Clericis laicos, papal bull, 304.

Clive, 531 f.

Clovis, conquests of, 35 f.; conversion of, 35; number of soldiers of, baptized, 39.

Cnut, king of England, 134.

Coal, use of, 676.

Code Napolon, 607 f.

Coinage, French king's control of, 131.

Colbert, reforms of, 499 f.

Colet, 426 f.

Coligny, 455 f.

Cologne, 12, 248; elector of, 372.

Coloni, condition of, 15 f.

Colonies, European, 527 ff., 684; Roman, 12; French, in North America, 527 f.; Spanish, 684 f.

Columban, St., 65.

Columban St., Life of, 65, note.

Columbus, 350.

Comitatus, 105 f.

Comites, 67.

Commendation, 105 and note.

Commerce, development of, 199 f., 243 f.; restrictions on, 245 f.; in Italy, 243, 322 f.; in France and England, 302.

Commercial war between Holland and England, 488.

Committee of Public Safety, 585, 587 f.

Common law, English, 142.

Commons, House of, 147. See Parliament.

Commons, summoned to the French Estates General, 131; the English, 147.

Commonwealth, England a, 487.

Commune, Paris, 586; insurrection of, 1871, 664.

Communes, establishment of, in France in 1789, 566.

Communes, origin of, 239 f.

Communication, modern means of, 678 f., 684.

Communion under both kinds, 432 and note.

Compass, invention of, 352.

Compendiums, reliance upon, in later Roman Empire, 17; inherited by Middle Ages, 18.

Compurgation, 41.

Concordat, between Francis I and Pope Leo X, 366, note; of 1801, 607.

Cond, 472.

Condottieri, Italian mercenary troops, 326 f.

Confederation of the Rhine, 612 f.

Confession, 212, note.

Confession of Augsburg, 417 f.

Confirmation, sacrament of, 211.

Congregational church, 483.

Congress of Berlin, 670.

Congress of Vienna, 625 ff.

Conrad II, Emperor, 153.

Conrad III, Emperor, 173, note, 197.

Consolation of Philosophy, The, of Boethius, 19, 134.

Constance, heiress of Naples and Sicily, marries Emperor Henry VI, 180.

Constance, Peace of (1183), 179; Council of (1414), 314.

Constantine, 21 f.

Constantine VI, 84.

Constantinople, 22 f.; threatened by Turks, 188; taken by the Turks, 23, 517; Bishop of, put on an equal footing with the Bishop of Rome, 51; during First Crusade, 191; culture of, affects the West, 336 f.; desire of Russia for, 668.

Constitution, first French, 576; of the year VIII, 599; veneration for a, in Italy, 637.

Constitutional government, desire for, in France, 563; demand for, in Prussia, 632; granted in southern Germany, 635; in Piedmont, 651.

Consul, title of Bonaparte, 600, 608.

Continental blockade, 615 f.

Continental system, the, 616.

Continuity of history, 4.

Conventicle Act, 492.

Convention, French, 582 ff.; close of, 590 f.

Conversion of the Germans, 56 ff.; of the Saxons, 80.

Copernicus (Kopernik), astronomical discoveries of, 351 f.

Copyists, carelessness of, 89 and note, 90.

Corbie, school at, 90.

Cordova, emir of, 83; brilliant civilization of caliphate of, 356.

Corn Laws, 681.

Corneille, 500.

Corsica added to France, 536, 592 f.

Cortez conquers Mexico, 351.

Council, general, 311 f.; of Clermont, 188; fourth Lateran, 184; of Pisa, 313; of Constance, 314 ff.; of Basel, 318 f.; of Ferrara-Florence, 319 f.; Luther recognizes fallibility of, 393.

Council of Blood, 448.

Council of State, French, 599.

Counter-reformation, 438, note.

Counties, sheriffs in the English, 137.

Counts, origin of, 67; position of, 102.

Counts of the march, 82, 86.

Coup d'tat, 598.

Court, lord's, 110 and note.

Court of High Commission, 482.

Covenant, National, 483 f.

Crcy, battle of, 284.

Crema destroyed by Frederick I, 178.

Crimean War, 668 f.

Cromwell, Oliver, 485 ff.; death of, 489 f.

Cromwell, Richard, 490.

Crusade, Albigensian, 223 f., 256.

Crusades, 23, 187 ff.; effects of, 199 f., 243, 347.

Culloden Moor, 527.

Culture, medival, 250 f.; general use of Latin, 250; Germanic languages, 251 f.; Romance languages, 251 f.; literature, romance, 254 f.; chivalry, 256 f.; ignorance of the past, 259; popular science, 260; art, 261 f.; education, the universities, 267 f.; Roman and canon law, 269; Aristotle, 271; scholasticism, 272.

Curia, papal, 204.

Customs duties, 246, 681.

Customs lines, interior, 539 f.

Customs union, German, 635.

Cyprian, 20.

Czar, see Tsar.

Dagobert, 38.

Damascus, seat of the caliphate, 70, 83, note.

Danegeld, 134.

Danes, 99, note; invade England, 133 f.; defeated by Alfred, 133.

Danish language, derivation of, 251.

Dante, 330 f.

Danton, 589.

Dantzig, 196, 248.

Dark age before Charlemagne, 87.

"Dark ages," meaning of, 6, 91.

Darnley, 459.

Dauphin, origin of title, 292, note.

Deacons, 19 f.

Declaration of Independence, American, 533.

Declaration of Rights, English, 494.

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 568 ff., 629.

Decretum of Gratian, 269.

Degrees, university, explained, 270, note.

Deist, 550.

Departments in France, 538, 567 f.

Desaix, 601 f.

Dessau, League of, 415.

Dialogues of Gregory the Great, 54.

Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope, 348.

Dictatus of Gregory VII., 164.

Diet, German, attempts to reform government, 375.

Directory, French, 591, 593, 597 f., 601.

Discoveries in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 347 f.; modern scientific, 671 ff.

Dispensations, papal, 203.

Dissenters, 491.

Divine Comedy of Dante, 330.

Divine right of kings, 476 f., 496 ff.

Doge of Venice, 324.

Domain, 121.

Domesday Book, 138.

Dominican order organized, 230.

Donauwrth, 466.

Drake, Sir Francis, 461.

Dresden, battle of, 623.

Dukes, origin of, 67.

Dumouriez, 582, 584.

Dunkirk, 489, 588.

Dupleix, 531.

Drer, Albrecht, 346.

Dutch, commerce of, 448. See also Holland.

Dutch language, derivation of, 251.

East Frankish kingdom, 94, 98.

East Goths, 28 f., 30, 33.

East India Company, English, 530; French, 530.

Eastern Church, see Greek Church.

Eastern Empire, 22; civilization of, in Middle Ages, 23.

Eastern question, origin of, 535, 667 ff.

Ecclesiastical states, origin of, 156, note; in Germany, disappearance of, 603 f.

Eck, 392 f., 398, 418.

Economists, French, 552 f.

Edessa, Latin principality of, established, 193; fall of, 196.

Edict of Nantes, 542.

Edict of Restitution, 468, 473.

Edict of Worms, 403 f., 415.

Education, clerical monopoly of, 213 f.; medival, 267; humanistic, 335; compulsory, 683.

Edward the Confessor, 134, 136 f.

Edward I of England, 147, 278 f.

Edward II, 280; forced to abdicate, 281.

Edward III, claims French crown, 283 f., 286 f.

Edward IV, 296.

Edward V, 297.

Edward VI, 434 f.

Egbert, king of Wessex, 133.

Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, 597 f.; English occupation of, 685.

Eisenach, Luther at, 405.

Elba, 624.

Elders, 19, 426, note.

Elders, Council of, 590, 599.

Electors in empire, 372, 524, note.

Elizabeth, queen of England, 430, 451, 458 ff., 476.

Embargo acts of the United States, 615 f.

Emigrant nobles, 575, 577, 579; permitted to return, 607.

migrs, see Emigrant nobles.

Emirate of Cordova, 83, note.

"Emperor Elect," 152, note.

Emperor, Roman, his will law, 10; worship of, 10.

Emperor, title of, held by Italian kings, 151; assumed by Otto the Great, 151; assumed by Napoleon, 608; assumed by Austrian ruler, 612.

Empire, restablishment of, in the West, 84; divisions of, 92 f., 96; relations with papacy, 151 f.; under Hohenstaufens, 173, 185; under Hapsburgs, 355. See Holy Roman Empire.

Empire, Roman, character and organization of, 8 ff.

Engine, steam, 675 f.

England, early culture in, 64; becomes a part of the Catholic Church, 64; claims of kings of, to France, 130; importance of, in history of Europe, 133; on the accession of William the Conqueror, 135; feudalism in, 135; Norman conquest of, 136 ff.; made tributary to pope by John, 183; commerce of, 244 f., 351, 460 f.; conquers Wales, 278; relations of, with Scotland, 279 f.; union of, with Scotland, 280; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff., 301 f.; labor problem of, and Peasants' War, 288 ff.; Wars of the Roses, 296 f.; humanism in, 335, 363; Protestant revolt in, 426 ff.; struggle for constitutional government, 475 ff.; establishment of commonwealth, 487 ff.; restoration of the Stuarts, 490; revolution of 1688, 493; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 526; in the Seven Years' War, 520 f.; expansion of, 523 ff.; colonies of, in North America, 527 ff.; settlements of, in India, 529; colonial possessions of, at end of eighteenth century, 535; involved in war with France (1793), 583; renews war with Napoleon, 610; expansion of, in the nineteenth century, 685. See also Britain.

English language, 134, 147, 251, 253 f.

Epictetus, 18.

Equality before the law, 683.

Erasmus, 381 f.; attitude of, toward Luther, 394, 427.

Estates General, 131 f. and note, 285, 298 f., 305, 475, 496 f.; demanded by the parlement of Paris, 560; summoning of, 561; meeting of (1789), 562 f.

Esthonia, 514.

Etruria, kingdom of, 620.

Eucharist, see Mass.

Eugene IV, Pope, 319.

Eugene of Savoy, 507.

Euric, king of West Goths, 26.

Europe after 1814, 625, 627 f.; contemporaneous, 671.

Excommunication, 213.

Exorcist, 20.

Fabliaux, medival, 256.

Far Eastern Question, 686.

Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of Charles V, 412, 444, 465, 517.

Ferdinand II, Emperor, 467.

Ferdinand of Aragon, 357, 363, 364.

Ferrara-Florence, Council of, 319 f.

Feudal dues, 110 f.; in France, 543; abolition of, 567.

Feudal hierarchy, no regular, 116.

Feudal registers, 112.

Feudalism, 104 ff.; origins of, 99 ff., 102 f., 104 f.; anarchy of, 116 f.; in England, 135; connection of, with chivalry, 257.

Fief, hereditary character of, 106 ff.; conditions upon which granted, 110 and note; classes of, 110, 111 f., 115.

Five Hundred, Council of, 590, 599.

Flanders, 94, 123 f., 244; weavers from, in England, 139; relations of, with England, 283 f.; under dukes of Burgundy, 300; art of, 346.

"Flayers," 298.

Florence, 321, 325, 327 ff., 342; under Savonarola, 361 f.

Fontenay, battle of, 93.

Foot soldiers, English, defeat French knights at Crcy, 284; at Poitiers, 285; at Agincourt, 292.

Forest cantons, 421.

France, origin of, 94, 95 f., 121; position of early kings of, 121 f., 125; under Philip Augustus, 130; genealogical table of the kings of, 282, note; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 288, 291 ff.; standing army of, established, 298; condition under Louis XI, 299 ff.; influence of Italian culture, 335, 363; Protestantism in, 451 ff.; wars of religion, 451 ff.; limits of, in 1659, 501 f.; ascendency of, under Louis XIV, 495 ff.; absolute monarchy in, 545; reforms of Colbert, 499 f.; condition of, at end of the reign of Louis XIV, 508; joins in War of Austrian Succession, 518; alliance with the Hapsburgs, 520; possessions in North America, 527 f.; in India, 529 ff.; losses of, at close of Seven Years' War, 532; aids the United States, 534; in the eighteenth century, 535 f., 537 ff.; first Revolution, cause of, 545, 563; course of, 558 ff.; First Republic, 581 ff.; Reign of Terror, 585 ff.; constitution of the year III, 590 f.; reforms of Bonaparte, 599, 606, 616; restoration of the Bourbons, 629 f.; revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; Third Republic, 664 f.

Franche-Comt, 300, 366, 471; ceded to France, 502 f. See Burgundy, county of.

Francis I, Emperor, 519.

Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, 612.

Francis I of France, 365, 415, 417, 425; wars with Emperor Charles V, 366; persecutes the Protestants, 452.

Francis II of France, 452 f.

Francis Joseph I, accession of, 650.

Francis of Assisi, 226 ff.

Franciscan order founded, 228.

Franconian line of emperors, 153.

Franco-Prussian War, 662 f.

Frankfurt, National Assembly at, 646, 651 f.

Franks, conquests of, 30, 34; conversion of, 35; history of, 36 f.; alliance of, with popes, 73, 75 f. See also Charlemagne.

Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate, 466 f., 477.

Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 173, 197.

Frederick II, Emperor, 181 f., 198.

Frederick I of Prussia, 516.

Frederick II of Prussia, see Frederick the Great.

Frederick the Great, 516, 518 ff.

Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, collects relics, 377; patron of Luther, 389.

Frederick William III of Prussia, 613 f., 621 f.

Frederick William IV of Prussia, 652 f., 656, note.

Freedmen, condition of, 15.

Freedom of the Christian, by Luther, 397, note.

Freemen in competition with slaves in Roman Empire, 15.

Free towns, German. See Towns.

French Academy, 501.

French and Indian War, 530.

French language, 94, 251, 254, 260.

French Revolution, 4, 537 f.; opening of, 557, 558 ff.; second, 574, ff.

Frequens, decree, of Council of Constance, 318, note.

Friends, Society of, 491.

Frisia, 79.

Fritzlar, sacred oak of Odin at, 66.

Fust, John, printer of Psalter of 1459, 338, note.

Future life, pagan view of, 18; Christian view of, 19.

Galileo, 673.

Gall, St., Irish missionary, 65; monk of, 78 and note.

Garibaldi, 655, 667.

Gascony, 124.

Gaul, West Goths establish a kingdom in, 26; occupied by the Franks, 30, 35; church in, reformed and brought under the papal supremacy, 66.

Gelasius, Pope, his opinion of the relation of the Church and the civil government, 47.

Geneva, Calvin at, 425 f.

Genghiz Khan, 510.

Genoa, 174, 194, 198; commerce of, 243, 347; given to Sardinia, 626.

Geoffrey, son of Henry II, 126 f. and note.

George I of England, 524.

George II of England, 526.

George III, 533.

German Confederation of 1815, 632 f.; dissolution of, 660.

German empire, Proclamation of the, 665.

German kings, difficulties of, caused by the imperial title, 85; vain attempt of, to control Italy, 85.

German kingship, 148, 152 f.

German language, 94 f. and note, 251; reduced to writing, 252 f., 258 f.; books published in the, 250, note; in Luther's time, 405 f.

Germans, infiltration of, into Roman Empire, 8, 12, 16 f.; objects of, in invading the Empire, 25; number of invading, 39; fusion of, with the Romans, 39; character of early, 42; conversion of, 56 ff.

Germany, 79, 95 f.; foundation of towns in northern, 81; assigned to Louis the German, 92 f., 94; history of, contrasted with that of France, 148; under the same ruler as Italy, 151 f.; confusion in, under Henry VI, 182; want of unity in, 185, 355; culture in, 335, 363; before Protestant revolt: complexity, organization, the electors, the knights, the cities, neighborhood war, the diet, reorganization in fifteenth century, social and intellectual conditions, 371 f.; during the Protestant revolt, 405 ff.; progress of Protestantism in, 418 ff.; religious division of, 412, 415 ff.; after the Thirty Years' War, 473 f.; territorial reorganization of, in 1803, 604; condition of, in 1814, 626; effects of Napoleonic era in, 631 f.; in 1848, 646; unification of, 656 ff., 665.

Ghent, 123; commerce of, 245, 248.

Ghibelline party, 179, note.

Ghiberti, 342.

Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, 325.

Gibbon, 73, 76.

Gibraltar, 507, 532; siege of, 534.

Giotto, 341 f.

Girondists, 585 f., 587.

Glass, stained, 264.

Godfrey of Bouillon, 191 f., 193.

Golden Bull sanctions neighborhood war, 117.

Good Hope, Cape of, rounded by Diaz (1486), 348; ceded to England, 685.

Gothic language, Bible translated into, 252.

Gothic type, 339.

Government, difficulty of, in the Middle Ages, 67, 85, 98; effect of feudalism on, 108 f.; natural, 120; modern character of, 682 f.

Grail, legend of Holy, 258.

Granada, fall of, 83, 357.

Grand Alliance, 506.

Grand Remonstrance, 484.

Granson, 422.

Gratian, Decretum of, 269.

Gravitation, discovery of universal, 673.

Gray Friars, see Franciscans.

Great Charter of England, 144-146.

Great Elector of Prussia, 516.

Great Khan, 510.

Great Mogul, 529.

Great St. Bernard crossed by Bonaparte, 601.

Greece, creation of the kingdom of, 640, 668.

Greek books brought to Venice in 1423, 337.

Greek Church, tends to separate from the Latin, 51; union of, with Western Church, 319.

Greek culture in the Roman Empire, 12.

Greek language, knowledge of, in Middle Ages, 64, 336; revived study of, in Italy, 320, 336 f.

Greek New Testament, 423.

Gregory of Tours, 33, 36.

Gregory the Great, 52 ff.; writings of, 54; missionary work of, 55, 61.

Gregory VI, Pope, 160.

Gregory VII, 52, note, 138, 162, 164 ff.; reform of, 161, 162 f.; conflict of, with Henry IV, 167 ff.; death of, 170.

Gregory XI, Pope, 310.

Gregory XII, Pope, 313, 315.

Grotius, 508.

Guelf party, origin of, 179, 182.

Guienne, 130, 140, 283. See also Aquitaine.

Guilds, craft, 241 f., 500; abolition of, in France, 555.

Guillotine, 588 f. and notes.

Guise, Henry of, 456.

Guises, 454.

Gunpowder, invention of, 352.

Gustavus Adolphus, 468 ff.

Gustavus Vasa, 469.

Hades, 18.

Hadrian, tomb of, 54.

Hadrian IV, Pope, and Frederick I, 176 f.

Hadrian VI, Pope, 410-412.

Hague, peace conference at The, 686.

Hampden, John, 481.

Hanover, electorate of, 524, note.

Hanover, house of, 524; occupied by Napoleon, 610; relations of, with Prussia, 613 f.

Hanseatic League, 247 f.

Hanseatic towns annexed to France, 602.

Hapsburg, Rudolf of, king of Germany, 185.

Hapsburgs, rise of, 354 f., 421, 444 f., 471, 517 ff.

Harold, Earl of Wessex, 136 f.

Hastings, battle of, 136, note.

Hbert, 589.

Heilbronn, articles of, 414.

Hejira, the, 69.

Henrietta Maria, 478.

Henry II of England, possession of, 126, 140 ff.

Henry III of England, 146 f.

Henry IV of England, 291.

Henry V of England continues Hundred Years' War, 291 ff.

Henry VII of England, 296 f.

Henry VIII of England, 365, 367, 426 ff., 476.

Henry II of France, 452.

Henry III of France, 456.

Henry IV of France, 457 f.

Henry I of Germany, 149 and note.

Henry III, Emperor, 153 f.; intervenes in papal matters, 160, 166.

Henry IV of Germany, 165 ff.; conflict of, with Gregory VII, 167 ff., 174.

Henry V, Emperor, 171.

Henry VI, Emperor, 180 f.

Henry of Navarre, see Henry IV of France.

Henry the Lion, 180.

Henry the Proud, 179.

Heresy, in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 220 f.; punishment of, 225; of Huss, 314 f., 403 and note.

Herzegovina, 669, 670 and note.

Hesse, Philip of, 409 f., 415, 419.

Hesse-Cassel, 628.

Hildebrand, see Gregory VII.

Hindustan, 348, 529 ff.

History, scope of, 1; continuity or unity of, 4; notions of, in the Middle Ages, 259 f.

Hohenstaufens, 173 f. See also Frederick I, Henry VI, Frederick II.

Hohenzollern family, 515. See also Brandenburg and Prussia.

Holbein, Hans, 346.

Holidays, number of, reduced in Germany, 412.

Holland, 449; war with England, 492; war with France, 492 f., 502 f.; colonies of, 527; becomes the Batavian republic, 604; Louis Bonaparte, king of, 613; annexed to France, 620; made a kingdom, 625, 632. See also United Netherlands.

Holy Land, commercial interests of Italian cities in, 198 f.

Holy League formed by Pope Julius II against France, 365.

Holy League, French, 456.

Holy Roman Empire, 85, 152 f., 473; consolidation of, in 1803, 603 f.; dissolution of, 612. See also Germany.

Homage, 109 and note; refusal of, 116 f.

Horace, idea of life entertained by, 45; Satires of, 333, note.

Hospitalers, 194 f.

House of Lords, abolition of, 487. See also Parliament.

Hrolf, 122 f.

Huguenots, 454 ff., 467; Charles I attempts to aid, 478 f.; position of, under Louis XIV, 504 f.

Humanists, Italian, 334 f.; German, 379 f.

Humanities, 334.

Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff.

Hungarians, 149; defeated by Otto the Great, 150.

Hungary, freed from the Turks, 518; during revolution of 1848, 646, 648 f.; dual union of, with Austria, 650.

Huns, 25, 27.

Huss, 309, 315 ff., 393.

Hussite wars, 317.

Hussites, 432, 465.

Hutten, Ulrich von, 385 f., 395 f., 399, 404, 410.

Iconoclastic controversy, 74. See Images.

Illuminations, 261 f.

Images, demolition of, in England, 433 f.; in the Netherlands, 447 f.

Immunities, 101.

Imperial title, 151 f. See also Emperor.

Indemnity, the French, 664.

Independents, 482 f. and note.

India, Portuguese seek a sea route to, 348; Europeans in, 528 ff.; during Seven Years' War, 530.

Indulgences attacked by Wycliffe, 308; explained, 390 f.; attitude of Luther toward, 390 ff., 412, 423.

Industrial revolution, 679 f.

Industry stimulated by commerce in Middle Ages, 244 f.

Infeudation, 106 f.; of other things than land, 115.

Innocent III, Pope, struggle of, with the Hohenstaufens, 181 f.; attempts to reform the Church, 223.

Inquisition established, 224, 231; in Spain, 358, 619; in the Netherlands, 445, 447.

Institutes of Christianity, Calvin's, 425 f.

Interdict, 183, 213.

International law, 507 f.

Invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, 98 f.

Invention, progress of, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 352 f.; modern, 674 ff.

Investiture, lay, 155 ff., 161; prohibition of, 163, 167; question of, settled at Worms, 171 f.

Invincible Armada, 463.

Ireland, 461 f., 487 f.

Irene, Empress, 84.

Irish monks in Britain, 62.

Iron industry, 352, 675 f.

Isabella, queen of Castile, 357.

Islam, 69.

Italian language, derivation of, 251; used by Dante in the Divine Comedy, 330; by Petrarch, 334.

Italy, during the barbarian invasions, 33; united to Charlemagne's empire, 85, 93, 96; German kings make vain attempt to control, 151 f.; towns of, under Frederick I, 174 f.; Hohenstaufens in, 180, 186; commerce of, 198 f., 243 f.; divisions of, in fourteenth century, 321 f.; culture of, during the Renaissance, 321, 339 ff.; invasion of, by Charles VIII, 360 f.; hold of Austria on, 507; Bonaparte's campaign in, 594; Napoleon, king of, 611; after 1815, 636 f., 638 f.; war of independence of, 645 f.; constitutions granted to various states of, 646; unification of, 654 ff.; formation of the present kingdom of, 655 f.

Ivan the Terrible, 511.

Jacobins, 578 f., 590.

Jacobites, 526 and note.

James I of England, 467; theory of kingship of, 475 ff.

James II, 493.

James VI of Scotland, 462. See also James I of England.

Jamestown, 528.

Jefferson, Thomas, opinion of the condition of France, 544.

Jena, battle of, 614.

Jerome, St., 51; advocate of the monastic life, 57.

Jerome Bonaparte, 614.

Jerusalem, 185, 188; Kingdom of, 192 ff., 197 f.

Jesuits, order of, 462, 465 f., 494.

Jewry, 246.

Jews, economic importance of, 246; persecution of, 246, 358.

Joan of Arc, 293 f.

John of England, 126 f., 144 ff.; vassal of pope, 183.

John, king of France, 285.

John Frederick of Saxony, 415, 418 f.

John XXIII, Pope, 313.

Jongleurs, 256.

Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 618.

Josephine, 607, 620.

Journal des Savants, 501.

Jousts, 118.

Jubilee at Rome (1300), 305.

Julius II, Pope, 344, 365.

Jury, origin of, 142.

Just price, doctrine of, 245.

Justification by faith, 388, 439.

Justinian 33; closes government schools, 267.

Kadijah, wife of Mohammed, 69.

Kappel, battle of, 425.

Kent, king of, converted, 61.

King, position of, in Middle Ages, 73, 102, 108, 120.

King of Rome, 620.

King of the Romans, 152, note.

Kneeling Parliament, 436.

Knighthood, 257 f.

Knights, summoned to the English Parliament, 147; in Germany, 407; revolt of, 409 f.; disappearance of, 604.

Knox, John, 459.

Koran, the, 69 f.

Kossuth, 650.

Labor, division of, 677.

Labor unions, 681 f.

Laborers, protection of, 681.

Lafayette, 534, 563, 570.

Laissez faire, 553, 681.

Lancaster, house of, in England, 291, 296; genealogical table of, 297, note.

Lancelot, description of, quoted, 258.

Landholding, in the Roman Empire, 104. See also Feudalism.

Lanfranc, 138.

Langton, Stephen, 183.

Langue d'oc, 254, note.

Langue d'ol, 254, note.

La Rochelle, 455, 457, 478.

La Salle, 528.

Latin Church tends to separate from the Greek, 51. See also Church.

Latin language, contrast of the written, with the spoken, 39, 252, note; knowledge of, preserved by the Church, 87 f.; general use of, in the Middle Ages, 95, 202, 250.

Latin literature, extinction of, 31. See also Humanists.

Laud, William, 481 f., 484.

La Vende, revolt of, 587.

Law, see Canon and Civil law.

Law of Free Monarchies, The, of James I, 477.

Law of Nature and Nations, by Pufendorf, 508.

Laws of the Barbarians, 40.

Lay investiture, see Investiture.

Lea, Henry C., description of Church, 214; account of mendicants, 230.

Lefvre, 452 f.

Legates, 162.

Legion of Honor, 617.

Legislative Assembly, 576, 579 f.

Legitimists, 664, note.

Legnano, battle of, 179.

Leipsic, disputation at, 392 f.; battle of, 623.

Leo the Great, 21, 51, 52.

Leo III, Emperor, forbids the veneration of images, 74.

Leo IX, Pope, reform begun by, 161 f.

Leo X (Medici), Pope, patron of art, 344, 365, 391, 410.

Leonardo da Vinci, 344 f.

Leopold II, 577.

Leopold of Hohenzollern, 662, note.

Letters of Obscure Men, 380 f., and note.

Lettres de cachet, 546.

Leyden, siege of, 451, note.

Libraries, destruction of, 32; established in Italy, 337.

Ligurian republic, 610.

Lisbon, trade in spices, 348.

Lit de justice, 547.

Livonia, 514.

Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, 278.

Logic, esteem for, in the Middle Ages, 268, 271; decline of, 334 f.

Lombard cities, 170 f., 174 ff.

Lombard League, 178.

Lombard, Peter, Sentences of, 210, 396 f.

Lombards as bankers, 246.

Lombards, History of the, by Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Lombards in Italy, 33, 34, 65, 74 f.; conquered by Charlemagne, 81.

London, 248, 290.

Long Parliament, 484 ff.; dissolved by Cromwell, 488 f.; recalled, 490.

Lord, medival, position of, 99 f.; meaning of term, 106.

Lord Protector, Cromwell, 489.

Lord's Supper, Zwingli's conception of, 425. See also Mass.

Lorraine, 94, 300, 472; added to France, 536; portion of, ceded to Germany, 663 and note.

Lorsch, Chronicles of, passage from, 84.

Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, 93.

Lotharii regnum, 94.

Louis the Fat of France, 125.

Louis the German, 92, 93, 95.

Louis the Pious, 92.

Louis IX (Saint), 130 f., 198.

Louis XI of France, 299 f.

Louis XII of France, 364 f.

Louis XIII of France, 458.

Louis XIV, 472, 489, 492, 495 ff.; idea of position of, 496 f.; court of, 498; wars of, 501 ff.; condition of France at end of reign of, 508.

Louis XV, 508, 553.

Louis XVI, position of, 545, 553 f.; removes to Paris, 570; flight of, to Varennes, 575 f.; imprisonment of, 581; trial and execution of, 583.

Louis XVII, 625, note.

Louis XVIII, 625; policy of, 629 f.

Louis Philippe, 630, 642 f.

Louisiana, 534, 602.

Low Church party, 482.

Loyola, Ignatius, 440 ff.

Lbeck, 244, 248.

Lucien Bonaparte, 599.

Luther, Martin, 387 ff.; burns the canon law, 368, 399; early life and education of, 387; enters monastery, 387; justification by faith, 388; called to Wittenberg, visits Rome, 389; teaches biblical theology, 389; the theses of, 390; warfare against indulgences, 390; debate with Eck at Leipsic, 392; relations with humanists, 393; with Ulrich von Hutten, 395; Address to the German Nobility of, 396; Babylonian Captivity of the Church of, 397; excommunicated, 398; at diet of Worms, 401; outlawed by the emperor, 403 and note; translates the Bible, 405; view of reform of, 407 ff.; rash talk of, about princes, 413; attacks the peasants, 414, 416.

Ltzen, battle of, 470.

Luxembourg, 300, 662.

Lyons revolts against the Convention, 587, 589.

Machiavelli, The Prince of, 327, 362.

Machinery, introduction of, 675 ff.

Madras, 529.

Magdeburg, 469.

Magellan circumnavigates the globe, 351.

Magyars, see Hungarians.

Major Domus, see Mayors of the Palace.

Malory, the Mort d'Arthur of, 255, note.

Malta, 195.

Mandeville, Sir John, referred to, 261, note.

Manor, 100, 234 f.; court of the, 236.

Mantua, 471.

Manufacture, increase of, in thirteenth century, 200; modern, 675.

Manuscripts, 337 f.

Marches, establishment of, 82.

Marco Polo, 347.

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations of, 18.

Marengo, battle of, 601.

Margaret, queen of Navarre, 452.

Margraves, origin of, 82, 86, 102.

Maria Louisa, 620.

Maria Theresa, 518 ff.

Marie Antoinette, 554, 570, 589.

Marlborough, 506.

Marquette, 528.

Marquises, 86.

Marriage, of the clergy, 154, 157 and note, 161, 163, 418; sacrament of, 211.

Marseilles, revolt of, 587.

Marston Moor, battle of, 486.

Mary of Burgundy, 301.

Mary of Modena, 493.

Mary, queen of England, 435 f.

Mary Queen of Scots, see Mary Stuart.

Mary Stuart, 454, 459 ff.

Mass, the, 211 f., 407, 409, 432.

Matilda, 126, 140.

Maurice of Saxony, 418 f.

Maximilian I, Emperor, 356, 358 f., 363, 365.

Maximilian of Bavaria, 466, 467.

Mayence, 66, 78; elector of, 372, 378; printing at, 338.

Mayflower, 483.

Mayors of the Palace, 38.

Mazarin, 495.

Mazzini, 639, 648.

Mecca, 68, 69, 70.

Medici, 328 f., 361, 366; Lorenzo de', 328, 344; library of the, 337.

Medicine, modern advance in, 674.

Medina, 69.

Melanchthon, 417.

Mendicant orders, 225 f.

Merovingian documents, carelessness of, 87.

Merovingian kings, 38, 72.

Mersen, Treaty of, 95 f.

Metric system, 591.

Metternich, 634; overthrow of, 644 f.

Metz, 452, 473, 663.

Mexican expedition, 662.

Mexico, 351, 358.

Michael Angelo, 342, 344 f.

Microscope, development of, 674.

Middle Ages, meaning of term, 5 f.; character of, 42 f.

Middle kingdom of Lothaire, 94 f.

Milan, Edict of, 21; married clergy in, 163; destruction of, by Frederick I, 176 f.; despots of, 324 f.; claimed by France, 364 f.; claimed by Charles V, 366, 417.

Miles Coverdale, 431.

Military service, feudal, 110.

Miniature, derivation of word, 262.

Minnesingers, 258.

Minor orders of the clergy, 20.

Minorca, 507.

Mirabeau, 564.

Miracles, frequency of, in Middle Ages, 46 f.

Missi dominici, 86, 102.

Missions, greatly increase the power of the pope, 66; of the Jesuits, 442.

Model Parliament, 147.

Modern languages, origin of, 40, 250 ff.

Mohammed, 68 f.

Mohammedan conquests, see Arabic conquests.

Mohammedan invasion of Italy, 150.

Mohammedanism, 69 f.

Mohammedans, 68 ff., 88; gradual expulsion of, from Spain, 83, 356 f.; commerce of, 199, 243.

Molire, 500.

Moluccas, 347, 348.

Monasteries, breaking up of, in Germany, 407 f.; in England, 432 f.

Monasticism, attraction of, for many different classes, 56 f.

Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 98; use of, 236, 247.

Mongol emperors of India, 529 and note.

Mongols, 510.

Moniteur, 578.

Monk, George, 490.

Monk of St. Gall, 78 and note.

Monks, 46; origin and distinguished services of, 56 f., 219.

Monte Cassino, founding of, 57.

Montesquieu, 552.

Moors, in Spain, 357 f.; expulsion of, 464.

Moravians, 149.

More, Sir Thomas, 427, 432.

Morgarten, battle of, 421.

Mort d' Arthur, Malory's, 255, note.

Moscow, 512, 514; princes of, 510 f.; Napoleon at, 621.

Mosque, 70.

Mountain party, 585 f.

Mnster, 472.

Murat, king of Naples, 618.

Murten, battle of, 422.

Nantes, Edict of, granting of, 457; revocation of, 504 f.

Nantes, massacre at, 589.

Naples, kingdom of, 180, 360, note, 363 f., 613; revolution in, 635, 637 f.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 536, 574, 592 ff.; idea of, of a European empire, 609; Memoirs of, 624.

Napoleon II, 620.

Napoleon III, 644; intervenes in Italy, 654 f.; position of, after 1866, 662.

Naseby, battle of, 486.

National Assembly, first French, 564, 570; close of, 576 f.

National guard, 566.

National workshops, 643 f.

"Natural boundaries" of France, 501 f.

Natural laws, discovery of, 672 f.

Navigation Act, 488.

Necker, 556.

Nelson, 597 f., 615.

Netherlands, 295; come into Austrian hands, 301; revolt of, 445 ff.; Louis XIV claims, 502; Spanish, ceded to Austria, 507.

Neustria, 37 f.

New Testament, edition of, by Erasmus, 382.

New York, 492.

Newspapers, origin of French, 578; Napoleon's attitude toward, 608 f.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 673.

Nica, Council of, 21; during First Crusades, 188, 192.

Niccola of Pisa, 340.

Nicholas II, Pope, decree of, 162.

Nicholas V, 320, 337.

Niebelungs, Song of the, 253.

Nimwegen, Peace of, 503.

Nobility, origin of Frankish, 38; titles of, 86; character of feudal, 112, 234 f.; in France under Louis XI, 299 f.; established by Napoleon, 608, 617.

Nobles, privileges of, in France, 542 f.; emigration of French, 575.

Nogaret, 306.

Non-juring clergy, 572 f., 579.

Nrdlingen, battle of, 470.

Norman conquest of England, 136 ff.; results of, 138 f.

Normandy, 122 f., 127, 284, 292.

Normans, amalgamate with the English, 139, 146; in Sicily, 180, note. See also Northmen.

Norse literature, 99, note.

North German Federation, 660 f.

Northmen, treaty of Charles the Fat with, 96 f., 99 and note; in Russia, 510.

Northumbria, king of, 62.

Notables, meeting of, 558 f.

Novara, battle of, 650.

Novgorod, 248, 510.

Nuremberg, 373; diet of (1522), 410 f.

Odo, 96, 120 f.

Odoacer, 28.

Ordeal, 41, 142.

Ordination, sacrament of, 211.

Orient, European relations with, 199 f., 244.

Orleanists, 664, note.

Orleans, duke of, 292; Maid of, 294.

Ormond, 487.

Osnabrck, 472.

Ostrogoths, see East Goths.

Other-worldliness of medival Christianity, 45.

Othman, 517.

Otto I, the Great, of Germany, 149 ff.

Otto of Brunswick, 182.

Otto of Freising, 173, 197.

Overlord, 106, note.

Pagan idea of the life after death, 18, 45.

Paganism, merges into Christianity, 19; of Italian humanists, 335.

Painting, Italian, 340 f., 346; in northern Europe, 346.

Palace, school of the, 90.

Palatinate, electorate of, 372, 467; Louis XIV's operations in, 505.

Pallium, 203, 307.

Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, 648.

Papacy, origin of, 49 ff.; seat of, transferred to Avignon, 306 f., 308, 317. See also Pope.

Papal legates, 162.

Papal states, 75 f., 170, 320, 620, 639, 655, 667. See also Pope.

Papyrus, supply of, cut off, 87.

Paris, 37, 96; Treaty of (1763), 532; Peace of (1783), 534; importance in the Revolution, 570; commune of, 581, 589; insurrection of (June, 1848), 643; of 1871, 664.

Parish, administration of, 208 f.

Parlements, French, origin of, 130 f., 547 f., 559 f.

Parliament, English, 147, 281, 286, 289; after Wars of the Roses, 298, 308, 475; struggle of, with Charles I, 478 ff., 496.

Parma, duchess of, 447 f.

Parsifal, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Patrick, St., 62.

Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Peasants' War, in England, 309; in Germany, 407, 413 ff.

Peasants in France, condition of, before the French Revolution, 544 f.

Penance, sacrament of, 211 f.

Pepys, Diary of, 492.

Persecution, religious, 432, 436; of English Catholics, 462.

Peter Lombard, Sentences of, 268, 334, 425.

Peter, St., 49 f.

Peter the Great, 511 ff.; reforms of, 512.

Peter the Hermit, 190.

Petition of Right, 479.

Petrarch, 288, 332 ff.

Philip Augustus of France, 125 ff., 130, 183, 197, 246.

Philip the Fair, of France, 131, 196, 280; struggle of, with Boniface VIII, 304 f.

Philip VI of France, 283.

Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 293, 295, 300.

Philip II of Spain, 436, 444 ff.; reign of, 463 f.

Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, 506.

Picts, 279.

Piedmont, reforms in, 654.

Piers Ploughman, 290.

Pilgrim Fathers, 483.

Pillnitz, Declaration of, 577 f.

Pins, illustration of the manufacture of, 677.

Pippin of Heristal, 38.

Pippin the Short, 72 f., 75 f.

Pisa, Council of, 313.

Pitt, the elder, 530.

Pius IX, 639, 648.

Plantagenets, 125 ff., 140 ff.

Plassey, battle of, 531 f.

Plebiscite, 600, 644.

Poitiers, battle of, 285.

Poland, 153, 514; first partition of, 521, 583 f.; Napoleon's campaign in, 614; dispute over, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Pomerania, 473.

Pondicherry, 530.

Pope, 52; origin of name of, 52, note; 54 f., 66; alliance of, with Franks, 72 f., 75 f.; opposition to iconoclasm, 74, 85; relations of, with Otto the Great, 151 f.; position of, in tenth and early eleventh centuries, 161; election of, 162; powers of, claimed for by Gregory VII, 164 f.; position of, in the Church, 202 ff.; during the Great Schism, 310 ff.; attitude of, toward councils, 438; attitude of, toward Italian unity, 639, 647; position of, since 1870, 667.

Popular sovereignty defended by Rousseau, 552.

Port Mahon, 532.

Portuguese, explorations by, 347 f.; colonies of, 348, 527, 685.

Praise of Folly, by Erasmus, 383, 427.

Prayer-book, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Preaching Friars, 231.

Prefects, French, 599.

Presbyterian Church, 425 f., 459, 482 f.

Presbyters, 19 f., 426, note.

Press, censorship of, in the eighteenth century, 549.

Pressburg, Treaty of, 611.

Pride's Purge, 486.

Priest, 20; duties of, 208 f.

Prime minister, 526.

Prince Charlie, 527.

Prince of Wales, origin of title of, 278.

Printing, invention of, 337 f.; modern methods of, 678.

Privileges in France, 540; abolition of, 567.

Protestant, origin of term, 416 f.

Protestant revolt, conditions explaining, 377; course of, in Germany, 405 ff.

Protestant union of German princes, 415, 466.

Protestantism, in Germany, 418 ff.; in Switzerland, 423 ff.; in England, 430-435; in the Netherlands, 447 ff.; in France, 451 ff.

"Protests" of the French parlements, 547.

Provenal language, 254; troubadours' songs in, 256.

Provisors, statute of, in England, 308.

Prussia, 474, 515 ff., 544; war of, with France, 581, 583 f., 593, 613 f.; reforms of Stein and Hardenberg, 622 f.; after 1815, 626 f., 631; in 1848, 646; strengthening of army of, 656 f.; war with Austria (1866), 660; war with France (1870), 662 f.; predominating influence of, in the German empire, 666.

Prussians conquered by the Teutonic knights, 196.

Ptolemy's estimate of size of the world, 350.

Pufendorf, 508.

Purgatory, 212.

Puritans, 482, 483 and note, 491.

Quakers, 491.

Quebec, 528, 530.

Racine, 500.

Railroads, development of, 678 f.

Rajah, 529.

Raphael, 344 f.

Ravenna, interior of a church at, 29.

Reaction, after Napoleon's downfall, 628; in Germany, 634 f.

Reason, worship of, 589.

Reform Act, English, 682, note.

Regalia, 177.

Regensburg, formation of Catholic party at, 412.

Regular clergy defined, 59.

Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 603.

Reign of Terror, 537, 573, 588 ff.; customs of, abolished, 607.

Relics, German collections of, 377 f.

Relief, 108, note.

Religious equality, 683.

Rembrandt, 346.

Renaissance, 321, 329 f.

Republic, the "red," in France, 643.

Republican calendar, 591.

Republican party in France, origin of, 576.

Restoration in England, 490.

Reuchlin, 380.

Revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; results of, 653.

Revolutionary Tribunal, 588.

Reynard the Fox, 256.

Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, 603.

Rhine, the Confederation of the, 612 f.

Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, 126 f., 144, 197 f.

Richard II of England, 291, 315.

Richard III of England, 297.

Richelieu, 458, 467, 495; intervenes in the Thirty Years' War, 471 f.

Rights of Man, Declaration of, 568 ff.

Rising in the north of England, 460.

Roads, 12; poor, in the Middle Ages, 98, 242.

Robbia, Luca della, 343.

Robert Guiscard in Naples and Sicily, 180, note.

Robespierre, 589, f.

Rois fainants, 38.

Roland, Song of, 83, note, 255.

Rollo, 122 f.

Roman Church, the mother church, 49 f.

Roman Empire, 8 ff.; reasons for decline of, 12 ff.; religious revival in, 18; "fall" of, in the West, 27; relations of, with Church, 47; continuity of, 84 f.

Roman law, 11; retained by Theodoric, 29; supplanted by German customs, 40; study of, revived, 177, 269.

Romana lingua, see French language.

Romance languages, derivation of, 251 f.

Romances, medival, 254 f.

Rome, city of, 26, 53, 305, 310; ascendency of, in art, 344; sack of, 417, note; made a republic, 648; added to the kingdom of Italy, 667.

Romulus Augustulus, 28.

Roncaglia, Frederick I holds two assemblies at, 176 f.

Roncesvalles, Pass of, 83, note.

Rossbach, battle of, 520.

"Rotten boroughs," 682, note.

Roumania, 669 f.

Roumelia, Eastern, 670, note.

Roundheads, 485.

Round Table, Knights of the, 255.

Rous, 510.

Rousillon, 471 f.

Rousseau, 551.

Royal library of France, 501.

Rubens, 346.

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 355.

Rule of St. Benedict, 57 f.

Rump Parliament, 487 f.

Rurik, 510.

Russia, 509 ff.; relations of, with Napoleon, 614, 620 f.; Crimean War of, 668 f.; recent expansion of, 686.

Sacraments, 210 f.; attacked by Luther, 397 f.; confirmed by the Council of Trent, 439.

Sacrosancta, decree, 317.

Sagas, 99, note.

St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 455 f.

St. Bernard, 197, 219, 268.

St. Dominic, 229 f.

St. Francis of Assisi, 225 ff., 342.

St. Mark's church at Venice, 323.

St. Meinrad, 423.

St. Omer, terms of charter of, 240.

St. Peter's Church at Rome, 344.

St. Petersburg, founding of, 512 f.

Saint-Simon, 500.

Saladin takes Jerusalem, 197.

Salamander, medival account of, quoted, 260.

Salisbury, oath of, 137 f.

Salt tax, French, 540.

Saracens, see Mohammedans.

Saratoga, battle of, 534.

Sardinia, kingdom of, 628.

Satires of the sixteenth century, 406.

Savonarola, 361 f.

Savoy, France deprived of, 625.

Saxons, 27, 79 ff., 98; settle in England, 60; rebel against Henry IV, 166.

Saxony, 179 f.; electorate of, 372; question of, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Scandinavian kingdoms, 468 f.

Schism, the Great, 310 f., 314 f.

Schleswig-Holstein affair, 657 f.

Schoifher, Peter, 338, note.

Scholasticism, 272 f.

School of the palace, 90.

Schools established by Charlemagne, 88 f.

Science, medival, 260, 356; modern methods of, 678 ff.

Scotch people, 280 f.

Scotland, 135, 278 ff., 459; under the same ruler as England, 476; Charles I at war with, 483; union with England, 524; welcomes the Young Pretender, 526 f.

Sculpture, medival, 262, 265 f.; Renaissance, 340.

Secular clergy defined, 59.

Sedan, battle of, 663.

Seigneur, derivation of, 106, note.

Seneca, opinion on origin of practical arts, 14.

Senior, late Latin, 106, note.

Senlac, battle of, 136.

Sentences of Peter Lombard, 210, 425.

Sepoys, 531.

September massacres, 582.

Serfdom, 16, 234; disappearance of, in England, 290 f.; abolished in France, 567; in Prussia, 622.

Serfs, coloni resemble the, 16, 100; condition of, 234 ff., 414. See also Serfdom.

Servia, 668 ff.

Sevastopol, 669.

Seven Years' War, 519 f.; in India, 530 ff.

Svign, Madame de, 500, 505.

Sforza family, 327.

Shakespeare, 477 f.

Sheriffs appointed by William the Conqueror, 137.

Ship money, 481, 484.

Shires, 135 and note.

Sicily, 180, 182, 185, 360, note.

Sickingen, Franz von, 406 f., 409 f.

Sigismund, Emperor, 314 f.

Silesia, 518 f.

Simon de Montfort leads Albigensian crusade, 223.

Simon de Montfort, Parliament of, 146 f.

Simony, 158 f., 161, 218.

"Simple priests" of Wycliffe, 309.

"Six Articles," the, 431 f.

Slavery in Roman Empire, 13 ff.

Slavs, 82; on the borders of Germany, 150, 153; settlement of, in Europe, 509, 648 f.

Smith, Adam, 677.

Social Contract of Rousseau, 551.

Social Democrats, 643.

Sophia of Hanover, 524.

Sorbonne, 452.

South Bulgaria, 670, note.

Southampton granted a charter, 240.

Spain, 26, 70 f., 83, 346; maritime power of, 351; under Charles V, 354, 356 f., 445, 451, 455; decline of, 464; colonies of, 527; Napoleon attempts to control, 618 f., 623, 637; loses American colonies, 684 f.

"Spanish fury," 450.

Spanish language, derivation of, 251.

Spanish March, 83, 94.

Spanish Netherlands, see Netherlands.

Spanish Succession, War of the, 506 ff.

Spectacles, invention of, 352.

Speyer, Edict of (1526), 415 f.; protest of, 316 f. and note.

Spice trade, importance of, 348 f.

Stamp Act, 532.

Star Chamber, Court of, 484.

State, character of, in Middle Ages, 48, 165.

States of the Church, see Papal states.

Statutes of Laborers, 289.

Steam, application of, 675 f.

Steamboats, 678.

Steel, 676.

Steelyard, 248.

Stein, reforms of, 622, 631.

Stem duchies in Germany, 148 f.

Stephen, king of England, 140.

Stone of Scone, 280.

Strafford, 484.

Strand laws, 247.

Strasburg, 473; seized by Louis XIV, 504, 663 f.

Strasburg oaths, 94.

Stuart, house of, 475.

Students' associations in Germany, 633.

Subdeacon, 20.

Subinfeudation, 106 f.

Subtenant, 107.

Subvassals, 107 ff.

Suffrage, extension of, 682.

Sully, 457 f.

Sutri, the council of, 160.

Suzerain, 106 and note.

Sweden, 468 f., 473; under Charles XII, 513 f.

Swiss mercenaries, 423 and note.

Switzerland, origin of, 421 ff.; Protestant revolt in, 423 ff., 473, 605, 626.

Symbolism, medival, 261.

Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, 598.

Taille, 299, 540, 545 f., 556, 559.

Talleyrand, 626.

Tamerlane, 529, note.

Tancred, 180 f.

Tartars, 510.

Taxation, in Roman Empire, 13; papal, 204, 384; of church property, 304; without representation, 533; reform of, in France, 567.

Teachers, government, in Roman Empire, 12, 32.

Telescope, 67.

Templars, 195 f., 306.

Temporalities, 156.

"Tennis-Court" oath, 564.

Test Act 492; repeal of, 683.

Tetzel, 390.

Teutonic order, 195 f.; in Prussia, 515 f.

Theodoric, 28 ff.

Theodosian Code, provisions of, relating to the Church, 21.

Theodosius the Great, 22 f., 27.

Theology in University of Paris, 269.

Thermidor, 9th, 590, note.

Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 390 f.

Third estate, 543 ff.

Thirty-Nine Articles, the, 435.

Thirty Years' War, 465 ff.

Thomas Becket, 142 f.

Thomas Aquinas, 231, 272.

Three Henrys, War of the, 456.

Tilly, 469 f.

Tilsit, treaties of, 614.

Timur, 529, note.

Tithe, 81, 202.

Titian, 346.

Toleration, religious, in Germany, 415 ff., 419 f.; in France, 454 ff.; modern, 683.

Tolls in Middle Ages, 246 f.

Toul, 452, 473.

Toulouse, counts of, 124, 256.

Tourneys, 118.

Tours, battle of, 71 f.

Towns, representatives of, summoned to Parliament, 147; in Middle Ages, 174, 200, 232, 237 f., 248; German, 373, 375, 604; growth of the modern, 680.

Trade, medival, 238, 242 f.; restrictions on, abolished, 680.

Trafalgar, battle of, 615.

Transubstantiation, 213, 309, 425, 431.

Treasury of "good works," 378.

Trent, Council of, 437 ff.

Treves, 12; electorate of, 372.

Trial by jury, 142.

Trials, medival, 41, 140 ff.

Triple Alliance, 502 f.

Troubadours, 256.

Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 293.

Truce of God, 118.

Tsar, title of, 511, note.

Tudor, house of, 296 f.

Tuilleries, 581, 664.

Turenne, 472.

Turgot, 553, note, 554 f.

Turkey in Europe, 535; disruption of, 628, 667 ff.

Turks, 188, 190 f., 376, 514, 517.

Twelve Articles of the peasants, 413 f.

Ulfilas translates Bible into Gothic, 252.

Ulm, 374, 611.

Unction, sacrament of extreme, 211.

United Provinces, 450, 473.

Unity of the Church, by Cyprian, 20.

Unity of history, 4.

Universities, medival, 269 f., 333, 356; German, 380, 398.

Urban II, 188.

Usufruct, 105.

Usury, doctrine of, 245.

Utopia, by Sir Thomas More, 427.

Utrecht, Union of, 450; Treaty of, 507.

Valentinian III, decree of, 51.

Valois, house of, 455.

Van Dyck, 346.

Van Eyck brothers, 346.

Vandals, 26, 33.

Varennes, flight to, 575 f.

Vassals, origin of, 102 f., 106; obligations of, 110 f.

Vasco da Gama, 348.

Vassy, massacre of, 455.

Vatican library, 337.

Velasquez, 346.

Vende, La, revolt of, 587.

Venerable Bede, the, 56, 64.

Venetia given to Austria, 626; 655; ceded to Italy, 667.

Venice, founding of, 27; commerce of, 194, 198 f., 243 f., 347; government of, 321 f.; painting at, 346; war of, with League of Cambray, 364 f.; destruction of republic of, 595; in 1848, 648. See Venetia.

Verdun, 452, 473; Treaty of, 93; fall of, 582.

Versailles, 498.

Vespasiano, Italian bookseller, 337, note.

Veto, royal, in England, 524 and note.

Victor Emmanuel, 650, 654 f.

Vienna, siege of, by Turks, 517 f.; Congress of, 625 ff.; revolution of 1848 in, 645, 650.

Vikings, 99, note.

Villa, Roman, 14, 100.

Villehardouin, 260.

Visconti, 324 f., 364.

Visigoths, see West Goths.

Voltaire, 519, 549 ff.

Vulgate, 51, 439.

Wager of battle, 41.

Wagram, battle of, 619.

Waibling, castle of, 179, note.

Waldensians, 221 f., 452.

Waldo, Peter, 221.

Wales, 135, 277 f.

Wallenstein, 468 and note, 469 f.

Wallingford, charter of, 240.

Walpole, 526.

Walther von der Vogelweide, 258, 384.

War and Peace of Grotius, 508.

War, neighborhood, 117 ff.

War of the Barons, 146 f.

Warfare, modern, 684, 686.

Wars of the Roses, 296 ff.

Warsaw, grand duchy of, 614, 626.

Wartburg, 405; festival at the, 633.

Washington, George, 533 f.

Waterloo, battle of, 624.

Watt, James, 675.

Welf, 179.

Wellington, 623 f.

Wessex, 133.

West Frankish kingdom, 94. See also Franks.

West Goths, 25 f., 36, 39, 71.

Westphalia, kingdom of, 614, 623.

Westphalia, Peace of, 472 f.

Whitby, Council of, 62.

White Hill, battle on the, 467.

William the Conqueror, claim of, to English crown, 136; policy of, in England, 136 ff., 165.

William III of England, 492 ff., 505, 506, 523 f., 525.

William of Orange, king of England, see William III.

William of Orange (the Silent), 448 ff.

William I of Prussia, 656 f.; chosen emperor, 665.

"Winter king," 467.

Witenagemot, 135, 137, 147.

Wittenberg, University of, 389; reform at, 407 f.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Wolsey, Cardinal, 367, 427 ff.

Worms, council of, 167; Concordat of, 171; diet of, 400 f.; Edict of, 403 f., 415.

Writing, style of, used in Charlemagne's time, 89.

Wrtemberg, 372; duke of, assumes the title of King, 612; granted a constitution, 635.

Wycliffe, John, 308 f.; influence of, on Huss, 315, 393.

Xavier, 442.

"Yea and Nay," by Abelard, 268.

York, house of, 296, 297, note.

Young, Arthur, 544.

Young Italy, 639.

Young Pretender, 526 f.

Zealand, 449.

Zipangu (Japan), 347.

Zollverein, 635.

Zurich, 421 f., 424.

Zwingli, 416, 420, 423 ff.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] There is a short description of Roman society in Hodgkin, Dynasty of Theodosius, Chapter II.

[2] Reference, Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, Chapter II, "What the Middle Ages started with."

[3] There are a number of editions of this work in English, and selections from Epictetus are issued by several publishers. See Readings, Chapter II.

[4] There is an English translation of this published by Stock ($1.20).

[5] Whoever separates himself from the Church, writes Cyprian, is separated from the promises of the Church. "He is an alien, he is profane, he is an enemy, he can no longer have God for his father who has not the Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was outside the Ark of Noah, so also may he escape who shall be outside the bounds of the Church." See Readings in European History, Chapter II.

[6] Reference, Adams, Civilization, Chapter III, "The Addition of Christianity."

[7] See Readings in European History, Chapter II, for extracts from the Theodosian Code.

[8] An older town called Byzantium was utilized by Constantine as the basis of his new imperial city.

[9] St. Augustine, who was then living, gives us an idea of the impression that the capture of Rome made upon the minds of contemporaries, in an extraordinary work of his called The City of God. He undertakes to refute the argument of the pagans that the fall of the city was due to the anger of their old gods, who were believed to have withdrawn their protection on account of the insults heaped upon them by the Christians, who regarded them as demons. He points out that the gods whom neas had brought, according to tradition, from Troy had been unable to protect the city from its enemies and asks why any reliance should be placed upon them when transferred to Italian soil. His elaborate refutation of pagan objections shows us that heathen beliefs still had a strong hold upon an important part of the population and that the question of the truth or falsity of the pagan religion was still a living one in Italy.

[10] Reference, Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, Chapter III.

[11] Reference, Emerton, Introduction, Chapter V.

[12] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter I.

[13] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter II.

[14] See above, p. 19.

[15] See Readings, Chapter III (end), for historical writings of this period.

[16] For Justinian, who scarcely comes into our story, see Oman, Dark Ages, Chapters V-VI.

[17] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter IV.

[18] See Readings, Chapter III, for passages from Gregory of Tours.

[19] Reference, Emerton, Introduction, 68-72.

[20] Reference, Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XV.

[21] The northern Franks, who did not penetrate far into the Empire, and the Germans who remained in Germany proper and in Scandinavia, had of course no reason for giving up their native tongues; the Angles and Saxons in Britain also adhered to theirs. These Germanic languages in time became Dutch, English, German, Danish, Swedish, etc. Of this matter something will be said later. See below, 97.

[22] Extracts from the laws of the Salian Franks may be found in Henderson's Historical Documents, pp. 176-189.

[23] Professor Emerton gives an excellent account of the Germanic ideas of law in his Introduction, pp. 73-91; see also Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 19-21. For examples of the trials, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4. A philosophical account of the character of the Germans and of the effects of the invasions is given by Adams, Medival Civilization, Chapters IV-V.

[24] Tacitus' Germania, which is our chief source for the German customs, is to be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. VI, No. 3. For the habits of the invading Germans, see Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 1-11; Hodgkin, Dynasty of Theodosius, last half of Chapter II.

[25] See above, 7.

[26] For reports of miracles, see Readings, especially Chapters V and XVI.

[27] Matt. xvi. 18-19. Two other passages in the New Testament were held to substantiate the divinely ordained headship of Peter and his successors: Luke xxii. 32, where Christ says to Peter, "Stablish thy brethren," and John xxi. 15-17, where Jesus said to him, "Feed my sheep." See Readings, Chapter IV.

[28] The name pope (Latin, papa = father) was originally and quite naturally applied to all bishops, and even to priests. It began to be especially applied to the bishops of Rome perhaps as early as the sixth century, but was not apparently confined to them until two or three hundred years later. Gregory VII (d. 1085) was the first to declare explicitly that the title should be used only for the Bishop of Rome. We shall, however, hereafter refer to the Roman bishop as pope, although it must not be forgotten that his headship of the Western Church did not for some centuries imply the absolute power that he came later to exercise over all the other bishops of western Europe.

[29] The great circular tomb was later converted into the chief fortress of the popes and called, from the event just mentioned, the Castle of the Angel (San Angelo).

[30] For extracts from Gregory's writings, see Readings, Chapter IV.

[31] Benedict did not introduce monasticism in the West, as is sometimes supposed, nor did he even found an order in the proper sense of the word, under a single head, like the later Franciscans and Dominicans. Nevertheless, the monks who lived under his rule are ordinarily spoken of as belonging to the Benedictine order. A translation of the Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 274-314.

[32] Cunningham, Western Civilization, Vol. II, pp. 37-40, gives a brief account of the work of the monks.

[33] See Readings, Chapter V, for Gregory's instructions to his missionaries.

[34] See Readings, Chapter V.

[35] There is a Life of St. Columban, written by one of his companions, which, although short and simple in the extreme, furnishes a better idea of the Christian spirit of the sixth century than the longest treatise by a modern writer. This life may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 7, translated by Professor Munro.

[36] For extracts from the Koran, see Readings, Chapter VI.

[37] An admirable brief description of the culture of the Arabs and their contributions to European civilization will be found in Munro, Medival History, Chapter IX.

[38] One of the most conspicuous features of early Protestantism, eight hundred years later, was the revival of Leo's attack upon the statues and frescoes which continued to adorn the churches in Germany, England, and the Netherlands.

[39] Charlemagne is the French form for the Latin, Carolus Magnus, i.e., Charles the Great. It has been regarded as good English for so long that it seems best to retain it, although some writers, fearful lest one may think of Charles as a Frenchman instead of a German, use the German form, Karl.

[40] Professor Emerton (Introduction, pp. 183-185) gives an example of the style and spirit of the monk of St. Gall, who was formerly much relied upon for knowledge of Charlemagne.

[41] These decrees lose something of their harshness by the provision: "If after secretly committing any one of these mortal crimes any one shall flee of his own accord to the priest and, after confessing, shall wish to do penance, let him be freed, on the testimony of the priest, from death." This is but another illustration of the theory that the Church was in the Middle Ages a governmental institution. It would be quite out of harmony with modern ideas should the courts of law, in dealing with one who had committed a crime, consider in any way the relations of the suspected criminal to his priest or minister, or modify his sentence on account of any religious duties that the criminal might consent to perform.

[42] The king of Prussia still has, among other titles, that of Margrave of Brandenburg. The German word Mark is often used for "march" on maps of Germany.

[43] The Mohammedan state had broken up in the eighth century, and the ruler of Spain first assumed the title of emir (about 756) and later (929) that of caliph. The latter title had originally been enjoyed only by the head of the whole Arab empire, who had his capital at Damascus, and later at Bagdad.

[44] As Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, on his way back from Spain, his rear guard was attacked in the Pass of Roncesvalles. The chronicle simply states that Roland, Count of Brittany, was slain. This episode, however, became the subject of one of the most famous of the epics of the Middle Ages, the Song of Roland. See below, 99.

[45] Reference, for Charlemagne's conquests, Emerton, Introduction, Chapter XIII; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapters XX-XXI.

[46] See Readings, Chapter VII, and Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, Chapter V.

[47] See extracts from these regulations, and an account of one of Charlemagne's farms, in Readings, Chapter VII.

[48] For the capitulary relating to the duties of the missi, see Readings, Chapter VII.

[49] See above, p. 32.

[50] These lines are taken from a manuscript written in 825. They form a part of a copy of Charlemagne's admonition to the clergy (789) mentioned below. The part here given is addressed to the bishops and warns them of the terrible results of disobeying the rules of the Church. Perhaps the scribe did not fully understand what he was doing, for he has made some of those mistakes which Charlemagne was so anxious to avoid. Then there are some abbreviations which make the lines difficult to read. They ought probably to have run as follows: ... mereamini. Scit namque prudentia vestra, quam terribili anathematis censura feriuntur qui praesumptiose contra statuta universalium conciliorum venire audeant. Quapropter et vos diligentius ammonemus, ut omni intentione illud horribile execrationis judicium ...

[51] See Readings, Chapter VII.

[52] References for the reign of Louis the Pious, Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, Chapter VI; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XXIII.

[53] Named for Lothaire II.

[54] For the text and translation of the Strasburg oaths, see Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 26-27, or Munro, Medival History, p. 20. A person familiar with Latin and French could puzzle out a part of the oath in the lingua romana; that in the lingua teudisca would be almost equally intelligible to one familiar with German.

[55] The following table will show the relationship of the descendants of Charlemagne:

Charlemagne, d. 814 Louis the Pious, d. 840 - + Lothaire, d. 855 Louis the German, d. 876 Charles the Bald, d. 877 + -+ Carloman, d. 880 Charles the Fat (deposed 887) Louis the Stammerer, d. 879 + Arnulf, d. 899 Louis, d. 882 Carloman, d. 884 Charles the Simple, d. 929[56] Louis the Child, d. 911.



[56] Who was too young to be considered in 884, but afterwards became king of France and progenitor of the later Carolingian rulers.

[57] Reference, Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, Chapter VII; Oman, Dark Ages, Chapter XXV.

[58] Reference, Munro, Medival History, pp. 34-39. The Northmen extended their expeditions to Spain, Italy, and even into Russia. In England, under the name of Danes, we find them forcing Alfred the Great to recognize them as the masters of northern England (878). The Norse pirates were often called vikings, from their habit of leaving their long boats in the vik, i.e., bay or inlet. A goodly number of the Northmen settled in Iceland, and our knowledge of their civilization and customs comes chiefly from the Icelandic sagas, or tales. Some of these are of great interest and beauty; perhaps none is finer than The Story of Burnt Njal. This and others may be read in English. See Readings, Chapter VIII.

[59] An account of the manor will be given later, Chapter XVIII.

[60] See an example of an immunity granted by Charlemagne to a monastery, in Emerton, Introduction, pp. 246-249, also Munro, Medival History, p. 44. Other examples are given in the Readings, Chapter IX.

[61] Extracts from the chronicles of the ninth century illustrating the disorder of the period will be found in the Readings, Chapter VIII.

[62] See above, p. 16.

[63] See an example of this form of grant in the seventh century in Readings, Chapter IX. The reader will also find there a considerable number of illustrations of feudal contracts, etc.

[64] See formula of "commendation," as this arrangement was called, in Readings, Chapter IX. The fact that the Roman imperial government forbade this practice under heavy penalties suggests that the local magnates used their retainers to establish their independence of the imperial taxgatherers and other government officials.

[65] See Adams, Civilization, pp. 207 sqq.

[66] Lord is dominus, or senior, in medival Latin. From the latter word the French seigneur is derived. Suzerain is used to mean the direct lord and also an overlord separated by one or more degrees from a subvassal.

[67] A relic of the time when fiefs were just becoming hereditary was preserved in the exaction by the lord of a certain due, called the relief. This payment was demanded from the vassal when one lord died and a new one succeeded him, and from a new vassal upon the death of his predecessor. It was originally the payment for a new grant of the land at a time when fiefs were not generally held hereditarily. The right did not exist in the case of all fiefs and it varied greatly in amount. It was customarily much heavier when the one succeeding to the fief was not the son of the former holder but a nephew or more distant relative.

[68] Homage is derived from the Latin word for man, homo.

[69] The conditions upon which fiefs were granted might be dictated either by interest or by mere fancy. Sometimes the most fantastic and seemingly absurd obligations were imposed. We hear of vassals holding on condition of attending the lord at supper with a tall candle, or furnishing him with a great yule log at Christmas. Perhaps the most extraordinary instance upon record is that of a lord in Guienne who solemnly declared upon oath, when questioned by the commissioners of Edward I, that he held his fief of the king upon the following terms: When the lord king came through his estate he was to accompany him to a certain oak. There he must have waiting a cart loaded with wood and drawn by two cows without any tails. When the oak was reached, fire was to be applied to the cart and the whole burned up "unless mayhap the cows make their escape."

[70] The feudal courts, especially those of the great lords and of the king himself, were destined to develop later into the centers of real government, with regular judicial, financial, and administrative bodies for the performance of political functions.

[71] In the following description of the anarchy of feudalism, I merely condense Luchaire's admirable chapter on the subject in his Manuel des Institutions Franaises. The Readings, Chapters X, XII, XIII, XIV, furnish many examples of disorder.

[72] The gorgeous affairs of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were but weak and effeminate counterparts of the rude and hazardous encounters of the thirteenth.

[73] References, for the medival castle, the jousts, and the life of the nobles, Munro, Medival History, Chapter XIII, and Henderson, Short History of Germany, pp. 111-121.

[74] See the famous "Truce of God" issued by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1083, in Readings, Chapter IX.

[75] See genealogical table, above, p. 96.

[76] Reference, Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 405-420. Readings, Chapter X.

[77] Not to be confounded with the duchy of Burgundy just referred to. See p. 97, above.

[78] See genealogical table and map of the Plantagenet possessions, pp. 140-141, below.

[79] Henry's family owes its name, Plantagenet, to the habit that his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, had of wearing a bit of broom (planta genista) in his helmet on his crusading expeditions.

[80] Geoffrey, the eldest of the three sons of Henry II mentioned above, died before his father.

[81] The Estates General were so called to distinguish a general meeting of the representatives of the three estates of the realm from a merely local assembly of the provincial estates of Champagne, Provence, Brittany, Languedoc, etc. There are some vague indications that Philip had called in a few townspeople even earlier than 1302.

[82] For the French monarchy as organized in the thirteenth century, see Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 432-433; Adams, Civilization, pp. 311-328.

[83] In spite of the final supremacy of the West Saxons of Wessex, the whole land took its name from the more numerous Angles.

[84] References, Green, Short History of the English People (revised edition, Harper & Brothers), pp. 48-52; extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle may be found in Readings, Chapter XI.

[85] The shires go back at least as far as Alfred the Great, and many of their names indicate that they had some relation to the earlier little kingdoms, e.g., Sussex, Essex, Kent, Northumberland.

[86] See above, p. 62.

[87] Often called the battle of Hastings from the neighboring town of that name.

[88] For contemporaneous accounts of William's character and the relations of Normans and English, see Colby, Sources, pp. 33-36, 39-41; Readings, Ch. XI.

[89] Reference, for the Conqueror and his reign, Green, Short History, pp. 74-87, and Gardiner, Students' History, pp. 86-114.

[90]

William I (1066-1087), m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders - William II (Rufus) Henry I (1100-1135), Adela, m. Stephen, (1087-1100) m. Matilda, daughter of Count of Blois Malcolm, King of Scotland Matilda (d. 1167), Stephen (1135-1154) m. Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou Henry II (1154-1189), the first Plantagenet king



[91] See above, p. 126.

[92] References, Green, pp. 104-112; Gardiner, pp. 138-158. A contemporaneous account of the murder is given by Colby, Sources, pp. 56-59.

[93] See above, p. 126.

[94] For John's reign, see Green, pp. 122-127.

[95] The text of the Great Charter is given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 6; extracts, in the Readings, Chapter XI.

[96] These were payments made when the lord knighted his eldest son, gave his eldest daughter in marriage, or had been captured and was waiting to be ransomed.

[97] See map following p. 152 for the names and position of the several duchies.

[98] Arnulf, the grandson of Louis the German, who supplanted Charles the Fat, died in 899 and left a six-year-old son, Louis the Child (d. 911), who was the last of the house of Charlemagne to enjoy the German kingship. The aristocracy then chose Conrad I (d. 918), and, in 919, Henry I of Saxony, as king of the East Franks.

[99] See Readings, Chapter XII.

[100] See Emerton, Medival Europe, Chapter IV, for a clear account of the condition of the papacy, the struggles between the rival Italian dynasties, and the interference and coronation of Otto the Great.

[101] Henry II (1002-1024) and his successors, not venturing to assume the title of emperor till crowned at Rome, but anxious to claim the sovereignty of Rome as indissolubly attached to the German crown, began to call themselves before their coronation rex Romanorum, i.e., King of the Romans. This habit lasted until Luther's time, when Maximilian I got permission from the pope to call himself "Emperor Elect" before his coronation, and this title was thereafter taken by his successors immediately upon their election.

[102] For Otto II, Otto III, and Henry II, see Emerton, Medival Europe, Chapter V; and Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 145-166.

[103] These grants of the powers of a count to prelates serve to explain the ecclesiastical states,—for example, the archbishoprics of Mayence and Salzburg, the bishopric of Bamberg, and so forth,—which continue to appear upon the map of Germany until the opening of the nineteenth century.

[104] From the beginning, single life had appealed to some Christians as more worthy than the married state. Gradually, under the influence of monasticism, the more devout and enthusiastic clergy voluntarily shunned marriage, or, if already married, gave up association with their wives after ordination. Finally the Western Church condemned marriage altogether for the deacon and the ranks above him, and later the sub-deacons were included in the prohibition. The records are too incomplete for the historian to form an accurate idea of how far the prohibition of the Church was really observed throughout the countries of the West. There were certainly great numbers of married clergymen in northern Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Of course the Church refused to sanction the marriage of its officials and called the wife of a clergyman, however virtuous and faithful she might be, by the opprobrious name of "concubine."

[105] Pronounced sĭm'o-ny.

[106] Reference, Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 201-209.

[107] The word cardinal (Latin, cardinalis, principal) was applied to the priests of the various parishes in Rome, to the several deacons connected with the Lateran,—which was the cathedral church of the Roman bishopric,—and, lastly, to six or seven suburban bishops who officiated in turn in the Lateran. The title became a very distinguished one and was sought by ambitious prelates and ecclesiastical statesmen, like Wolsey, Richelieu, and Mazarin. If their official titles were examined, it would be found that each was nominally a cardinal bishop, priest, or deacon of some Roman church. The number of cardinals varied until fixed, in 1586, at six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons.

[108] The decree of 1059 is to be found in Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 361.

[109] For text of the Dictatus, see Readings, Chapter XIII. The most complete statement of Gregory's view of the responsibility of the papacy for the civil government is to be found in his famous letter to the Bishop of Metz (1081), Readings, Chapter XIII.

[110] For this letter, see Colby, Sources, p. 37.

[111] Reissues of this decree in 1078 and 1080 are given in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[112] To be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[113] Henry's letter and one from the German bishops to the pope are both in Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 372-376.

[114] Gregory's deposition and excommunication of Henry may be found in the Readings, Chapter XIII.

[115] For Gregory's own account of the affair at Canossa, see Readings, Chapter XIII.

[116] For a fuller account of the troubles between Gregory and Henry, see Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 183-210; Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 240-259.

[117] See Readings, Chapter XIII.

[118] For the emperors Lothaire (1125-1137) and Conrad III (1138-1152), the first of the Hohenstaufens, see Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 271-282.

[119] Something will be said of the medival towns in Chapter XVIII.

[120] Reference, Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 271-291.

[121] Reference, Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 293-297.

[122] The origin of the name Ghibelline, applied to the adherents of the emperor in Italy, is not known; it may be derived from Waibling, a castle of the Hohenstaufens.

[123] The attention of the adventurous Normans had been called to southern Italy early in the eleventh century by some of their people who, in their wanderings, had been stranded there and had found plenty of opportunities to fight under agreeable conditions for one or another of the local rival princes. From marauding mercenaries, they soon became the ruling race. They extended their conquests from the mainland to Sicily, and by 1140 they had united all southern Italy into a single kingdom. The popes had naturally taken a lively interest in the new and strong power upon the confines of their realms. They skillfully arranged to secure a certain hold upon the growing kingdom by inducing Robert Guiscard, the most famous of the Norman leaders, to recognize the pope as his feudal lord; in 1059 he became the vassal of Nicholas II.

[124] For John's cession of England and oath of vassalage, see Henderson, Historical Documents, pp. 430-432. For the interdict, see Colby, Sources, pp. 72-73.

[125] For the career and policy of Innocent III, see Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 314-343.

[126] An excellent account of Frederick's life is given by Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 349-397.

[127] For the speech of Urban, see Readings, Chapter XV.

[128] The privileges of the crusaders may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[129] For Peter the Hermit, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. I, No. 2.

[130] For the routes taken by the different crusading armies, see the accompanying map.

[131] For an account of the prowess of Richard the Lion-Hearted, see Colby, Sources, pp. 68-70.

[132] Heraldry may be definitely ascribed to the Crusades, for it grew up from the necessity of distinguishing the various groups of knights. Some of its terms, for example, gules (red) and azur, are of Arabic origin.

[133] References. For the highly developed civilization which the crusaders found in Constantinople, Munro, Medival History, Chapter X. For the culture of the Saracens, see the same work, Chapter IX.

[134] The law of the Church was known as the canon law. It was taught in most of the universities and practiced by a great number of lawyers. It was based upon the acts of the various church councils, from that of Nica down, and, above all, upon the decrees and decisions of the popes. See Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 582-592.

One may get some idea of the business of the ecclesiastical courts from the fact that the Church claimed the right to try all cases in which a clergyman was involved, or any one connected with the Church or under its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows, orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church, or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the church courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth.

[135] Many of the edicts, decisions, and orders of the popes were called bulls from the seal (Latin, bulla) attached to them.

[136] For an illustration of provinces and bishoprics, see accompanying map of France showing the ecclesiastical divisions. The seats of the archbishops are indicated by [Symbol]; those of the bishops by [Symbol].

[137] See below, 81.

[138] Except those monasteries and orders whose members were especially exempted by the pope from the jurisdiction of the bishops.

[139] Those clergymen who enjoyed the revenue from the endowed offices connected with a cathedral church were called canons. The office of canon was an honorable one and much sought after, partly because the duties were light and could often be avoided altogether. A scholar like Petrarch might look to such an office as a means of support without dreaming of performing any of the religious services which the position implied. For an account of the relations between the chapter and the bishop, see Emerton, Medival Europe, pp. 549-550.

[140] It should be remembered that only a part of the priests were intrusted with the care of souls in a parish. There were many priests among the wandering monks, of whom something will be said presently. See below, 91. There were also many chantry priests whose main function was saying masses for the dead in chapels and churches endowed with revenue or lands by those who in this way provided for the repose of their souls or those of their descendants. See below, p. 213.

[141] For several centuries the Sentences were used as the text-book in all the divinity schools. Theologians established their reputations by writing commentaries upon them. One of Luther's first acts of revolt was to protest against giving the study of the Sentences preference over that of the Bible in the universities.

[142] All the sacraments,—e.g. orders and matrimony,—are not necessary to every one. Moreover, the sincere wish suffices if one is so situated that he cannot possibly actually receive the sacraments.

[143] Confession was a very early practice in the Church. Innocent III and the fourth Lateran Council made it obligatory by requiring the faithful to confess at least once a year, at Easter time. For sacraments, see Readings, Chapter XVI.

[144] See above, p. 183, and Translations and Reprints, Vol. IV, No. 4, for examples of the interdict and excommunication.

[145] The privilege of being tried by churchmen, which all connected with the Church claimed, was called benefit of clergy. See Readings, Chapter XVI.

[146] The bishops still constitute an important element in the upper houses of parliament in several European countries.

[147] For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal court, see Emerton, Medival Europe, p. 475.

[148] It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as belonging to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the conditions in the monasteries, see Munro, Medival History, Chapter XII, and Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a Medival Monastery."

[149] See Readings, Chapter XVII.

[150] See Readings, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the Albigenses.

[151] Examples of these decrees are given in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[152] His son married an English lady, became a leader of the English barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament. See above, pp. 146-147.

[153] For the form of relaxation and other documents relating to the Inquisition, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[154] The whole rule is translated by Henderson, Historical Documents, p. 344.

[155] In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general.

[156] The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were often called villains, a word derived from vill.

[157] The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be described later.

[158] Reference, Munro, Medival History, Chapter XIV, where the subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.

[159] In Germany the books published annually in the German language did not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.

[160] Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle Ages were unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover, they introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs of the time, such as imprisonare, imprison; utlagare, to outlaw; baptizare, to baptize; foresta, forest; feudum, fief, etc.

[161] See above, pp. 94-95.

[162]

"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril When spray beginneth to springe, The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl On hyre lud (voice) to synge."



[163] Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between the people who used the one language and the other, nor was Provenal confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was called langue d'ol, and the southern language langue d'oc, each after the word used for "yes."

[164] The Song of Roland is translated into spirited English verse by O'Hagan, London, 1880.

[165] The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of Aucassin and Nicolette (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Huon of Bordeaux, Renaud of Montauban, and The Story of Alexander (Allen, London). Malory's Mort d'Arthur, a collection of the stories of the Round Table made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for these famous stories.

[166] An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the troubadours and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith, Troubadours at Home (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[167] Reference, Henderson, Short History of Germany, Vol. I, pp. 111-121.

[168] See Steele's Medival Lore for examples of the science of the Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its inhabitants, see the Travels, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The best edition is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[169] The word miniature, which is often applied to them, is derived from minium, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite colors. Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of hours.

[170] So called because it was derived from the old Roman basilicas, or buildings in which the courts were held.

[171] In France as early as the twelfth century.

[172] Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of Canterbury cathedral, p. 208.

[173] See Readings, Chapter XIX.

[174] The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the end of our college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The bachelor in the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of his examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of these sciences. The words master, doctor, and professor meant pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.

[175] An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of Thomas Aquinas may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[176] Reference, Green, Short History of the English People, pp. 161-169.

[177] See above, p. 147.

[178] See above, pp. 127-128 and 130.

[179] See above, pp. 131-132.

[180] Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide the battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were already beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude and the charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to come the bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth century that gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in battles.

[181] For the account of Crcy by Froissart, the celebrated historian of the fourteenth century, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[182] See above, pp. 131-132.

[183] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 116-123.

[184] For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book of English History, pp. 206-208.

[185] For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XX.

[186] For description of manor, see above, pp. 234-235.

[187] For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see genealogical table below, p. 297.

[188] See above, p. 287.

[189] The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler of Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.

[190] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 274-281. For official account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, Sources, pp. 113-117.

[191] DESCENT OF THE RIVAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK

Edward III (1327-1377) -+ Edward, John of Gaunt, Edmund, the Black Prince Duke of Lancaster Duke of York (d. 1376) + - RICHARD II (1377-1399) HENRY IV John Beaufort Richard (1399-1413) HENRY V John Beaufort Richard (1413-1422) HENRY VI - + (1422-1461) EDWARD IV RICHARD III (1461-1483) (1483-1485) + Edmund Tudor m. Margaret HENRY VII m. Elizabeth of York EDWARD V First of the (1485-1509), Tudor kings Murdered in the Tower, 1483



[192] References, Green, Short History, pp. 281-293, 299-303.

[193] See Readings, Chapter XX.

[194] Reference, Adams, Growth of the French Nation, pp. 121-123, 134-135.

[195] See above, p. 128.

[196] See geneological table above, p. 282.

[197] See below, Chapter XXIII.

[198] Reference, Adams, French Nation, pp. 136-142.

[199] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[200] The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews from their land.

[201] See Readings, Chapter XXI.

[202] For statutes, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, Source-book, pp. 198-202.

[203] See above, p. 183.

[204] Reference, Green, Short History, pp. 235-244. For extracts, see Readings, Chapter XXI; Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 5; Lee, Source-book, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the followers of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209-223.

[205] The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were regarded by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom, occurred in Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the Lateran assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had been convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were regarded as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely dominated the assembly and published its decrees in his own name.

[206] See above, pp. 202-203.

[207] THE POPES DURING THE GREAT SCHISM

Gregory XI (1373-1378) Returns to Rome in 1377

Roman Line Avignon Line

Urban VI (1378-1389) Clement VII (1378-1394) Boniface IX (1389-1404) Benedict XIII (1394-1417) Innocent VII (1404-1406) Council of Pisa's Line Gregory XII (1406-1415) Alexander V (1409-1410) John XXIII (1410-1415) Martin V (1417-1431) -



[208] See above, pp. 222-223.

[209] For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in the Church, see Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[210] This decree, Frequens, may be found in Translations and Reprints, Vol. III, No. 6.

[211] On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was transferred to Florence.

[212] See above, p. 186.

[213] This word, although originally French, has come into such common use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were English,—rẹ-nā'sens.

[214] See above, p. 27.

[215] See above, pp. 198-199 and 243.

[216] See above, pp. 174 sqq.

[217] In the year 1300 Milan occupied a territory scarcely larger than that of the neighboring states, but under the Visconti it conquered a number of towns, Pavia, Cremona, etc., and became, next to Venice, the most considerable state of northern Italy.

[218] A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth member of the family.

[219] See above, pp. 31-32.

[220] The translation of The Banquet in Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.

[221] See the close of the fourth canto of the Inferno.

[222] See above, pp. 271-272.

[223] Copies of the neid, of Horace's Satires, of certain of Cicero's Orations, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."

[224] Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, pp. 59-76.

[225] See above, pp. 45-46.

[226] Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.

[227] In Whitcomb, Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, pp. 70 sqq., interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.

[228] Manuscript, manu scriptum, means simply written by hand.

[229] The closing lines (i.e., the so-called colophon) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."