empire began. He was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the one in the East and the other in the West, the former being under the tutelage of Rufinus, the latter under the care of Stilicho, master-general of the armies. Both emperors were unworthy or unequal to maintain their inheritances. The barbarians gained fresh courage from the death of Theodosius, and recommenced their ravages. The soldiers of the empire were dispirited and enervated, and threw away their defensive armor. They even were not able to bear the weight of the cuirass and helmet, and the heavy weapons of their ancestors were exchanged for the bow. Thus they were exposed to the deadly missiles of their enemies, and fled upon the approach of danger. Gainas the Goth, who commanded the legions, slew Rufinus in the presence of Arcadius, who abandoned himself at Constantinople to the influence of the eunuch Eutropius, most celebrated for introducing Chrysostom to the court. The eunuch minister soon after was murdered in a tumult, and Arcadius was then governed by his wife Eudoxia, who secured the banishment of Chrysostom.

(M1165) The empire was now finally divided. A long succession of feeble princes reigned in the East, ruled by favorites and women, at whose courts the manners and customs of Oriental kings were introduced. The Eastern empire now assumes the character of an Eastern monarchy, and henceforth goes by the name of the Greek empire, at first, embracing those countries bounded by the Adriatic and Tigris, but gradually narrowed to the precincts of Constantinople. It lasted for one thousand years longer, before it was finally subdued by the Turks. The history of the Greek empire properly belongs to the mediaeval ages. It is our object to trace the final fall of the Western empire.

(M1166) Under Honorius, the Visigoths, ruled by Alaric, appear in history as a great and warlike people. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, encountered them unsuccessfully in two campaigns, in Macedonia and Thessaly, and the degenerate cities of Greece purchased their preservation at an enormous ransom. In the year 402, Alaric crossed the Alps, and Honorius fled to the marshes of Ravenna, where, protected by the shallow sea, the Western emperors a long time resided. Stilicho gained, however, a great victory over the Goths at Pollentia, near Turin, and arrested the march of Alaric upon Rome. The defeated Goth rose, however, superior to this defeat, celebrated by the poet Claudian, as the greatest victory which Rome had ever achieved. He escaped with the main body of his cavalry, broke through the passes of the Apennines, spread devastation on the fruitful fields of Tuscany, resolved to risk another battle for the great prize he aimed to secure, even imperial Rome. But Stilicho purchased the retreat of the Goths by a present of forty thousand pounds of gold. The departure of Alaric from Italy, which he had ravaged, was regarded by the Roman people as a complete and final deliverance, and they abandoned themselves to absurd rejoicings and gladiatoral shows.

(M1167) But scarcely was Italy delivered from the Goths before an irruption of Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians, under the command of Rodogast, or Rhadagast, two hundred thousand in number, issued from the coast of the Baltic, crossed the Vistula, the Alps, and the Apennines, ravaged the northern cities of Italy, and laid siege to Florence. The victor of Pollentia appeared for the rescue with the last army which the empire could raise, surrounded the enemy with strong intrenchments, and forced them to retire. Stilicho again delivered Italy, but one hundred thousand barbarians remained in arms between the Alps and the Apennines, who crossed into Gaul, then the most cultivated of the Western provinces, and completely devastated its fields, and villas, and cities. Mentz was destroyed; Worms fell, after an obstinate siege; Strasburg, Spires, Rheims, Tournay, Arras, and Amiens, all fell under the German yoke, and Gaul was finally separated from the empire. The Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, passed into Spain, while the Burgundians remained behind, masters of the mountainous regions of Eastern Gaul, to which was given the name of Burgundy, A.D. 409.

The troubles of the empire led to the final withdrawal of the legions from Britain about the time that Gaul was lost, and about forty years before the conquest of the island by the Saxons.

Italy, for a time delivered, forgot the services of Stilicho, the only man capable of defending her. The jealousy of the timid emperor he served, and the frivolous Senate which he saved, removed for ever the last hope of Rome. This able general was assassinated at Ravenna, A.D. 408.

(M1168) The Gothic king, in his distant camp, beheld with joy the intrigues and factions which deprived the emperor of his best and last defender, and prepared for a new invasion of Italy. He descended like an avalanche upon the plains of Italy, and captured the cities of Aquileia, Concordia, and Cremona. He then ravaged the coasts of the Adriatic, and following the Flaminian way, crossed the Appennines, devastated Umbria, and reached, without obstruction, the city which for six hundred years had not seen a foreign enemy at her gates. Rome still contained within her walls, twenty-three miles in circuit, a vast population, but she had no warriors. She could boast of a long line of senatorial families, one thousand seven hundred and eighty palaces, and two million of people, together with the spoil of the ancient world, immense riches, and innumerable works of art; but where were her defenders? It is a sad proof of the degeneracy of the people that they were incapable of defense.

(M1169) Alaric made no effort to storm the city, but quietly sat down, and inclosed the wretched inhabitants with a cordon through which nothing could force its way. He cut off all communication with the country and the sea, and commanded the gates. Famine, added to pestilence, did the work of soldiers. Despair seized the haughty and effeminate citizens, who invoked the clemency of the barbarians. He derided the ambassadors, and insulted them with rude and sarcastic jokes. "The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed," replied he, when warned not to drive the people to despair. He condescended to spare the lives of the people on condition that they gave up all their gold and silver, all their precious movables, and all their slaves of barbaric birth. More moderate terms were afterward granted, but the victor did not retreat until he had loaded his wagons with precious spoil. He retired to the fertile fields of Tuscany, to make negotiations with Honorius, intrenched at Ravenna; and it was only on the condition of being appointed master-general of the imperial army, with an annual subsidy of corn and money, the free possession of Dalmatia, Noricum, and Venetia, that he consented to peace with the emperor. These terms were disregarded, and the indignant barbarian once again turned his face to the city he had spared. He took possession of Ostia, and Rome was at his mercy, since her magazines were in his hands. Again the Senate, fearful of famine, consented to the demands of the conqueror. He nominated Atticus, prefect of the city, as emperor, and from him received the commission of master-general of the armies of the West.

(M1170) Atticus, after a brief reign, was degraded, and negotiations were opened with Honorius. Repelled by fresh insults, which can not be comprehended other than from that infatuation which is sent upon the doomed, Alaric, vindictive and indignant, once more set out for Rome, resolved on plunder and revenge. In vain did the nobles organize a defense. Cowardice or treachery opened the Salarian gate. In the dead of night the Goths entered the city, which now was the prey of soldiers. For five days and five nights the "Eternal City" was exposed to every barbarity and license, and only the treasures accumulated and deposited in the churches of St. Paul and St. Peter were saved. A cruel slaughter of the citizens added to the miseries of a sack. Forty thousand slaves were let loose upon the people. The matrons and women of Rome were exposed to every indignity. The city was given up to pillage. The daughters and wives of senatorial families were made slaves. Italian fugitives thronged the shores of Africa and Syria, begging daily bread. The whole world was filled with consternation. The news of the capture of Rome made the tongue of St. Jerome cleave to the roof of his mouth, in his cell at Bethlehem. Sorrow, misery, desolation, and despair, were everywhere. The end of the world was supposed to be at hand, and the great churchmen of the age found consolation only in the doctrine of the second coming of our Lord amid the clouds of heaven, A.D. 410.

(M1171) After six days the Goths evacuated the city, and advanced on the Appian way, to the southern provinces of Italy, destroying ruthlessly all who opposed their march, and laden with the spoil of Rome. The beautiful villas of the Campanian coast, where the masters of the world had luxuriated for centuries, were destroyed or plundered, and the rude Goths gave themselves up to all the license of barbaric soldiers.

(M1172) At length, gorged with wine and plunder, they prepared to invade Sicily, when Alaric sickened and died in Bruttium, and was buried beneath the bed of a river, that the place of his sepulchre should never be found out. He was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Adolphus, with whom Honorius concluded peace, and whom he created a general of his armies. As such, he led his forces into Gaul, and the southern part of the country became the seat of their permanent settlement, with Toulouse for a capital. The Visigoths extended their conquests on both sides of the Pyrenees; Vandalusia was conquered by his son, Wallia, A.D. 418, on whom the emperor bestowed Aquitania. His son, Theodoric, was the first king of the Goths.

(M1173) The same year that saw the establishment of this new Gothic kingdom, also witnessed the foundation of the kingdom of the Franks, by Pharamund, and the final loss of Britain. Thus province after province was wrested away from the emperor, who died, A.D. 423, and was succeeded by Constantius, who had married his sister. He died the same year, leaving an infant, called Valentinian. The chief secretary of the late emperor, John, was proclaimed emperor; but he was dethroned two years after, and Valentinian III. six years of age, reigned in his stead, favored by the services of two able generals, Boniface and Aetius, who arrested by their talents the incursions of the barbarians, But they quarreled, and their discord led to the loss of Africa, invaded by the Vandals.

(M1174) These barbarians also belonged to the great Teutonic race, and their settlements were on the Elbe and the Vistula. In the time of Marcus Aurelius they had invaded the empire, but were signally defeated. One hundred years later, they settled in Pannonia, where they had a bitter contest with the Goths. Defeated by them, they sought the protection of Rome, and enlisted in her armies. In 406 they invaded Gaul, and advanced to the Pyrenees, inflicting every atrocity. They then crossed into Spain, and settled in Andalusia, A.D. 409, and resumed the agricultural life they had led in Pannonia. The Roman governor of Spain intrigued with their old enemies, the Goths, then settled in Gaul, to make an attack upon them, under Wallia. Worried and incensed, the Vandals turned against the Romans, and routed them, and got possession of the peninsula.

(M1175) It was then that Aetius, the general of Valentinian III., persuaded the emperor,—or rather his mother, Placidia, the real ruler,—to recall Boniface from the government of Africa. He refused the summons, revolted, and called to his aid the Vandals, who had possession of Spain. They were commanded by Genseric, one of those hideous monsters, who combined great military talents with every vice. He responded to the call of Boniface, and invaded Africa, rich in farms and cities, whose capital, Carthage, was once more the rival of Rome, and had even outgrown Alexandria as a commercial city. With fifty thousand warriors, Genseric devastated the country, and Boniface, too late repenting of his error, turned against the common foe, but was defeated, and obliged to cede to the barbarians three important provinces, A.D. 432.

(M1176) Peace was not of long duration, and the Vandals renewed the war, on the retreat of Boniface to Italy, where he was killed in a duel, by Aetius. All Africa was overrun, and Carthage was taken and plundered, and met a doom as awful as Tyre and Jerusalem, for her iniquities were flagrant, and called to heaven for vengeance. In the sack of the city, the writings of Augustine, bishop of Hippo, were fortunately preserved as a thesaurus of Christian theological literature, the influence of which can hardly be overrated in the dark period which succeeded, A.D. 439.

(M1177) The Vandals then turned their eyes to Rome, and landed on the Italian coast. The last hope of the imperial city, now threatened by an overwhelming force, was her Christian bishop—the great Leo, who hastened to the barbarians' camp, and in his pontifical robes, sought the mercy of the unrelenting and savage foe. But he could secure no better terms, than that the unresisting should be spared, the buildings protected from fire, and the captives from torture. But this promise was only partially fulfilled. The pillage lasted fourteen days and fourteen nights, and all that the Goths had spared was transported to the ships of Genseric. The statues of the old pagan gods, which adorned the capitol, the holy vessels of the Jewish temple, which Titus had brought from Jerusalem, the shrines and altars of the Christian churches, the costly ornaments of the imperial palace, the sideboards of massive silver from senatorial mansions,—the gold, the silver, the brass, the precious marbles,—were all transported to the ships. The Empress Eudoxia, herself, stripped of her jewels, was carried away captive, with her two daughters, the sole survivors of the family of Theodosius.

(M1178) Such was the doom of Rome, A.D. 455, forty-five years after the Gothic invasion. The haughty city met the fate which she had inflicted on her rivals, and nothing remained but desolation and recollections.

(M1179) While the Vandals were plundering Rome, the Huns—a Sclavonic race, hideous and revolting barbarians, under Attila, called the scourge of God, were ravaging the remaining provinces of the empire. Never since the days of Xerxes was there such a gathering of nations as now inundated the Roman world—some five hundred thousand warriors, chiefly Asiatic, armed with long quivers and heavy lances, cuirasses of plaited hair, scythes, round bucklers, and short swords. This host, composed of Huns, Alans, Gepidae, and other tribes, German as well as Asiatic, from the plains of Sarmatia, and the banks of the Vistula and Niemen, extended from Bash to the mouth of the Rhine. The great object of attack was Orleans—an important strategic position.

(M1180) The leader of the imperial forces was Aetius, banished for the death of Boniface, composed of Britains, Franks, Burgundians, Sueves, Saxons, and Visigoths. It was not now the Romans against barbarians, but Europe against Asia. The contending forces met on the plains of Champagne, and at Chalons was fought the decisive battle by which Europe was delivered from Asia, and the Gothic nations from the Mongol races, A.D. 451. Attila was beaten, and Gaul was saved from Sclavonic invaders. It is said that three hundred thousand of the barbarians, on both sides, were slain.

The discomfited king of the Huns led back his forces to the Rhine, ravaging the country through which he passed. The following year he invaded Italy.

(M1181) Aetius had won one of the greatest victories of ancient times, and alone remained to stem the barbaric hosts. But he was mistrusted by the emperor at Ravenna, whose daughter he had solicited in marriage for his son, and was left without sufficient force. Aquileia, the most important city in Northern Italy, fell into the hands of Attila. He then resolved to cross the Apennines and give a last blow to Rome. Leo, the intrepid bishop, sought his camp, as he had once before entreated Genseric. The Hun consented to leave Italy for an annual tribute, and the hand of the princess Honoria, sister of the Emperor Valentinian. He retired to the Danube by the passes of the Alps, and spent the winter in bacchanalian orgies, but was cut off in his career by the poisoned dagger of a Burgundian princess, whose relations he had slain.

(M1182) The retreat of the Huns did not deliver the wasted provinces of a now fallen empire from renewed ravages. For twenty years longer, Italy was subject to incessant depredations. Valentinian, the last emperor of the family of Theodosius, was assassinated A.D. 455, at the instigation of Maximus—a senator of the Anician family, whose wife had been violated by the emperor. The successive reigns of Maximus, Avitus, Majorian, Severus, Anthemius, Olybrius, Glycerins, Nepos,and Augustulus—nine emperors in twenty-one years, suggest nothing but ignominy and misfortune. They were shut up in their palaces, within the walls of Ravenna, and were unable to arrest the ruin. Again, during this period, was Rome sacked by the Vandals. The great men of the period were Theodoric—king of the Ostrogoths, who ruled both sides of the Alps, and supported the crumbling empire, and Count Ricimer, a Sueve, and generalissimo of the Roman armies. It was at this disastrous epoch that fugitives from the Venetian territory sought a refuge among the islands which skirt the northern coast of the Adriatic—the haunts of fishermen and sea-birds. There Venice was born—to revive the glory of the West, and write her history upon the waves for one thousand years.

(M1183) The last emperor was the son of Orestes—a Pannonian, who was christened Romulus. When elevated by the soldiers upon a shield and saluted Augustus, he was too small to wear the purple robe, and they called him Augustulus!—a bitter mockery, recalling the foundation and the imperial greatness of Rome. This prince, feeble and powerless, was dethroned by Odoacer—chief of the Heruli, and one of the unscrupulous mercenaries whose aid the last emperor had invoked. The throne of the Caesars was now hopelessly subverted, and Odoacer portioned out the lands of Italy among his greedy followers, but allowed Augustulus to live as a pensioner in a Campanian villa, which had once belonged to Sulla, A.D. 476. Odoacer, however, reigned but fourteen years, and was supplanted by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, A.D. 490. The barbarians were now fairly settled in the lands they had invaded, and the Western empire was completely dismembered.

(M1184) In Italy were the Ostrogoths, who established a powerful kingdom, afterward assailed by Belisarius and Narses, the generals of Justinian, the Eastern emperor, and also by the Lombards, under Alboin, who secured a footing in the north of Italy. Gaul was divided among the Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths, among whom were perpetual wars. Britain was possessed by the Saxons. Spain became the inheritance of Vandals, Suevi, and Visigoths. The Vandals retained Africa. The Eastern empire, with the exception of Constantinople, finally fell into the hands of the Saracens.

(M1185) It would be interesting to trace the various fortunes of the Teutonic nations in their new settlements, but this belongs to mediaeval history. The real drama of the fall of Rome was ended when Alaric gained possession of the imperial city. "The empire fell," says Guizot, "because no one would belong to it." At the period of barbaric invasion it had lost all real vigor, and was kept together by mechanism—the mechanism of government which had been one thousand years perfecting. It was energy, patriotism, patience, and a genius for government which built up the empire. But prosperity led to luxury, self-exaggeration, and enervating vices. Society was steeped in sensuality, frivolity, and selfishness. The empire was rotten to the core, and must become the prey of barbarians, who had courage and vitality. Three centuries earlier, the empire might have withstood the shock of external enemies, and the barbarians might have been annihilated. But they invaded the provinces when central power was weak, when public virtue had fled, when the middle classes were extinct, when slavery, demoralizing pleasures, and disproportionate fortunes destroyed elevation of sentiment, and all manly energies. A noble line of martial emperors for a time arrested ruin, but ruin was inevitable. Natural law asserted its dignity. The penalty of sin must be paid. Nothing could save the empire. No conservative influences were sufficiently strong—neither literature, nor art, nor science, nor philosophy, nor even Christianity. Society retrograded as the new religion triumphed, a mysterious fact, but easily understood when we remember that vices were universal before a remedy could be applied. The victories of Christianity came not too late for the human race, but too late for the salvation of a worn-out empire.

The barbarians were advancing when Constantine was converted. The salvation of the race was through these barbarians themselves, for, though they desolated, they reconstructed; and, when converted to the new faith, established new institutions on a better basis. The glimmering life-sparks of a declining and miserable world disappeared, but new ideas, new passions, new interests arose, and on the ruins of the pagan civilization new Christian empires were founded, which have been gaining power for one thousand five hundred years, and which may not pass away till civilization itself shall be pronounced a failure in the present dispensations of the Moral Governor of the World.

THE END.



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FOOTNOTES

M1 The Creation. M2 The garden of Eden. M3 Adam and Eve. M4 Primeval Paradise. M5 Situation of Eden. M6 Glory of Eden. M7 The temptation. M8 The Devil. M9 His assumption of the form of a serpent. M10 The disobedience of Eve. M11 The Fall of Adam. M12 The effect. M13 The penalty. M14 Introduction of sin. M15 Expulsion from paradise. M16 The mitigation of the punishment. M17 Industry—one of the fundamental conditions of life. M18 Cain and Abel. M19 The descendants of Cain. M20 The deluge. M21 The probable condition of the antediluvian world. M22 The ark. M23 The Divine covenant with Noah. M24 The tradition of the deluge. M25 The Noachic Code. M26 Patriarchal constitutions. M27 Consequences of the sin of Noah. M28 Settlements of his descendants. M29 The Tower of Babel. M30 Nimrod. M31 The Confusion of tongues. M32 Dispersion of nations. M33 The settlements of the children of Japhet. M34 The settlements of the descendants of Shem. M35 The descendants of Ham. M36 Abram. M37 The wanderings and settlements of Abraham. M38 The separation of Abraham and Lot. M39 The settlements of Lot. M40 The first recorded battle in history. M41 The victory of Abraham. M42 Melchizedek. M43 The pride of Abraham. M44 His prospects. M45 Hagar. M46 The renewed Covenant with Abraham. M47 The birth of Isaac. M48 The destruction of Sodom. M49 The duplicity of Abraham. M50 The Trial of Abraham. M51 Death of Sarah. M52 The marriage of Isaac. M53 Second marriage of Abraham. M54 He deceives the Philistines. M55 The affliction of Isaac. M56 Jacob and Esau. M57 Jacob obtains the birthright. The despair of Esau. M58 Jacob's wanderings. M59 He served Laban. M60 The quarrel with Laban. M61 Meeting of Esau and Jacob. M62 Jacob in Bethel. M63 Death of Rachel. M64 The sale of Joseph. M65 The original inhabitants of Egypt. M66 Their peculiarities. M67 The fertility of Egypt. M68 The productions of Egypt. M69 The castes of Egypt. M70 Egyptian dynasties. M71 The Pyramids. M72 Thebes. M73 The shepherd kings. M74 Friendly relations of the Hebrews with the Shepherd Kings. M75 Expulsion of the Shepherd kings. M76 Greatness of Ramesis II. His architectural works. M77 Decline of Thebes. M78 Obscurity of Egyptian history. M79 Religion of the Egyptians. M80 The Deities. M81 Laws of the Egyptians. M82 Government. M83 Habits of the people. M84 Literary culture. M85 Potiphar and Joseph. Elevation of Joseph. M86 His rule as Viceroy. M87 The famine in Egypt. M88 Benjamin and his brothers. Moses as an historian. M89 Prosperity of the Hebrews. Their subsequent miseries. M90 Moses. M91 The slavery of the Israelites. M92 The ten plagues. The deliverance of the Israelites. M93 The exodus. M94 Hebrew jurisprudence. M95 The principles of the Jewish code. M96 The Ten Commandments. M97 Moses on Mount Sinai. M98 The tables of stone. M99 The idolatry of the Jews. M100 The Mosaic legislation. M101 The Jewish theocracy. M102 The Oracle. M103 The Priesthood. M104 The Hebrew Constitution. M105 The wanderings of the Israelites. M106 Non-intercourse of the Jews with other nations. Death of Moses. M107 Joshua. M108 His victories. M109 Combination of the Canaanites against Joshua. M110 Conquest of Canaan. M111 Death of Joshua. M112 The Judges. M113 Their wars. M114 Samuel. M115 The Israelites demand a King. M116 Anointment of Saul. M117 His wars with the Philistine. M118 The unhappiness of Saul. M119 David. M120 The enmity of Saul. M121 The elevation of David. M122 The reign of David. M123 Character of David. M124 The reign of Solomon. His architectural works. M125 The palace. M126 The Wisdom of Solomon. M127 His apostasy. M128 His latter days. M129 The rebellion of Jeroboam. M130 Division of the Nation. M131 The reign of Rheoboam. His successors. M132 The Princes of Judah at Jerusalem. M133 The reign of Amiaziah. M134 Uzziah. His prosperity. M135 Jotham. M136 Hezekiah. M137 His wars. M138 Manasseh. M139 Amon. M140 Josiah. His noble reign. M141 His death. M142 His successor. M143 Nebuchadnezzar wars against Judah. The fall of Jerusalem. Captivity of the Jews. Jeremiah. M144 The character of the kings of Judah. M145 The ten tribes. M146 Jeroboam. His wicked reign. M147 Elijah. Ahab. M148 The destruction of the priests of Baal. M149 Wrath of Jezebel. M150 War with Damascus. Curse upon Ahab. M151 Ahaziah. M152 Famine in Samaria. M153 Wars with the Syrians. M154 Jehu. M155 His successors. M156 Their short reigns. M157 Fall of Samaria. M158 The kings of Israel. M159 The plains of Babylon. M160 The Tower of Babel. M161 The foundation of the Assyrian monarchy. M162 Extension of the kingdom. M163 Nineveh. M164 The palaces. Assyrian kings. M165 Conquests of Shalmanezer. M166 Sennacherib. Culmination of the power of Nineveh. M167 Assyrian civilisation. M168 Decline of the monarchy. M169 Destruction of Nineveh. Its remains. M170 Growth of Babylon. M171 The Chaldean monarchy. M172 Nebuchadnezzar. Magnificence of Babylon. M173 Fall of the Monarchy. M174 The country of the Medes and Persians. The martial character of the people. Early kings of Media. M175 Deioces. M176 Cyaxares. M177 The irruption of the Turanian races. M178 Conquests of Cyaxares. M179 War with Lydia. M180 The Lydian monarchy. M181 Astyages. M182 The early history of the Persians. M183 Zoroaster. His religion. M184 Character of the Persians. M185 Rise of Cyrus. M186 His wars. M187 His great empire. M188 He makes Babylon his capital. M189 Greatness of the reign of Cyrus. M190 Degeneracy of the Persian conquerors. M191 Cambyses. M192 His follies. M193 Usurpation of the Magians. M194 Darius. M195 His conquests. M196 His greatness. M197 The revolt of the Ionian cities. M198 Xerxes. M199 Fate of the Persian empire. M200 Its characteristics. M201 Original inhabitants of Asia Minor. M202 Its various nations. M203 The Phrygians M204 The Lydians. Gyges. M205 His prosperous reign. M206 Alliance of Lydia with Persia. M207 Scythian inroads. Their characteristics. M208 Scythian conquests. M209 Croesus. M210 His prosperity. M211 The Phoenicians. M212 Their Semitic origin. M213 The country. M214 Phoenician cities. M215 Phoenician colonies. M216 Voyage of the Phoenicians. M217 Decline of Phoenician power. M218 Carthage. M219 Absorption of the ten tribes. M220 The Jews at Babylon. M221 Daniel. M222 His beautiful character. M223 Return of the Jews. M224 Dedication of the Temple. M225 Mordecai and Ahasuerus. The story of Esther. M226 Return to Palestine of Jews under Ezra. M227 Nehemiah. Rebuilding of Jerusalem. Revival of ancient laws. M228 Obscurity of Jewish history after Nehemiah. M229 Obscurity and growth of the Jews. M230 The ascendency of the high priests. M231 Persecution of the Jews by Antiochus. M232 The reign of the high priests. Their turbulent reigns. Popular tumults. Misery of the Jews. M233 The Maccabees. Mattathias. His successes. M234 His son Judas. His heroic deeds. M235 Syria invades Palestine. M236 Another unsuccessful invasion. M237 Continued hostilities between Syria and Palestine. M238 The Jews force an alliance with the Romans. M239 Jonathan Maccabeus master of Judea. His rule. John Hyrcanus as high priest. M240 The Jews in Alexandria. M241 The rule of John Hyrcanus. M242 Succeeded by his son. M243 Turbulent reign of Alexander. M244 Queen Alexandra. M245 The Idumean family. M246 All parties invoke the aid of Pompey. M247 Jerusalem falls into the hands of Pompey. M248 Reorganization of the government. M249 Jerusalem governed by Roman generals. M250 Herod governor of Galilee. M251 Receives the crown of Judea. And reigns tyrannically. His miserable life. M252 The hatred in which he was held. His death. M253 His kingdom is divided among his sons. The claims of the rival princes. M254 The Romans confirm the will of Herod. M255 Birth of Christ. M256 The rule of Roman governors. M257 Pontius Pilate. M258 Herod Antipas. M259 Herod Agrippa. M260 His brilliant reign. M261 Persecutes the Christians. M262 Judea a Roman province. M263 Jewish parties. M264 The Pharisees. Their doctrines and character. M265 The Sadducees. M266 The Essenes. M267 State of the country. Miserable condition of the Jews. Popular Commotions. Wars and rumors of wars. M268 Incipient rebellion. M269 Open rebellion of Judea. M270 Sensation at Rome. Roman preparations for war. M271 Expedition against Ascalon. Fall of Jotaphata. M272 Fall of Joppa. M273 Fall of Gamala. M274 Factions at Jerusalem. M275 Infatuation of the city. Its fortifications. The temple. M276 The siege. M277 Famine in the city. M278 The assault of Jerusalem. The fall. M279 The siege and sack of the city. M280 Consequences of the fall of Jerusalem. M281 Degeneracy of the oriental states. M282 Boundaries of Greece. M283 The mountains of Greece. Between Ossa and Olympus is the famous vale of Tempe. M284 The rivers. M285 Natural advantages for political independence. M286 Natural productions. M287 Epirus. M288 Thessaly. M289 The famous places. M290 Acarnania. M291 AEtolia. M292 Doris. M293 Locri Ozolae. M294 Phocis. M295 Boeotia. M296 Attica. M297 Megaris. M298 The Peloponnesus and its states. M299 Elis. M300 Arcadia. M301 Argolis. M302 Laconia. M303 Messenia. M304 Crete. M305 The Cyclades. M306 The Sporades. M307 Lesbos, and other islands. M308 Origin of the Grecian nations. The Pelasgians. M309 The Hellenes. The AEolians. The Achaeans. M310 The Dorians and Ionians. M311 Settlements of the AEolians. M312 Of the Achaeans. M313 Of the Dorians. M314 Of the Ionians. M315 The heroic ages of Greece. M316 The legends. M317 Zeus. M318 The other deities. M319 Who represent the powers of Nature. M320 The worship of these deities. M321 Legends which pertain to heroes. M322 The Danaides. M323 Hercules. M324 Deucalion. M325 Hellen and Pyrrha. M326 Pelias and Neleus. M327 Admetus. M328 Jason and the Argonauts. M329 Sisyphus. M330 Bellerophon. M331 AEolus. M332 Tantalus. M333 Pelops. M334 The Deucalian deluge. M335 Theseus. M336 Theban legends. Cadmus. OEdipus. M337 Creon. M338 Dardanus. M339 Ilus. M340 Priam. Helen. M341 The Trojan war. M342 The legend of the Heraclidae. M343 Their settlement in Sparta. M344 The wanderings of the dispossessed Achaeans. M345 Crete. M346 The Dorians and Ionians become the leading tribes. M347 First Olympiad, the era of the historic period. M348 Grecian leagues. M349 Early dominant states. M350 Interest to be attached to the legends of Greece. M351 Their historical importance. M352 The early government of the Hellenes. The king. M353 The councils. M354 Religious and social life. M355 Early forms of civilization. M356 Lycurgus. M357 His legislation. M358 Spartan citizens. M359 The old Achaean population. M360 The Helots. M361 The Ecclesia. M362 The Senate. M363 The kings. M364 The Ephors. M365 Aristocratic form of government. The citizen lost in the State. M366 Number of citizens. M367 Spartan armies. M368 The Spartans obtain the ascendency on the Peninsula. M369 Messenia. The war with Sparta. M370 Aristomenes. Conquest of Messenia. M371 Aggrandizement of Sparta. M372 Political changes. The age of Tyrants. M373 Corinthia. M374 Changes in Corinth. M375 Changes in Megara. M376 Changes in other States. M377 Early history of Athens. Theseus. Codrus. M378 Draco. M379 Solon. M380 His institutions. M381 Loss of aristocratic power. Different classes. M382 Other political changes. M383 Departure of Solon from Athens. Pisistratus. His reign. Hippias. M384 Cleisthenes. The increase of the Senate. M385 The ecclesia. M386 Ostracism. M387 Boeotia. M388 Phocis. M389 Thessaly. M390 Macedonia. M391 Epirus. M392 Grecian colonies. The Ionian cities in Asia Minor. M393 Political importance of the colonies. M394 Legislation. M395 The Amphictyonic Council. M396 The Delphic oracle. M397 The Olympic games. M398 The Pythian games. M399 The Nemaean and Ithmian games. M400 Effect of these festivals. M401 Changes in government. Erection of temples. Legal equality and political rights. M402 Different forms of government. M403 Commercial enterprise. M404 Increase of wealth. Introduction of art. M405 Architecture. M406 Sculpture. M407 Literature. M408 Philosophy. M409 Condition of the Ionian cities. Invasion of Scythia by Darius. M410 Revolt of the Ionian cities from Persia. Defeat of the Ionian cities. M411 Histiaeus. M412 Want of union among the Ionian cities. Their signal defeat. M413 Attack of Miletus. Complete conquest of the Ionian Greeks. M414 Artaphernes organizes the Government. Darius prepares for the invasion of Greece. M415 His immense preparations. M416 His vast army. M417 The Persian fleet. M418 Political change at Athens. Miltiades, and other generals. M419 Themistocles. M420 Aristides. M421 Athens allies herself with Sparta. M422 Prominence of the dangers. M423 Marshaling of the Grecian forces at Marathon. The battle of Marathon. M424 Results of the battle. M425 Fame of Miltiades. His subsequent reverses. His death. Jealousies between Aristides and Themistocles. M426 Not altogether on personal grounds. M427 Renewed preparations of Darius. His death. M428 Xerxes. His enormous preparations. His bridges over the Hellespont. M429 His advance. He crosses the Hellespont. His review of his army. M430 The magnitude of his forces. M431 Progress of the Persians. M432 Preparations of the Athenians. Sparta commands the land forces and Athens the naval. M433 The pass of Thermopylae. M434 Interruption of military preparations by the Olympic games. M435 Leonidas defends the pass of Thermopylae. M436 The Greek fleet. Disaster to the Persian fleet. M437 Attack on the Greeks by the Persians. M438 Leonidas defends the pass, but is slain. Heroic death of the three hundred Spartans. M439 The dismay and indignation of Xerxes. M440 Naval battle of Artemisium. M441 Themistocles sails for Salamis. M442 Despair of the Greeks. Themistocles revives courage by his "wooden wall." M443 The hostile fleets at Salamis. M444 Self-confidence of Xerxes. Battle of Salamis and retreat of Xerxes. M445 The important results. M446 Mardonius left in command of the Persians. He ravishes Attica and Boeotia. M447 The Greeks assemble against the Persians at Plataea. Preparations for battle. M448 Battle of Plataea. M449 Chastisement of Thebes. M450 Battle of Mycale. M451 Rivalry between Athens and Sparta. M452 Disgrace and death of Pausanias. M453 Fall of Themistocles. Cimon Death of Themistocles.. M454 Death of Aristides. M455 Death of Xerxes. M456 Rivalry between the Grecian States. M457 Pre-eminently between Athens and Sparta. M458 Opposition by Sparta to the fortifications of Athens. M459 The city nevertheless fortified. The Peireus. Increase of the navy. Confederacy of Delos. M460 Confederacy of Delos. M461 Change in the Athenian constitution. M462 The political growth of Athens. M463 The Confederate States. M464 Unpopularity of Athens. M465 Expeditions against Persia. M466 Sparta. Rebellion of the Helots. Cimon opposed to Pericles. Alliance of different states with Athens. M467 Defeat of Athens on the land and victory on the sea. M468 Pericles begins his career. Cimon banished. M469 Hostilities between Sparta and Athens. M470 Ascendency of Pericles. His character and accomplishments. M471 The union of the Peireus with Athens. M472 Magnanimity of Cimon. M473 Completion of the long walls. M474 Death of Cimon. M475 Pericles without rivals. M476 Aggrandizement of Athens. M477 Change in the constitution by Pericles. Increase of democratic power. The dikasts. Ascendency of the democratic power. M478 Other political changes effected by Pericles. M479 Improvements of Athens. M480 The public buildings. M481 Impulse given to literature. The drama. M482 AEschylus. Sophocles. M483 Comedy. M484 Power of the stage. M485 The historians and philosophers. M486 Athens declines in moral power. M487 Aspasia. M488 Latter days of Pericles. Policy of Pericles. M489 Causes of the war. M490 War between Corcyra and Corinth. Both parties appealed to Athens. Athens decides in favor of Corcyra. M491 Intrigues of Sparta. M492 Pericles urges the Athenians to support a war. Imperious demands of Sparta. Preparations for war. Wealth of Athens. M493 Immense array of forces against Athens. M494 Invasion of Attica. Defensive policy of Pericles. M495 Retreat of the Lacedaemonians. M496 Athens sets aside 1,000 talents for future contingencies. M497 Results of the first year of the war. M498 The Spartans again invade Attica. M499 The plague at Athens. M500 Naval expedition against Sparta. Death of Pericles. M501 Sparta invokes the aid of the Persians. M502 Results of the second year of the war. M503 Siege of Plataea. M504 Naval defeat of the Spartans. M505 Results of the third campaign. M506 Renewed invasion of Athens. Revolt and subjugation of Mitylene. M507 Surrender of Plataea. M508 Cruelties of the Athenians at Corcyra. M509 Nicias. He continues the policy of Pericles. Opposed by Alcibiades and Cleon. M510 The fifth year of the war. M511 The sixth year of the war. Undecisive nature of the conflict. Great defeat of the Lacedaemonians at Pylus. Sparta seeks peace. Peace prevented by Cleon. M512 Renewed hostilities. Surrender of Sphacteria. Triumph of the Athenians. Who refuse all overtures of peace. M513 Situation of Athens in eighth year of the war. M514 Despair of the Lacedaemonians, and slaughter of the Helots. M515 Attack of Megara. M516 Relieved by Brasidas. M517 Occupation of Delium by the Athenians. M518 Battle of Delium. M519 Disasters of the Athenians in Thrace. Successes of Brasidas. M520 Loss of Amphipolis. M521 Truce of one year. M522 Its conditions. M523 Both Cleon and Brasidas opposed to the truce. M524 Death of Cleon and of Brasidas. M525 Consequences of the battle of Amphipolis. The peace of Nicias. M526 Causes of the war still continued. M527 Alcibiades. M528 Character of Alcibiades. M529 His intellectual training under Socrates. M530 His abandoned habits. M531 His intrigues. M532 His extravagance at the Olympic games. M533 Renewal of hostilities. M534 Effect of the battle of Mantinea. M535 Siege of Melos. M536 The invasion of Sicily. M537 The Grecian colonies in Sicily. Syracuse. M538 Agrigentum and Gela. The reign of Gelo. His power in Sicily. His successor Hiero. Grandeur of Syracuse. M539 The Dorian cities of Sicily make war on the Ionian. M540 Intervention of Athens. Opposed by Nicias, but favored by Alcibiades. M541 Athenian expedition against Syracuse. M542 Self-confidence of the Athenians. M543 Unfavorable auguries. M544 Alcibiades accused of divulging the Eleusinian mysteries. M545 Sailing of the Athenian fleet. M546 Escape of Alcibiades to Sparta. M547 Nicias commands the expedition. Rebellion and treason of Alcibiades. M548 Situation of Syracuse. Inaction of Nicias. Athenian fleet inclosed by the Syracusans. Retreat of Athenians. M549 Mismanagement of Nicias. M550 Exhaustion of Athens. M551 The Athenian navy hopelessly crippled. M552 Effects of the disastrous expedition against Syracuse. The Athenians compelled to make use of their reserved fund. M553 Escape of Alcibiades from Sparta. M554 Popular revolution in Athens. M555 Restless schemes of Alcibiades. M556 Vain promises of Alcibiades. Aid invoked from Persia. An oligarchy at Athens. Alcibiades cheats the Athenians. M557 Athens seeks peace with Sparta. Unprincipled conduct of Alcibiades. M558 Subversion of the oligarchy. Restoration of the old constitution. M559 Alternate successes and failures of the belligerents. M560 Revival of the hopes of the Athenians. M561 Cyrus sent to Phrygia. M562 Union of Cyrus with Lysander. M563 Return of Alcibiades to Athens. His exploits. M564 His reverses. Lysander recalled to Sparta. M565 Vigorous measures of the Lacedaemonians. The battle of Arginusae. M566 Lysander returns to power. M567 Capture of the Athenian fleet. Despair of Athens. M568 Annihilation of the Athenian empire. M569 Surrender of Athens to the Spartans. M570 Fate of Athens. M571 Close of the war. M572 Cause of the fall of Athens. Miserable spirit of the war. Alcibiades the evil genius of Athens. His inglorious death. M573 Glory of Lysander. M574 Effect of the Peloponnesian war. M575 The real ends of Cyrus disguised. M576 Mercenary Greeks enlist under Cyrus. M577 Character of Cyrus. High estimation in which he held the Greeks. M578 He dissembles his designs. M579 He commences his march. M580 Character of the Greeks who joined his standard. M581 Xenophon. M582 Cyrus reviews his army. The Greeks perceive that they have been deceived. M583 Cyrus crosses into Syria. He crosses the Euphrates. Battle of Cunaxa. M584 Dismay of the Greeks. They retreat. M585 Their forlorn condition. M586 Deceitful negotiations of the Persians. M587 The Persian king aims at their overthrow. M588 The despair of the Greeks. M589 Xenophon rallies the Greeks. M590 Their retreat to the Tigris. Their perils and hardships. M591 The march through Armenia. They reach the Euxine. M592 New troubles and dangers. M593 They pass by sea to Sinope. Their courage and faith. M594 They reach Byzantium. M595 But are excluded from the city. They enlist in the service of Sparta. M596 Moral effect of the expedition. M597 Sparta never lost her power. M598 Continued glory of Athens also. M599 Consequences of the Peloponnesian war. M600 Paramount authority of Sparta after the victories of Lysander. M601 Sparta incurs the jealousy of Greece. M602 Her oppressive superiority. M603 Effect of the tyrannical policy of Sparta. M604 Renewal of the war with Persia. M605 Agesilaus, king of Sparta. M606 Recall of Agesilaus from the war. M607 Discontent of the Grecian States. Alienation of the allies of Sparta. M608 Enrichment of Sparta. M609 Conspiracy against the States. M610 Lacedaemonian fleet threatened. Naval victory over the Lacedaemonians. M611 Revolt of Thebes. M612 Renewed power of the city. M613 Battle of Coronaea. M614 Decline of Sparta. M615 Corinth becomes the seat of war. M616 Great disaster to Sparta. M617 Sparta invokes the aid of Persia. M618 Death of Thrasybulus. M619 Investment of Rhodes. Evil consequences of the rivalries of the Grecian States. M620 Thebes. M621 Under the domination of Sparta. M622 Invectives of the orators against Sparta. M623 Discontent in Thebes. M624 Rebellion under Philidas. Its success. M625 The Theban revolution produces a great sensation. Thebes forms an alliance with Athens. M626 Theban government. M627 Epaminondas. His accomplishments. M628 Sparta attacks Thebes. M629 Second unsuccessful expedition of Agesilaus. M630 Naval victory of the Athenians. Victory of Pelopidas. M631 The jealousy of the Grecian republics. M632 Humiliation of Sparta. M633 Hostilities between Athens and Sparta. Peace between Athens and Sparta. M634 Epaminondas at the congress of Sparta. M635 Renewal of hostilities between Sparta and Thebes. M636 Great preparations of Sparta. M637 Defeat of a Theban force. M638 Military tactics of Epaminondas. Great victory obtained by Thebes. M639 The Spartans evacuate Boeotia. M640 Agesilaus marches into Arcadia. Epaminondas invades Sparta. M641 Restores the independence of Messenia. The Spartan kingdom dismembered. M642 Sparta forms an alliance with Athens. M643 Greece emancipated from the Spartan yoke. M644 Athens seeks to recover Amphipolis. A part of Thessaly under the protection of Thebes. M645 The Theban supremacy in Thessaly and Macedonia. M646 Thebes now aspires to the leadership of Greece. M647 Thebes rescues Pelopidas. Complicated political relations of the Grecian States. M648 Death of Pelopidas. Grief of the Thebans. M649 Orchomenus revolts from Thebes. Unfortunate fate of the city. M650 Renewed hostilities. Epaminondas attempts to surprise Sparta. His great victory over the Lacedaemonians at Mantinea. His death. M651 His great military genius. His character. M652 Death of Agesilaus. Death of Artaxerxes. M653 Philip of Macedon. M654 Syracuse after the failure of Nicias. M655 Internal condition of the city. M656 The wars of the Syracusans with Carthage. M657 Carthage. Its maritime power. M658 Its political constitution. M659 Its eminent men. M660 Dionysius at Syracuse. M661 Carthaginians invade Sicily. M662 Rise of Dionysius. M663 Defeated by the Carthaginians. M664 Carthaginians make peace. M665 Dionysius centralizes his power. M666 Marches against the Sikels. His critical condition. Strengthens the fortifications of Syracuse. His vast military preparations. M667 His marriage. Marches against the Carthaginians. M668 His success. M669 He returns to Syracuse. His naval defeat at Catana. M670 Imilco lays siege to Syracuse. M671 Disasters of the Carthaginians. They retire from Syracuse. M672 Death of Imilco. M673 Financial embarrassments of Dionysius. M674 Makes himself master of Messene. M675 Invades Italy. M676 Conquers Croton. M677 Becomes master of Southern Italy. Hissed at the Grecian games. M678 Dion. M679 Power and wealth of Dionysius. M680 Defeated in a war with Carthage. M681 Again defeated. Gains a prize for poetry, dies from a fit of debauchery. His character. M682 Dion. M683 Dionysius II. His feeble character. Plato visits Syracuse. His injudicious teachings. M684 Banishment of Dion. Second visit of Plato. M685 Dion in exile. Meditates the overthrow of Dionysius. M686 He lands in Sicily. M687 Enters Syracuse in triumph. M688 Demands the abdication of Dionysius. M689 Dionysius resorts to intrigues. Unpopularity of Dion. But Ortygia surrenders to him. M690 Dion master of Syracuse. His mistakes. His death. His character. M691 Dionysius recovers Ortygia. Syracuse invokes the aid of Corinth. Timoleon sent as general. M692 His wonderful successes. M693 Dionysius an exile in Corinth. M694 Timoleon demolishes the stronghold of tyranny. His noble administration. M695 His great victory over the Carthaginians. M696 He lays down his power. M697 His death and character. M698 Unexpected Rise of Macedonia. M699 Philip of Macedon. M700 Philip at Thebes. M701 Surrender of Amphipolis. M702 Revolt from Athens of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, &c. Death of Timotheus. M703 Philip lays siege to Amphipolis. Fall of the city. M704 Duplicity of Philip. M705 War with Athens. M706 The sacred war. M707 Demosthenes. His accomplishments. His great eloquence. M708 Phocion. M709 Different policy of these two leaders. M710 Conquests of Philip to Thessaly. Threatens Central Greece. M711 No generals fit to cope with him. M712 Philip conquers the Olynthians. Revolt of Euboea. Ravages of Philip. M713 The temple of Delphi robbed. Encroachments of Philip. His duplicities and intrigues. Philip obtains possession of the pass of Thermopylae. M714 And is master of the keys of Greece. M715 Lamentations of Demosthenes. M716 Philip's continued encroachments. His insatiate ambition. M717 Athens at last aroused by Demosthenes. Siege of Perinthus. Philip withdraws from Byzantium. M718 Another sacred war. Ruinous to Grecian liberties. M719 Alliance of Thebes and Athens. Renewed military preparations of Philip. M720 Battle of Chaeronea. Its decisive character. Macedonian phalanx. M721 Desperate measures of Athens. M722 Fall of Thebes. M723 Philip invades the Peloponnesus. Collects a large force against the Persians. M724 Death of Philip. M725 Alexander. Character of Philip. M726 Alexander the Great. Sent by Providence to do a great work. M727 Which was prepared by his father. Extent of the Persian empire. The accumulation of riches in the royal cities. M728 Philip had aspired to overturn the empire. Knowing its internal weakness. M729 But this work is reserved for Alexander. Who was the conqueror of the Oriental world? What constituted his military genius. M730 It was his passion to conquer, not reconstruct. M731 His early history. His conquest of the Grecian States. M732 He annihilates the Theban power. Moral effect of his merciless severity. He is master of Greece. M733 Prepares to invade Persia. M734 He marshals his forces in Asia. His phalanx and the armor of his troops. M735 His generals. M736 Alexander is unobstructed in crossing the Hellespont. Error of the Persians. Battle of the Granicus. Alexander dispenses with his fleet. Fall of Miletus. M737 The siege of Halicarnassus. Conquest of Asia Minor. M738 The Persians resolve on offensive operations. M739 Neglect to guard the mountain passes. Which Alexander passes through unobstructed. Infatuation and errors of the Persians. The Persians advance to Issus. M740 The great and decisive battle of Issus. M741 The mistakes of the Persians, and the cowardice of Darius. M742 Important consequences of the battle. M743 The flight and inaction of Darius. M744 The siege of Tyre. Its fall. M745 Offer of Darius. Rejected by Alexander. M746 Who conquers Egypt. M747 Founding of Alexandria. M748 Alexander marches to the Euphrates. M749 Marshalling of the armies at Arbela. M750 Utter discomfiture of Darius. His inglorious flight. The battle of Arbela a death-blow to Persia. Military genius of the conqueror. M751 Surrender of Babylon and Susa. M752 The enormous treasures of the Persian Kings. M753 Successive conquests of Alexander. M754 He kills his friend Clitus. Agony and remorse of Alexander. M755 He penetrates to the Indus. Porus. M756 The soldiers of Alexander refuse to advance further to the East. M757 He returns to Persepolis. His abandonment to pleasure. M758 Death of Hephaestion and grief of Alexander. M759 His entrance into Babylon. Splendor of the funeral of Hephaestion. Death of Alexander. M760 His boundless ambition. His death a fortunate event. Effects of his conquests. M761 Obscurity of the early history of Rome. M762 AEneas. M763 Latium. Foundation of Rome. M764 The early inhabitants. Rome founded in violence. M765 The Sabine element of Rome. M766 The constitution. M767 Numa Pompilius. M768 Establishment of religion. M769 Tullus Hostilius. The Horatii and the Curiatii. M770 Destruction of Alba. M771 The origin of plebians. M772 Tarquinius Priscus. M773 His public work. M774 Servius Tullius. M775 His reforms. M776 Based on property. New division of the people. M777 Comitia Centuriata. M778 The despotism of Tarquin. M779 The legend of Lucretia. Death of Lucretia. Banishment of the Tarquins. M780 The restoration of power to the patricians. M781 Jurisprudence. M782 Religion. Objects of worship. M783 Agriculture. Fruits and cereals. M784 Trades. M785 Commerce. M786 Measures and weights. M787 Heroic period of Roman History. M788 The consuls. M789 The Senate. M790 Brutus the first consul. M791 The legends of ancient Rome. Tarquin attempts to recover his throne. M792 Etruria. M793 War with the Etruscans. M794 Dictators. M795 Oppression and miseries of the plebeians. M796 Their rebellion. M797 The Tribunes. Comitia Tributa. M798 AEdiles. M799 Coriolanus. M800 Spurius Cassius. Agrarian law. M801 Fabius. Increased power of plebians. M802 The dictatorship of Cincinnatus. M803 The decemvirs.—Appius Claudius. M804 His injustice and punishment. M805 Intermarriage of plebians and patricians. M806 Censors. M807 Quaestors. M808 The siege and fall of Veii. M809 Invasion of the Gauls. Habits and manners of the Gauls. M810 Disastrous battle with the Gauls. M811 The fall of Rome. M812 M. Manlius. M813 His services and fall. The Lincinian rogation. M814 The period of conquest begins. M815 Samnium. M816 The Latins throw off the Roman yoke. M817 Reconquest of the Latin cities. M818 Jealousy of the Samnites. M819 The war. The Samnite war. Siege of Lucania. M820 Victory of Seutinum. M821 New coalition against Rome. Tarentum. M822 Pyrrhus. M823 Marches to the assistance of the Tarentines. Battle of Heraclea. M824 Pyrrhus offers peace. M825 Retreat of Pyrrhus. M826 Battle of Beneventum. M827 Complete subjugation of Italy. M828 Appius Claudius. M829 Causes of the Punic war. M830 Territories of Carthage. Sicilian affairs. M831 Rhegium. M832 The Mamertines. M833 Hiero. M834 Wealth and population of Carthage. Power of Carthage. M835 Creation of a Roman fleet. M836 Naval battle of Mylae. M837 Great victory of Regulus. M838 Other victories of Regulus. M839 Hamilcar. M840 Hasdrubal. M841 Imprisonment of Regulus. Death of Regulus. M842 Hamilcar Barca. M843 Conquest of Sicily. M844 Acquisition of Sicily. M845 Creation of a Roman naval power. M846 Condition of Carthage after the war. M847 Hamilcar. M848 Hasdrubal. M849 Hannibal. M850 Fall of Saguntum. M851 Hannibal retires to Carthagena. M852 He prepares for vigorous war. M853 Crosses the Ebro. M854 Hannibal crosses the Alps. M855 Scipio. M856 Battle of the Trasimene Lake. M857 Hannibal in Italy. M858 Hannibal marches to the Adriatic. M859 Fabius. Efforts of the Romans. M860 Battle of Cannae. Its great consequences. Varro. M861 Revolt of allies. M862 Wisdom of Hannibal. M863 Fortitude of the Romans. M864 The crisis. M865 Marcellus. M866 Scipio. M867 Revolt of Syracuse. Archimedes. M868 Siege of Syracuse. Death of Archimedes. M869 Fall of Capua. M870 Battle of Metaurus. Reverses of Hannibal. M871 Scipio. M872 His successes in Spain. M873 Scipio consul. He invades Africa. M874 Hannibal evacuates Italy. M875 Hannibal seeks for peace. M876 The battle of Zama. M877 Scipio gives peace to Carthage. M878 Close of the war. M879 Macedonia. Philip. M880 Makes war with the Romans. Battle of Cynocephalae. The Achaean League. M881 The liberties of Greece secured. Flaminius. M882 Antiochus. M883 Power of Antiochus. M884 His preparations for war. M885 Scipio in Asia. M886 Defeat of Antiochus. Syria a Roman province. M887 Subjection of the Greek cities. M888 Death of Hannibal. M889 Perseus. M890 Makes war on Rome. Battle of Pydna. M891 Its decisive results. Supremacy of the Romans in the civilized world. M892 Causes of the third Punic war. M893 Masinissa. Usurpation of Masinissa. M894 Carthage called to account. M895 Power of Carthage. M896 War declared. M897 Despair of the Carthaginians. M898 The city makes desperate efforts. Hasdrubal. M899 Failure of the Romans. M900 Rome disgusted. M901 Mistake of Mancinus. M902 Siege of Carthage. M903 Scipio master of the ports. M904 Attack of the citadel. Capture and destruction of Carthage. M905 Her awful fate. Carthage utterly destroyed. M906 The fate of great commercial capitals. M907 Scipio triumphs. M908 Change in Roman manners. M909 The Spanish peninsula. M910 Geography of Spain. M911 War with the Spaniards. M912 Inglorious war. M913 Scipio. M914 Difficulties in Asiatic provinces. M915 Province of Africa. M916 The Macedonian war. M917 Fall of Corinth. M918 Asia Minor. M919 War in Asia. M920 Syria. M921 Dominion of Rome. M922 The rise of a new nobility. Roman nobility. M923 Leading families. M924 Provincial governors. M925 Decline of the burgesses. Public amusements. M926 Decay of military sports. Distinctions in society. M927 Cato. M928 Political changes. Rise of demagogues. M929 Agriculture. The slaves. Small farmers. M930 Decline of agriculture. The farmers sacrificed to the city population. M931 Money. M932 Business operations. M933 Great fortunes. M934 The rich favored. M935 Extravagant prices for luxuries. M936 Education. M937 Rome after the battle of Pydna. M938 The inefficiency of the government. M939 Opposition to the ruling classes. Capitalists. Slaves. M940 Tiberius Gracchus. M941 His reforms. M942 His unlawful movements. M943 His death. M944 Character of Gracchus. Nature of his reform. M945 The Death of Scipio. M946 Gaius Gracchus. M947 He makes war on the aristocracy. The Equestrian order. M948 The speculators. M949 The power of the Senate curtailed. M950 Radical reforms. M951 Gracchus loses his popularity. M952 Gracchus assassinated. M953 His character. M954 The Numidian war. Jugurtha. M955 Metellus. M956 Difficulties of the war. M957 Marius. M958 Close of the war. M959 Results of the war. M960 The Cimbri. M961 War with the Cimbri. M962 Invasion of Italy. M963 Marius called to command. M964 Battle of Aquae Sextiae. M965 Battle of Vercillae. M966 Reforms of Marius. M967 Indecisive war. M968 Sulla. M969 Asiatic rising. M970 Disgust of Marius. M971 The Sulpician laws. M972 The Sullan legislation. M973 Sullan constitution. M974 Mithridates. M975 Tigranes. M976 Preparations of Mithridates. Power of Mithridates. M977 Sulla lands in Epirus. Siege of Athens. M978 Sulla deposed. M979 Battle of Chaeronea. M980 Revolt of Asia against Mithridates. M981 Negotiations for peace. M982 Sulla returns to Italy. M983 His greatness. Cinna. M984 Civil war. Success of Cinna. M985 Sulla ends the war. M986 Absolute power of Sulla. M987 His triumphs. M988 He reforms. The reforms of Sulla. M989 His retirement. M990 Reaction in favor of the aristocracy. M991 Sertorius. M992 Pompey. M993 Death of Sertorius. M994 Servile war. Pompey. M995 The pirates. Great power given to Pompey. M996 Renewal of hostilities in the East. Lucullus. M997 His victories. Defeat of Mithridates. His death. M998 Pompey in Syria. His victories. M999 His triumph. M1000 Cicero. M1001 Verres. M1002 Public career of Cicero. Cicero as consul. Catiline. M1003 Cicero's services. M1004 His fall. Accomplishments and character of Cicero. M1005 Pompey. M1006 His policy. M1007 Caesar. M1008 The consulship of Caesar. M1009 Caesar in Gaul. M1010 Power of Caesar and Pompey. M1011 Rivalship between Caesar and Pompey. Deplorable state of public affairs. M1012 The Senate demands the abdication of Caesar. Caesar seeks a compromise. Rejected by Pompey. Caesar pursues Pompey. M1013 Caesar in Spain. M1014 Military preparations. M1015 Battle of Dyrhachium. Battle of Pharsalia. M1016 Flight of Pompey to Egypt. Pompey assassinated. M1017 Caesar in Egypt. Eastern conquests. M1018 Pharnaces. M1019 Dictatorship of Caesar. M1020 Cato. M1021 Triumph of Caesar. The vast power of Caesar. M1022 The Julian calendar. Last battle of Caesar. M1023 Death of Caesar. M1024 Character of Caesar. M1025 Great men of Rome at this time. M1026 Antonius takes the lead at Rome. M1027 Octavius. M1028 Brutus and Cassius. M1029 Cicero. M1030 Prospects of civil war. Situation of Roman affairs. The triumvirate of Antonius, Octavius and Lepidus. They proscribe their enemies. M1031 Cassius and Brutus rally the aristocracy. Battle of Philippi. M1032 Roman liberty extinguished. M1033 Cleopatra and Antonius. War between Octavius and Sextus. M1034 Prosperity of the empire. M1035 Extent of the empire. Cities of the empire. Magnificence of Rome. M1036 The imperial master. M1037 Roman Senate. M1038 The equestrians. M1039 The consuls. M1040 The army. M1041 Policy of Augustus. M1042 Institutions of Augustus. M1043 Roman commerce. M1044 Residences of the nobility. Amusements of the aristocracy. M1045 Roman literature. M1046 The wives of Augustus. M1047 The family of Augustus. M1048 Maecenas and Agrippa. M1049 The Teutonic races. M1050 Drusus. M1051 Banishment of Julia. M1052 Domitius Ahenobardus. M1053 Disaster of Varus. M1054 Death of Augustus. Character of Augustus. M1055 Tiberius veils his power. M1056 Germanicus. M1057 Jealousy of Tiberius. M1058 The campaign of Germanicus. Triumph of Germanicus. M1059 Drusus. M1060 Cnaeus Piso. Death of Germanicus. M1061 Funeral of Germanicus. Able administration of Tiberius. Excellence of the imperial rule. M1062 Tiberius becomes a tyrant. Instruments of tyranny. Provincial governors. Reforms of Tiberius. M1063 Tiberius secludes himself in Capreae. Sejanus. M1064 His conspiracy and death. M1065 Death of Drusus. Death of Tiberius. His funeral. M1066 Caligula. His infamous pleasures. Cruelty of Caligula. M1067 His madness and folly. His assassination. M1068 Claudius. M1069 His efforts at reform. M1070 The able administration of Claudius. M1071 Conquest of Britain. M1072 Messalina. M1073 Agrippina. Assassination of Messalina. Marriage of Claudius with Agrippina. M1074 Infamy of Agrippina. M1075 Death of Claudius. M1076 Character of Claudius. M1077 Ascension of Nero. His early character. M1078 He gives promise of reigning wisely. M1079 New developments in the character of Nero. M1080 His ministers. M1081 Poppaea Sabina. Her vile character. M1082 The infamies of Nero. M1083 Conspiracies against him. Flight of Nero. Death of Nero. M1084 Galba. M1085 Vespasian proclaimed emperor. M1086 His first acts. Titus. M1087 Domitian. Conquest of Britain. M1088 Persecution of Christians. M1089 Nerva. M1090 Death of Nerva. M1091 Trajan. M1092 The Dacian war. Gladiatorial sports. The Forum Trajanum. M1093 The Parthian expedition. Death of Trajan. M1094 Hadrian. M1095 His warlike expeditions. M1096 Hadrian visits the provinces. M1097 His public works. M1098 Antonius Pius. Death of Antonius. His eulogy. M1099 Marcus Aurelius. M1100 Invasion of the empire. Death of Aurelius. M1101 Commodus. M1102 Apparent prosperity. M1103 Great moral changes. M1104 Preparations for violence. M1105 Pertinax and Julianus. Severus. M1106 Vigorous rule of Severus. M1107 Caracalla and Geta. M1108 Macrinus. M1109 Elagabalus. His luxury. M1110 Alexander Severus. M1111 His labors. M1112 Maximin. His cruelties. M1113 Gordianus. Death of Maximin. Philip. M1114 Persecution of the Christians. Ravages of the Goths. M1115 Successive emperors. Gallienus. M1116 Gothic invasions. Defeat of the barbarians. M1117 Aurelian. Zenobia. Palmyra. Zenobia taken captive. M1118 Triumph of Aurelian. M1119 Tacitus. M1120 Probus. His warlike career. M1121 Carus. M1122 Carinus. M1123 Diocletian. M1124 Important political changes. M1125 New seat of government. Oriental pomp of Diocletian. M1126 Galerius and Constantius. M1127 Persecution of Christians. The reason of their persecution. M1128 Retirement of Diocletian. M1129 The evils which flowed from it. Death of Constantius. M1130 Six emperors. M1131 Civil wars. M1132 Death of Galerius. M1133 Elevation of Constantine. Successors of Constantine. M1134 Conversion of Constantine. Establishment of Christianity. M1135 Renewed wars. M1136 Victory of Constantine over Licinius. M1137 Death of Licinius. M1138 Constantine reigns alone. M1139 Foundation of Constantinople. M1140 Council of Nice. Athanasius. Theological discussion on the Trinity. M1141 Assassination of Crispus. The new capital. M1142 New divisions of the empire. M1143 Changes in the army. M1144 The ministers. M1145 The bishoprics. M1146 Death of Constantine. M1147 The heirs of Constantine. M1148 Constantius. M1149 Constans. M1150 War with Magnentius. M1151 Death of Athanasius. M1152 Wars of Constantius. M1153 Julian. M1154 Death of Julian. Jovian. M1155 Valentinian. Barbaric invasions. M1156 Valens. M1157 Gothic invasion. Death of Valens. Ravages of the Goths. M1158 Theodosius. M1159 Successes over the Goths. M1160 Uphilas. M1161 Gratian. Valentinian II. M1162 Ambrose. Penance of Theodosius. M1163 Theodosius defends the church. M1164 Death of Theodosius. Arcadius and Honorius. M1165 Final division of the empire. M1166 Alaric. Defeat of the Goths. Stilicho. M1167 Successive barbaric irruptions. Loss of Gaul to the empire. M1168 Alaric advances to Rome. M1169 Siege of Rome. Heavy tribute imposed on Rome. Alaric master-general. M1170 Sack of Rome. M1171 Evacuation of Rome. M1172 Death of Alaric. M1173 Kingdom of the Franks. Discords between Boniface and Aetius. M1174 The Vandals. M1175 The Vandals in Africa. M1176 Fall of Carthage. M1177 Vandals in Italy. Sack of Rome by the Vandals. M1178 The fall of Rome. M1179 The Huns. M1180 Battle of Chalons. M1181 Attila in Italy. M1182 Retreat of the Huns. The last emperors. M1183 Odoacer. Theodoric. M1184 Gothic kingdom of Italy. Division of the empire among barbarians. M1185 Reflections on the fall of the empire.

THE END