[Sidenote: Substantive.]

It seems a pity that we can only spend it once.—EMERSON.

We do not believe that he left any worthy man his foe who had ever been his friend.—AMES.

Let us see whether the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.—RUSKIN.

Who can tell if Washington be a great man or no?—EMERSON.

300. As will have been noticed, some words—for example, since, while, as, that, etc.—may belong to several classes of conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the sentence.

Exercises.

(a) Bring up sentences containing five examples of cooerdinate conjunctions.

(b) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives.

(c) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions.

(d) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:—

1. Yet these were often exhibited throughout our city.

2. No one had yet caught his character.

3. After he was gone, the lady called her servant.

4. And they lived happily forever after.

5. They, however, hold a subordinate rank.

6. However ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is known at home.

7. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received?

8. He was brought up for the church, whence he was occasionally called the Dominie.

9. And then recovering, she faintly pressed her hand.

10. In what point of view, then, is war not to be regarded with horror?

11. The moth fly, as he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid her there.

12. Besides, as the rulers of a nation are as liable as other people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little prospect of justice in permitting war.

13. While a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless.

14. While patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his speech her authority with her charms.

15. Hence it is highly important that the custom of war should be abolished.

16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the lashings having given way; only what is the use of a guinea amongst tangle and sea gulls?

17. Only let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit the picture.

SPECIAL REMARKS.

[Sidenote: As if.]

301. As if is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,—

But thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved. —BYRON.

If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet as [the sound would be] if a sister's voice reproved;" as, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately.

But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as is shown by the use of as though.

[Sidenote: As though.]

302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part as though we parted not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we part as [we should part] though" etc.

Consequently, as if and as though may be taken as double conjunctions expressing manner. As though seems to be in as wide use as the conjunction as if; for example,—

Do you know a farmer who acts and lives as though he believed one word of this?—H GREELEY.

His voice ... sounded as though it came out of a barrel.—IRVING.

Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, As though a rose should shut, and be a bud again. —KEATS

Examples might be quoted from almost all authors.

[Sidenote: As for as if.]

303. In poetry, as is often equivalent to as if.

And their orbs grew strangely dreary, Clouded, even as they would weep. —EMILY BRONTE.

So silently we seemed to speak, So slowly moved about, As we had lent her half our powers To eke her living out. —HOOD.

HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS.

304. In parsing conjunctions, tell—

(1) To what class and subclass they belong.

(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect.

[Sidenote: Caution.]

In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the meaning of the word. Some conjunctions, such as nor, and, because, when, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to several classes. For example, compare the sentences,—

1. It continued raining, so that I could not stir abroad.—DEFOE

2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, so they be each honest and natural in their hour.—EMERSON

3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; so they paddled on.—KINGSLEY

In sentence 1, so that expresses result, and its clause depends on the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, so means provided,—is subordinate of condition; in 3, so means therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a cooerdinate conjunction of reason.

Exercise.

Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:—

1. When the gods come among men, they are not known.

2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain.

3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed.

4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the lightness and delicate finish as well as the aerial proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery.

5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own chimneys.

6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of the natural.

7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?"

8. All the postulates of elfin annals,—that the fairies do not like to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; and the like,—I find them true in Concord, however they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne.

9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature.

10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his.

11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might testify of that particular ray.

12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted.

13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries.

14. Goodness must have some edge to it,—else it is none.

15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last.

16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?

17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand.

18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only.

19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field.

20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, enthroned.

21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed.

22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book.

23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this they agree, that both were wayward.

24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the young don.

25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him.

26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten.

27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were sinful like herself.

28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I had seven heads and ten horns.

29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals.

30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, when it was presented to them.



PREPOSITIONS..

305. The word preposition implies place before: hence it would seem that a preposition is always before its object. It may be so in the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances the preposition is after its object.

This occurs in such cases as the following:—

[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object.]

(1) After a relative pronoun, a very common occurrence; thus,—

The most dismal Christmas fun which these eyes ever looked on.—THACKERAY.

An ancient nation which they know nothing of.—EMERSON.

A foe, whom a champion has fought with to-day.—SCOTT.

Some little toys that girls are fond of.—SWIFT.

"It's the man that I spoke to you about" said Mr. Pickwick.—DICKENS.

(2) After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun, also frequently found:—

What God doth the wizard pray to?—HAWTHORNE.

What is the little one thinking about?—J.G. HOLLAND.

Where the Devil did it come from, I wonder?—DICKENS.

(3) With an infinitive, in such expressions as these:—

A proper quarrel for a Crusader to do battle in.—SCOTT.

"You know, General, it was nothing to joke about."—CABLE

Had no harsh treatment to reproach herself with.—BOYESEN

A loss of vitality scarcely to be accounted for.—HOLMES.

Places for horses to be hitched to.—Id.

(4) After a noun,—the case in which the preposition is expected to be, and regularly is, before its object; as,—

And unseen mermaids' pearly song Comes bubbling up, the weeds among. —BEDDOES.

Forever panting and forever young, All breathing human passion far above. —KEATS.

306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as in the following sentence, "Roused by the shock, he started from his trance."

Here the words by and from are connectives; but they do more than connect. By shows the relation in thought between roused and shock, expressing means or agency; from shows the relation in thought between started and trance, and expresses separation. Both introduce phrases.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation between its object and the word modified.

[Sidenote: Objects, nouns and the following.]

308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects—

(1) Pronouns: "Upon them with the lance;" "With whom I traverse earth."

(2) Adjectives: "On high the winds lift up their voices."

(3) Adverbs: "If I live wholly from within;" "Had it not been for the sea from aft."

(4) Phrases: "Everything came to her from on high;" "From of old they had been zealous worshipers."

(5) Infinitives: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save to convey some necessary command for her service."

(6) Gerunds: "They shrink from inflicting what they threaten;" "He is not content with shining on great occasions."

(7) Clauses:

"Each soldier eye shall brightly turn To where thy sky-born glories burn."

[Sidenote: Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun.]

309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the word, as in Sec. 308 (1).

[Sidenote: Often possessive.]

In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the possessive case after of; for example,—

There was also a book of Defoe's,... and another of Mather's.—FRANKLIN.

See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87.

[Sidenote: Sometimes nominative.]

And the prepositions but and save are found with the nominative form of the pronoun following; as,—

Nobody knows but my mate and I Where our nest and our nestlings lie. —BRYANT.



USES OF PREPOSITIONS.

[Sidenote: Inseparable.]

310. Prepositions are used in three ways:—

(1) Compounded with verbs, adverbs, or conjunctions; as, for example, with verbs, withdraw, understand, overlook, overtake, overflow, undergo, outstay, outnumber, overrun, overgrow, etc.; with adverbs, thereat, therein, therefrom, thereby, therewith, etc.; with conjunctions, whereat, wherein, whereon, wherethrough, whereupon, etc.

[Sidenote: Separable.]

(2) Following a verb, and being really a part of the verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the sentences, (a) "He broke a pane from the window," (b) "He broke into the bank," in (a), the verb broke is a predicate, modified by the phrase introduced by from; in (b), the predicate is not broke, modified by into the bank, but broke into—the object, bank.

Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:—

Considering the space they took up.—SWIFT.

I loved, laughed at, and pitied him.—GOLDSMITH.

The sun breaks through the darkest clouds.—SHAKESPEARE.

They will root up the whole ground.—SWIFT.

A friend prevailed upon one of the interpreters.—ADDISON

My uncle approved of it.—FRANKLIN.

The robber who broke into them.—LANDOR.

This period is not obscurely hinted at.—LAMB.

The judge winked at the iniquity of the decision.—Id.

The pupils' voices, conning over their lessons.—IRVING.

To help out his maintenance.—Id.

With such pomp is Merry Christmas ushered in.—LONGFELLOW.

[Sidenote: Ordinary use as connective, relation words.]

(3) As relation words, introducing phrases,—the most common use, in which the words have their own proper function.

[Sidenote: Usefulness of prepositions.]

311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the original one.

Take, for example, the word over. It expresses place, with motion, as, "The bird flew over the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods over the earth." It may also convey the meaning of about, concerning; as, "They quarreled over the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay over night."

The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them having the same meaning as others.



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS.

312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the prepositions, since they are so various in meaning.

The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion.



PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.

313. The following are the most common to indicate place:—

(1) PLACE WHERE: abaft, about, above, across, amid (amidst), among (amongst), at, athwart, below, beneath, beside, between (betwixt), beyond, in, on, over, under (underneath), upon, round or around, without.

(2) PLACE WHITHER: into, unto, up, through, throughout, to, towards.

(3) PLACE WHENCE: down, from (away from, down from, from out, etc.), off, out of.

Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning back of.

Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference in meaning, and usually a difference in use. Among originally meant in the crowd (on gemong), referring to several objects; between and betwixt were originally made up of the preposition be (meaning by) and tweon or tweonum (modern twain), by two, and be with twih (or twuh), having the same meaning, by two objects.

As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459).



PREPOSITIONS OF TIME.

314. They are after, during, pending, till or until; also many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words indicating time, such as at, between, by, about, on, within, etc.

These are all familiar, and need no special remark.



EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION.

315. The chief ones are besides, but, except, save, without. The participle excepting is also used as a preposition.



MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS.

316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then also in literary English; for example,—

She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me against night.—SWIFT

About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, regarding, mean with reference to.

[Sidenote: Phrase prepositions.]

317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: by means of, by virtue of, by help of, by dint of, by force of; out of, on account of, by way of, for the sake of; in consideration of, in spite of, in defiance of, instead of, in view of, in place of; with respect to, with regard to, according to, agreeably to; and some others.

318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: on (upon), at, by, for, from, of, to, with.

No attempt will be made to give all the meanings that each one in this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show how useful prepositions really are.

At.

319. The general meaning of at is near, close to, after a verb or expression implying position; and towards after a verb or expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while in is exact, meaning within.

Its principal uses are as follows:—

(1) Place where.

They who heard it listened with a curling horror at the heart.—J.F. COOPER.

There had been a strike at the neighboring manufacturing village, and there was to be a public meeting, at which he was besought to be present.—T.W. HIGGINSON.

(2) Time, more exact, meaning the point of time at which.

He wished to attack at daybreak.—PARKMAN.

They buried him darkly, at dead of night.—WOLFE

(3) Direction.

The mother stood looking wildly down at the unseemly object.—COOPER.

You are next invited...to grasp at the opportunity, and take for your subject, "Health."—HIGGINSON.

Here belong such expressions as laugh at, look at, wink at, gaze at, stare at, peep at, scowl at, sneer at, frown at, etc.

We laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years.—JOHNSON.

"You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and shaking her head at him.—DICKENS.

(4) Source or cause, meaning because of, by reason of.

I felt my heart chill at the dismal sound.—T.W. KNOX.

Delighted at this outburst against the Spaniards.—PARKMAN.

(5) Then the idiomatic phrases at last, at length, at any rate, at the best, at the worst, at least, at most, at first, at once, at all, at one, at naught, at random, etc.; and phrases signifying state or condition of being, as, at work, at play, at peace, at war, at rest, etc.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three different uses of at.

By.

320. Like at, by means near or close to, but has several other meanings more or less connected with this,—

(1) The general meaning of place.

Richard was standing by the window.—ALDRICH.

Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel by the roadside.—Id.

(2) Time.

But by this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.—B. TAYLOR

The angel came by night.—R.H. STODDARD.

(3) Agency or means.

Menippus knew which were the kings by their howling louder.—M.D. CONWAY.

At St. Helena, the first port made by the ship, he stopped. —PARTON.

(4) Measure of excess, expressing the degree of difference.

At that time [the earth] was richer, by many a million of acres.—DE QUINCEY.

He was taller by almost the breadth of my nail.—SWIFT.

(5) It is also used in oaths and adjurations.

By my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four!—PARTON.

They implore us by the long trials of struggling humanity; by the blessed memory of the departed; by the wrecks of time; by the ruins of nations.—EVERETT.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three different meanings of by.

For.

321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:—

(1) Motion towards a place, or a tendency or action toward the attainment of any object.

Pioneers who were opening the way for the march of the nation.—COOPER.

She saw the boat headed for her.—WARNER.

(2) In favor of, for the benefit of, in behalf of, a person or thing.

He and they were for immediate attack.—PARKMAN

The people were then against us; they are now for us.—W.L. GARRISON.

(3) Duration of time, or extent of space.

For a long time the disreputable element outshone the virtuous.—H.H. BANCROFT.

He could overlook all the country for many a mile of rich woodland.—IRVING.

(4) Substitution or exchange.

There are gains for all our losses.—STODDARD.

Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement for the butchery of Fort Caroline.—PARKMAN.

(5) Reference, meaning with regard to, as to, respecting, etc.

For the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.—EMERSON.

For him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.—E.E. HALE

This is very common with as—as for me, etc.

(6) Like as, meaning in the character of, as being, etc.

"Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master Brackett, "I shall own you for a man of skill indeed!" —HAWTHORNE.

Wavering whether he should put his son to death for an unnatural monster.—LAMB.

(7) Concession, meaning although, considering that etc.

"For a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled wisely."—SCOTT

By my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four!—PARTON.

(8) Meaning notwithstanding, or in spite of.

But the Colonel, for all his title, had a forest of poor relations.—HOLMES.

Still, for all slips of hers, One of Eve's family.—HOOD.

(9) Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action.

The twilight being...hardly more wholesome for its glittering mists of midge companies.—RUSKIN.

An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, for famine.—Id.

Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped for joy.—PARKMAN.

(10) For with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:—

It is by no means necessary that he should devote his whole school existence to physical science; nay, more, it is not necessary for him to give up more than a moderate share of his time to such studies.—HUXLEY.

Exercise.—Find sentences with five meanings of for.

From.

322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be with regard to—

(1) Place.

Like boys escaped from school.—H.H. BANCROFT

Thus they drifted from snow-clad ranges to burning plain.—Id.

(2) Origin.

Coming from a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the faculty of dreaming also by night.—HIGGINSON.

From harmony, from heavenly harmony This universal frame began.—DRYDEN.

(3) Time.

A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become from the night of that fearful dream—HAWTHORNE.

(4) Motive, cause, or reason.

It was from no fault of Nolan's.—HALE.

The young cavaliers, from a desire of seeming valiant, ceased to be merciful.—BANCROFT.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three meanings of from.

Of.

323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like from. The various uses are shown in the following examples:—

I. The From Relation.

(1) Origin or source.

The king holds his authority of the people.—MILTON.

Thomas a Becket was born of reputable parents in the city of London.—HUME.

(2) Separation: (a) After certain verbs, such as ease, demand, rob, divest, free, clear, purge, disarm, deprive, relieve, cure, rid, beg, ask, etc.

Two old Indians cleared the spot of brambles, weeds, and grass.—PARKMAN.

Asked no odds of, acquitted them of, etc.—ALDRICH.

(b) After some adjectives,—clear of, free of, wide of, bare of, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as north of, south of, etc.

The hills were bare of trees.—BAYARD TAYLOR.

Back of that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. —GAVARRE.

(c) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc.

A singular want of all human relation.—HIGGINSON.

(d) With words expressing distance.

Until he had come within a staff's length of the old dame. —HAWTHORNE

Within a few yards of the young man's hiding place.—Id.

(3) With expressions of material, especially out of.

White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin of native gold.—BANCROFT.

Sandals, bound with thongs of boar's hide.—SCOTT

Who formed, out of the most unpromising materials, the finest army that Europe had yet seen.—MACAULAY

(4) Expressing cause, reason, motive.

The author died of a fit of apoplexy.—BOSWELL.

More than one altar was richer of his vows.—LEW WALLACE.

"Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad of that."—E.E. HALE.

(5) Expressing agency.

You cannot make a boy know, of his own knowledge, that Cromwell once ruled England.—HUXLEY.

He is away of his own free will.—DICKENS

II. Other Relations expressed by Of.

(6) Partitive, expressing a part of a number or quantity.

Of the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. —PARTON.

He washed out some of the dirt, separating thereby as much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.—BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: See also Sec. 309.]

(7) Possessive, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive.

Not even woman's love, and the dignity of a queen, could give shelter from his contumely.—W.E. CHANNING.

And the mighty secret of the Sierra stood revealed.—BANCROFT.

(8) Appositional, which may be in the case of—

(a) Nouns.

Such a book as that of Job.—FROUDE.

The fair city of Mexico.—PRESCOTT.

The nation of Lilliput.—SWIFT.

(b) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive.

In the vain hope of appeasing the savages.—COOPER.

Few people take the trouble of finding out what democracy really is.—LOWELL.

(c) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second.

This crampfish of a Socrates has so bewitched him.—EMERSON

A sorry antediluvian makeshift of a building you may think it.—LAMB.

An inexhaustible bottle of a shop.—ALDRICH.

(9) Of time. Besides the phrases of old, of late, of a sudden, etc., of is used in the sense of during.

I used often to linger of a morning by the high gate.—ALDRICH

I delighted to loll over the quarter railing of a calm day. —IRVING.

(10) Of reference, equal to about, concerning, with regard to.

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour.—HALLECK.

Boasted of his prowess as a scalp hunter and duelist.—BANCROFT.

Sank into reverie of home and boyhood scenes.—Id.

[Sidenote: Idiomatic use with verbs.]

Of is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as admit, accept, allow, approve, disapprove, permit, without adding to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs tire, complain, repent, consist, avail (one's self), and others.

Exercise.—Find sentences with six uses of of.

On, Upon.

324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. On and upon are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as shown by the sentences below:—

(1) Place: (a) Where.

Cannon were heard close on the left.—PARKMAN.

The Earl of Huntley ranged his host Upon their native strand.—MRS. SIGOURNEY.

(b) With motion.

It was the battery at Samos firing on the boats.—PARKMAN.

Thou didst look down upon the naked earth.—BRYANT.

(2) Time.

The demonstration of joy or sorrow on reading their letters. —BANCROFT.

On Monday evening he sent forward the Indians.—PARKMAN.

Upon is seldom used to express time.

(3) Reference, equal to about, concerning, etc.

I think that one abstains from writing on the immortality of the soul.—EMERSON.

He pronounced a very flattering opinion upon my brother's promise of excellence.—DE QUINCEY.

(4) In adjurations.

On my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.—ALDRICH.

Upon my reputation and credit.—SHAKESPEARE

(5) Idiomatic phrases: on fire, on board, on high, on the wing, on the alert, on a sudden, on view, on trial, etc.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three uses of on or upon.

To.

325. Some uses of to are the following:—

(1) Expressing motion: (a) To a place.

Come to the bridal chamber, Death!—HALLECK.

Rip had scrambled to one of the highest peaks.—IRVING.

(b) Referring to time.

Full of schemes and speculations to the last.—PARTON.

Revolutions, whose influence is felt to this hour.—PARKMAN.

(2) Expressing result.

He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,—often to the loss of vigor.—BENTON

To our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.—B. TAYLOR

(3) Expressing comparison.

But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears, 'Tis ten to one you find the girl in tears. —ALDRICH

They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing to them.—BULWER.

Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints to him.—WEBSTER

(4) Expressing concern, interest.

To the few, it may be genuine poetry.—BRYANT.

His brother had died, had ceased to be, to him.—HALE.

Little mattered to them occasional privations—BANCROFT.

(5) Equivalent to according to.

Nor, to my taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far below the highest efforts of poetry.—LANG.

We cook the dish to our own appetite.—GOLDSMITH.

(6) With the infinitive (see Sec. 268).

Exercise.—Find sentences containing three uses of to.

With.

326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of its applications vary from this general signification.

In Old English, mid meant in company with, while wieth meant against: both meanings are included in the modern with.

The following meanings are expressed by with:—

(1) Personal accompaniment.

The advance, with Heyward at its head, had already reached the defile.—COOPER.

For many weeks I had walked with this poor friendless girl.—DE QUINCEY.

(2) Instrumentality.

With my crossbow I shot the albatross.—COLERIDGE.

Either with the swingle-bar, or with the haunch of our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.—DE QUINCEY.

(3) Cause, reason, motive.

He was wild with delight about Texas.—HALE.

She seemed pleased with the accident.—HOWELLS.

(4) Estimation, opinion.

How can a writer's verses be numerous if with him, as with you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?—LANG.

It seemed a supreme moment with him.—HOWELLS.

(5) Opposition.

After battling with terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every known sea.—ALDRICH.

The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not with life, but with you.—LANG.

(6) The equivalent of notwithstanding, in spite of.

With all his sensibility, he gave millions to the sword.—CHANNING.

Messala, with all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle further.—WALLACE

(7) Time.

He expired with these words.—SCOTT.

With each new mind a new secret of nature transpires.—EMERSON.

Exercise.—Find sentences with four uses of with.

HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS.

327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits. Take this sentence:—

The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the beginning.—E.E. HALE.

The phrases are (1) on board the ships, (2) on which, (3) without a country, (4) from the beginning. The object of on board is ships; of on, which; of without, country; of from, beginning.

In (1), the phrase answers the question where, and has the office of an adverb in telling where the rule is adopted; hence we say, on board shows the relation between ships and the participle adopted.

In (2), on which modifies the verb have met by telling where: hence on shows the relation between which (standing for ships) and the verb have met.

In (3), without a country modifies man, telling what man, or the verb was understood: hence without shows the relation between country and man, or was. And so on.

The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words or word groups they show relation.

Exercises.

(a) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:—

1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I had given the provocation.—SWIFT

2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.—Id.

(b) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the following sentences:—

1. The guns were cleared of their lumber.

2. They then left for a cruise up the Indian Ocean.

3. I speak these things from a love of justice.

4. To our general surprise, we met the defaulter here.

5. There was no one except a little sunbeam of a sister.

6. The great gathering in the main street was on Sundays, when, after a restful morning, though unbroken by the peal of church bells, the miners gathered from hills and ravines for miles around for marketing.

7. The troops waited in their boats by the edge of a strand.

8. His breeches were of black silk, and his hat was garnished with white and sable plumes.

9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through the crowd at this generous proposition.

10. They were shriveled and colorless with the cold.

11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even to the eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony.

12. On all subjects known to man, he favored the world with his opinions.

13. Our horses ran on a sandy margin of the road.

14. The hero of the poem is of a strange land and a strange parentage.

15. He locked his door from mere force of habit.

16. The lady was remarkable for energy and talent.

17. Roland was acknowledged for the successor and heir.

18. For my part, I like to see the passing, in town.

19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered for any service.

20. The mother sank and fell, grasping at the child.

21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed for battle.

22. He had lived in Paris for the last fifty years.

23. The hill stretched for an immeasurable distance.

24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose with day, He spurred his courser on, Without stop or stay, down the rocky way That leads to Brotherstone.

25. With all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant.

26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect, to one dark and gloomy.

27. Wilt thou die for very weakness?

28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously upon the ear of memory.

29. The shout I heard was upon the arrival of this engine.

30. He will raise the price, not merely by the amount of the tax.



WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING.

328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A few are discussed below,—a summary of their treatment in various places as studied heretofore.

THAT.

329. That may be used as follows:

(1) As a demonstrative adjective.

That night was a memorable one.—STOCKTON.

(2) As an adjective pronoun.

That was a dreadful mistake.—WEBSTER.

(3) As a relative pronoun.

And now it is like an angel's song, That makes the heavens be mute.—COLERIDGE.

(4) As an adverb of degree.

That far I hold that the Scriptures teach.—BEECHER.

(5) As a conjunction: (a) Of purpose.

Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, that you might behold this joyous day.—WEBSTER.

(b) Of result.

Gates of iron so massy that no man could without the help of engines open or shut them.—JOHNSON.

(c) Substantive conjunction.

We wish that labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst of its toil.—WEBSTER.

WHAT.

330. (1) Relative pronoun.

That is what I understand by scientific education.—HUXLEY.

(a) Indefinite relative.

Those shadowy recollections, Which be they what they may, Are yet the fountain light of all our day.—WORDSWORTH.

(2) Interrogative pronoun: (a) Direct question.

What would be an English merchant's character after a few such transactions?—THACKERAY.

(b) Indirect question.

I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see what might be hidden.—WEBSTER.

(3) Indefinite pronoun: The saying, "I'll tell you what."

(4) Relative adjective.

But woe to what thing or person stood in the way.—EMERSON.

(a) Indefinite relative adjective.

To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.—Id.

(5) Interrogative adjective: (a) Direct question.

What right have you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of heat?—AGASSIZ.

(b) Indirect question.

At what rate these materials would be distributed,...it is impossible to determine.—Id.

(6) Exclamatory adjective.

Saint Mary! what a scene is here!—SCOTT.

(7) Adverb of degree.

If he has [been in America], he knows what good people are to be found there.—THACKERAY.

(8) Conjunction, nearly equivalent to partly... partly, or not only...but.

What with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their pasturage; what with the vocal seller of bread in the early morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.—S.S. Cox.

(9) As an exclamation.

What, silent still, and silent all!—BYRON.

What, Adam Woodcock at court!—SCOTT.

BUT.

331. (1) Cooerdinate conjunction: (a) Adversative.

His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, but the result of calculation.—EMERSON.

(b) Copulative, after not only.

Then arose not only tears, but piercing cries, on all sides. —CARLYLE.

(2) Subordinate conjunction: (a) Result, equivalent to that ... not.

Nor is Nature so hard but she gives me this joy several times.—EMERSON.

(b) Substantive, meaning otherwise ... than.

Who knows but, like the dog, it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original—THOREAU.

(3) Preposition, meaning except.

Now there was nothing to be seen but fires in every direction.—LAMB.

(4) Relative pronoun, after a negative, stands for that ... not, or who ... not.

There is not a man in them but is impelled withal, at all moments, towards order.—CARLYLE.

(5) Adverb, meaning only.

The whole twenty years had been to him but as one night.—IRVING.

To lead but one measure.—SCOTT.

AS.

332. (1) Subordinate conjunction: (a) Of time.

Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain.—IRVING.

(b) Of manner.

As orphans yearn on to their mothers, He yearned to our patriot bands.—MRS BROWNING.

(c) Of degree.

His wan eyes Gaze on the empty scene as vacantly As ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven. —SHELLEY.

(d) Of reason.

I shall see but little of it, as I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage.—FRANKLIN.

(e) Introducing an appositive word.

Reverenced as one of the patriarchs of the village.—IRVING.

Doing duty as a guard.—HAWTHORNE.

(2) Relative pronoun, after such, sometimes same.

And was there such a resemblance as the crowd had testified?—HAWTHORNE.

LIKE.

[Sidenote: Modifier of a noun or pronoun.]

333. (1) An adjective.

The aforesaid general had been exceedingly like the majestic image.—HAWTHORNE.

They look, indeed, liker a lion's mane than a Christian man's locks.-SCOTT.

No Emperor, this, like him awhile ago.—ALDRICH.

There is no statue like this living man.—EMERSON.

That face, like summer ocean's.—HALLECK.

In each case, like clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is followed by a dative-objective.

[Sidenote: Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted.]

(2) A subordinate conjunction of manner. This follows a verb or a verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by like is regularly omitted. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English gelic (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this second use, like introduces a shortened clause modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:—

Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring like a bewildered man.—HAWTHORNE.

Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air like Carlyle.—HIGGINSON.

They conducted themselves much like the crew of a man-of-war. —PARKMAN.

[The sound] rang in his ears like the iron hoofs of the steeds of Time.—LONGFELLOW.

Stirring it vigorously, like a cook beating eggs.—ALDRICH.

If the verb is expressed, like drops out, and as or as if takes its place.

The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper as he pleases.—CASS.

Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, just as they do in Abyssinia to this day.—LAMB.

I do with my friends as I do with my books.—EMERSON.

NOTE.—Very rarely like is found with a verb following, but this is not considered good usage: for example,—

A timid, nervous child, like Martin was.—MAYHEW.

Through which they put their heads, like the Gauchos do through their cloaks.—DARWIN.

Like an arrow shot From a well-experienced archer hits the mark.—SHAKESPEARE.



INTERJECTIONS.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence.

Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.

Humph! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no letters of our language can really spell.

[Sidenote: Not all exclamatory words are interjections.]

Other interjections are oh! ah! alas! pshaw! hurrah! etc. But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time [noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]."



PART II.



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM.

[Sidenote: What analysis is..]

335. All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently the sentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get a clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is necessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating them into their component parts.

A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of speech,—in determining case, subject and predicate, clauses introduced by conjunctions, etc.

[Sidenote: Value of analysis.]

A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is necessary for two reasons,—not only for a correct understanding of the principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

336. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words.

[Sidenote: Kinds of sentences as to form.]

337. According to the way in which a thought is put before a listener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:—

(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration or assertion. This is the most common one.

(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question.

(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request.

Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative; hence, according to form, there are only the three kinds of sentences already named.

Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"



CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.



SIMPLE SENTENCES.

[Sidenote: Division according to number of statements.]

338. But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the division, not according to the form in which a thought is put, but according to how many statements there are.

The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

339. A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is not strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar."

340. Every sentence must contain two parts,—a subject and a predicate.

[Sidenote: Definition: Predicate.]

The predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says something about the subject.

In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine two specimen sentences:—

1. But now all is to be changed.

2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.

In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word what before the predicate,—What is to be changed? Answer, all. Consequently, we say all is the subject of the sentence.

But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some trouble,—What is the ivy green? Answer, a rare old plant. But we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of a rare old plant, but about the ivy green; and the real subject is the latter. Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:—

[Sidenote: Subject.]

The subject is that which answers the question who or what placed before the predicate, and which at the same time names that of which the predicate says something.

[Sidenote: The subject in interrogative and imperative simple sentences.]

341. In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after the verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about the subject. In analyzing such sentences, always reduce them to the order of a statement. Thus,—

(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"

(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"

(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"

(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?"

In the imperative sentence, the subject (you, thou, or ye) is in most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold her single in the field."

Exercise.

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences:—

1. The shadow of the dome of pleasure Floated midway on the waves.

2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions.

3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this.

4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift.

5. The last of all the Bards was he.

6. Slavery they can have anywhere.

7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.

8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!

9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the general.

10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to the Anglo-Saxon races!

ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

342. All the elements of the simple sentence are as follows:—

(1) The subject.

(2) The predicate.

(3) The object.

(4) The complements.

(5) Modifiers.

(6) Independent elements.

The subject and predicate have been discussed.

343. The object may be of two kinds:—

[Sidenote: Definitions. Direct Object.]

(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the question who or what placed after the verb; or the direct object names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed.

It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the present we speak of the object of the verb, and by object we mean the direct object.

[Sidenote: Indirect object.]

(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose benefit an action is performed.

Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw her course at a glance;" indirect, "I give thee this to wear at the collar."

[Sidenote: Complement:]

344. A complement is a word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its meaning.

Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two kinds,—transitive and intransitive.

[Sidenote: Of a transitive verb.]

The transitive verb often requires, in addition to the object, a word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; for example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb call has an object me (if we leave out chief), and means summoned; but chief belongs to the verb, and me here is not the object simply of call, but of call chief, just as if to say, "Ye honor me." This word completing a transitive verb is sometimes called a factitive object, or second object, but it is a true complement.

The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. 364.

[Sidenote: Complement of an intransitive verb.]

An intransitive verb, especially the forms of be, seem, appear, taste, feel, become, etc., must often have a word to complete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were round, and of massive weight;" "The good man, he was now getting old, above sixty;" "Nothing could be more copious than his talk;" "But in general he seemed deficient in laughter."

All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples of complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick;" "He was termed Thomas, or, more familiarly, Thom of the Gills;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned necessary, in the popular judgment, to the completion of this man of the world."

345. The modifiers and independent elements will be discussed in detail in Secs. 351, 352, 355.

[Sidenote: Phrases.]

346. A phrase is a group of words, not containing a verb, but used as a single modifier.

As to form, phrases are of three kinds:—

[Sidenote: Three kinds.]

(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such a convulsion is the struggle of gradual suffocation, as in drowning; and, in the original Opium Confessions, I mentioned a case of that nature."

(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent on it. The following are examples: "Then retreating into the warm house, and barring the door, she sat down to undress the two youngest children."

(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent upon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home forever in order to present herself at the Dauphin's court."

Things used as Subject.

347. The subject of a simple sentence may be—

(1) Noun: "There seems to be no interval between greatness and meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A cheery, 'Ay, ay, sir!' rang out in response."

(2) Pronoun: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote."

(3) Infinitive phrase: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method."

(4) Gerund: "There will be sleeping enough in the grave;" "What signifies wishing and hoping for better things?"

(5) Adjective used as noun: "The good are befriended even by weakness and defect;" "The dead are there."

(6) Adverb: "Then is the moment for the humming bird to secure the insects."

348. The subject is often found after the verb—

(1) By simple inversion: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my deficiency,—the talent of starting the game;" "Never, from their lips, was heard one syllable to justify," etc.

(2) In interrogative sentences, for which see Sec. 341.

(3) After "it introductory:" "It ought not to need to print in a reading room a caution not to read aloud."

In this sentence, it stands in the position of a grammatical subject; but the real or logical subject is to print, etc. It merely serves to throw the subject after a verb.

[Sidenote: Disguised infinitive subject.]

There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, though disguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard for honest men to separate their country from their party, or their religion from their sect."

The for did not belong there originally, but obscures the real subject,—the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No wonder is a lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust).

(4) After "there introductory," which has the same office as it in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a description of the destructive operations of time;" "There are asking eyes, asserting eyes, prowling eyes."

Things used as Direct Object.

349. The words used as direct object are mainly the same as those used for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for the sake of presenting examples:—

(1) Noun: "Each man has his own vocation." Also expressions used as nouns: for example, "'By God, and by Saint George!' said the King."

(2) Pronoun: "Memory greets them with the ghost of a smile."

(3) Infinitive: "We like to see everything do its office."

(4) Gerund: "She heard that sobbing of litanies, or the thundering of organs."

(5) Adjective used as a noun: "For seventy leagues through the mighty cathedral, I saw the quick and the dead."

Things used as Complement.

[Sidenote: Complement: Of an intransitive verb.]

350. As complement of an intransitive verb,—

(1) Noun: "She had been an ardent patriot."

(2) Pronoun: "Who is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?" "This is she, the shepherd girl."

(3) Adjective: "Innocence is ever simple and credulous."

(4) Infinitive: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method."

(5) Gerund: "Life is a pitching of this penny,—heads or tails;" "Serving others is serving us."

(6) A prepositional phrase: "His frame is on a larger scale;" "The marks were of a kind not to be mistaken."

It will be noticed that all these complements have a double office,—completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying the subject.

[Sidenote: Of a transitive verb.]

As complement of a transitive verb,—

(1) Noun: "I will not call you cowards."

(2) Adjective: "Manners make beauty superfluous and ugly;" "Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered pliant and malleable in the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation." In this last sentence, the object is made the subject by being passive, and the words italicized are still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they are adjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, complements of the predicate.

(3) Infinitive, or infinitive phrase: "That cry which made me look a thousand ways;" "I hear the echoes throng."

(4) Participle, or participial phrase: "I can imagine him pushing firmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen."

(5) Prepositional phrase: "My antagonist would render my poniard and my speed of no use to me."



Modifiers.

I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement.

351. Since the subject and object are either nouns or some equivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be adjectives or some equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is a noun, or the equivalent of the noun, it is modified by the same words and word groups that modify the subject and the object.

These modifiers are as follows:—

(1) A possessive: "My memory assures me of this;" "She asked her father's permission."

(2) A word in apposition: "Theodore Wieland, the prisoner at the bar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this young idolater, I have seasoned for thee."

(3) An adjective: "Great geniuses have the shortest biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon,—proud, unforgiving, austere."

(4) Prepositional phrase: "Are the opinions of a man on right and wrong on fate and causation, at the mercy of a broken sleep or an indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground in popular tradition to work on."

(5) Infinitive phrase: "The way to know him is to compare him, not with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and unattempted problem to solve;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest to be written."

(6) Participial phrase: "Another reading, given at the request of a Dutch lady, was the scene from King John;" "This was the hour already appointed for the baptism of the new Christian daughter."

Exercise.—In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, object, or complement is modified.

II. Modifiers of the Predicate.

352. Since the predicate is always a verb, the word modifying it must be an adverb or its equivalent:—

(1) Adverb: "Slowly and sadly we laid him down."

(2) Prepositional phrase: "The little carriage is creeping on at one mile an hour;" "In the twinkling of an eye, our horses had carried us to the termination of the umbrageous isle."

In such a sentence as, "He died like a God," the word group like a God is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a contracted clause, the verb being omitted.

[Sidenote: Tells how.]

(3) Participial phrase: "She comes down from heaven to his help, interpreting for him the most difficult truths, and leading him from star to star."

(4) Infinitive phrase: "No imprudent, no sociable angel, ever dropped an early syllable to answer his longing."

(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. 357-363.)

(5) Indirect object: "I gave every man a trumpet;" "Give them not only noble teachings, but noble teachers."

These are equivalent to the phrases to every man and to them, and modify the predicate in the same way.

[Sidenote: Retained with passive; or]

When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect object is retained, as in these sentences: "It is left you to find out the reason why;" "All such knowledge should be given her."

[Sidenote: subject of passive verb and direct object retained.]

Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: for example, "She is to be taught to extend the limits of her sympathy;" "I was shown an immense sarcophagus."

(6) Adverbial objective. These answer the question when, or how long, how far, etc., and are consequently equivalent to adverbs in modifying a predicate: "We were now running thirteen miles an hour;" "One way lies hope;" "Four hours before midnight we approached a mighty minster."

Exercises.

(a) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) object:—

1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took.

2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause, gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the whole writing.

3. Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in this center?

4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to the dead prosaic level.

5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on three or four persons to support a proposition, and as many to oppose it.

6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of the great.

7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation.

8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved.

(b) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement:

1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the making.

2. But anger drives a man to say anything.

3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in regard to particulars, negative.

4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and the slumbers light.

5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of Spain.

6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been.

7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, the man of ideas appears out of his reason.

8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the anxieties of a man, and a member of the world.

(c) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in each:—

1. Not the less I owe thee justice.

2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider.

3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth.

4. I promised her protection against all ghosts.

5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney.

6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve.

(d) Pick out the words and phrases in apposition:—

1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life.

2. A river formed the boundary,—the river Meuse.

3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz., in the dramatic character of his mind and taste.

4. This view was luminously expounded by Archbishop Whately, the present Archbishop of Dublin.

5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this nun so martial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home of her childhood.

(e) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:—

1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, downwards, to the right and to the left.

2. And hark! like the roar of the billows on the shore, The cry of battle rises along their changing line.

3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their long confinement to a ship, at the chief hotel.

4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by a peat fire, expecting the return of their parents.

Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc.

[Sidenote: Not compound sentences.]

353. Frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or more predicates to the same subject, two or more subjects of the same predicate, several modifiers, complements, etc.; but it is to be noticed that, in all such sentences as we quote below, the writers of them purposely combined them in single statements, and they are not to be expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence the object is to make two or more full statements.

Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's awe and apprehension subsided;" "The name of the child, the air of the mother, the tone of her voice,—all awakened a train of recollections in his mind."

Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company broke up, and returned to the more important concerns of the election;" "He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and, with a heart full of trouble and anxiety, turned his steps homeward."

Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught his daughter and her child in his arms;" "Voyages and travels I would also have."

And so with complements, modifiers, etc.

Logical Subject and Logical Predicate.

354. The logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject, together with all its modifiers.

The logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate (that is, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its object or complement.

[Sidenote: Larger view of a sentence.]

It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject and predicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. For example, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated exposes a dreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human nature," the logical subject is the situation here contemplated, and the rest is the logical predicate. Of this, the simple subject is situation; the predicate, exposes; the object, ulcer, etc.

Independent Elements of the Sentence.

355. The following words and expressions are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not a necessary part, do not enter into its structure:—

(1) Person or thing addressed: "But you know them, Bishop;" "Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again."

(2) Exclamatory expressions: "But the lady—! Oh, heavens! will that spectacle ever depart from my dreams?"

[Sidenote: Caution.]

The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thing addressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, young sir! what are you about?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, hurry, hurry, my brave young man!"

(3) Infinitive phrase thrown in loosely: "To make a long story short, the company broke up;" "Truth to say, he was a conscientious man."

(4) Prepositional phrase not modifying: "Within the railing sat, to the best of my remembrance, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "At all events, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared."

(5) Participial phrase: "But, generally speaking, he closed his literary toils at dinner;" "Considering the burnish of her French tastes, her noticing even this is creditable."

(6) Single words: as, "Oh, yes! everybody knew them;" "No, let him perish;" "Well, he somehow lived along;" "Why, grandma, how you're winking!" "Now, this story runs thus."

[Sidenote: Another caution.]

There are some adverbs, such as perhaps, truly, really, undoubtedly, besides, etc., and some conjunctions, such as however, then, moreover, therefore, nevertheless, etc., that have an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with the words spoken of above. The words well, now, why, and so on, are independent when they merely arrest the attention without being necessary.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

356. In their use, prepositional phrases may be,

(1) Adjectival, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used as a noun: for example, "He took the road to King Richard's pavilion;" "I bring reports on that subject from Ascalon."

(2) Adverbial, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: as, "All nature around him slept in calm moonshine or in deep shadow;" "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife."

(3) Independent, not dependent on any word in the sentence (for examples, see Sec. 355, 4).

PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES.

357. It will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study of participles and participial phrases, and to set down all the uses which are of importance in analysis:—

(1) The adjectival use, already noticed, as follows:—

(a) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same time a modifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, 4).

(b) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see Sec. 351, 6).

(2) The adverbial use, modifying the predicate, instances of which were seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases connect closely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing that they modify.

[Sidenote: These need close watching.]

There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, but require somewhat closer attention; thus, "The letter of introduction, containing no matters of business, was speedily run through."

In this sentence, the expression containing no matters of business does not describe letter, but it is equivalent to because it contained no matters of business, and hence is adverbial, modifying was speedily run through.

Notice these additional examples:—

Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton [reason, "Because I was," etc.], I had naturally possessed myself of Richardson the painter's thick octavo volumes.

Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, both having [since they had] a long warfare to accomplish of contumely and ridicule.

Wilt thou, therefore, being now wiser [as thou art] in thy thoughts, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse?

(3) Wholly independent in meaning and grammar. See Sec. 355, (5), and these additional examples:—

Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water, the entire mass of the sun would cool down to 15,000 deg. Fahrenheit in five thousand years.

This case excepted, the French have the keenest possible sense of everything odious and ludicrous in posing.

INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES.

358. The various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble, and they will be presented here in full, or as nearly so as the student will require.

I. The verbal use. (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but having no other office than a verbal one.

(a) With may (might), can (could), should, would, seem, ought, etc.: "My weekly bill used invariably to be about fifty shillings;" "There, my dear, he should not have known them at all;" "He would instruct her in the white man's religion, and teach her how to be happy and good."

(b) With the forms of be, being equivalent to a future with obligation, necessity, etc.: as in the sentences, "Ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by State prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent' was to be acted that evening."

(c) With the definite forms of go, equivalent to a future: "I was going to repeat my remonstrances;" "I am not going to dissert on Hood's humor."

(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging to a subject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the complements of transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment to acknowledge a higher origin for events" (retained with passive); "Do they not cause the heart to beat, and the eyes to fill?"

359. II. The substantive use, already examined; but see the following examples for further illustration:—

(1) As the subject: "To have the wall there, was to have the foe's life at their mercy;" "To teach is to learn."

(2) As the object: "I like to hear them tell their old stories;" "I don't wish to detract from any gentleman's reputation."

(3) As complement: See examples under (1), above.

(4) In apposition, explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "She forwarded to the English leaders a touching invitation to unite with the French;" "He insisted on his right to forget her."

360. III. The adjectival use, modifying a noun that may be a subject, object, complement, etc.: for example, "But there was no time to be lost;" "And now Amyas had time to ask Ayacanora the meaning of this;" "I have such a desire to be well with my public" (see also Sec. 351, 5).

361. IV. The adverbial use, which may be to express—

(1) Purpose: "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the eastward only yesterday to look for you;" "Isn't it enough to bring us to death, to please that poor young gentleman's fancy?"

(2) Result: "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth to find the ship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard as not to take pity on the poor wild thing?"

(3) Reason: "I am quite sorry to part with them;" "Are you mad, to betray yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, hang the idiot, to bring me such stuff!"

(4) Degree: "We have won gold enough to serve us the rest of our lives;" "But the poor lady was too sad to talk except to the boys now and again."

(5) Condition: "You would fancy, to hear McOrator after dinner, the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality" (the last is not a simple sentence, but it furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive).

362. The fact that the infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, is evident from the meaning of the sentences.

Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the meaning of purpose, result, etc., may be found out by turning the infinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied under subordinate conjunctions.

To test this, notice the following:—

In (1), to look means that he might look; to please is equivalent to that he may please,—both purpose clauses.

In (2), to find shows the result of the return; not to take pity is equivalent to that it would not take pity.

In (3), to part means because I part, etc.; and to betray and to bring express the reason, equivalent to that you betray, etc.

In (4), to serve and to talk are equivalent to [as much gold] as will serve us; and "too sad to talk" also shows degree.

In (5), to hear means if you should hear, and to say is equivalent to if we say,—both expressing condition.

363. V. The independent use, which is of two kinds,—

(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3).

(2) Exclamatory: "I a philosopher! I advance pretensions;" "'He to die!' resumed the bishop." (See also Sec. 268, 4.)

OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS.

364. In analyzing simple sentences, give—

(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the complement (Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351).

(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349).

(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351).

(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352).

(5) The subject (Sec. 347).

(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351).

(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355).

This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usually have; but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily by finding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc., and then finding the subject by placing the question who or what before it.

Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences.

Analyze the following according to the directions given:—

1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour.

2. I will try to keep the balance true.

3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution of these, must be in a life, not in a book.

4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by any misgiving of the value of these ballotings.

5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and music of the English language.

6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, through toys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams.

7. To be hurried away by every event, is to have no political system at all.

8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy,—a getting-out of their bodies to think.

9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, nor money, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself.

10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the edge of destruction, and only to be saved by invention and courage.

11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose.

12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of having been born to a private and humble fortune.

13. The water, like a witch's oils, Burnt green and blue and white.

14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance.

15. Old Adam, the carrion crow, The old crow of Cairo; He sat in the shower, and let it flow Under his tail and over his crest.

16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to other men.

17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet.

18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder by flashes of lightning.

19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might be called flabby and irresolute.

20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two stricken hours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual.

21. The word conscience has become almost confined, in popular use, to the moral sphere.

22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment discover something new.

23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court a bold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, an accomplished scholar.

24. Her aims were simple and obvious,—to preserve her throne, to keep England out of war, to restore civil and religious order.

25. Fair name might he have handed down, Effacing many a stain of former crime.

26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was the patriotism of Peel in recent history.

27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, time-honored, and, haply, time-shattered power—I owe thee nothing!

28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to such goodness.

29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to bid you leave the place now and forever.

30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all this mighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same Conde Olivarez.

31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform stretched within the bushes upon the ground.

32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and no provisions but wild berries.

33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, or perhaps one virtue, in this world.

34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike.

35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been in the latitude of Boston, the present capital of New England.

36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" having already flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar.

37. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet With the crews at England's feet.

38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away through sickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness and savage tribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter,—their minds were filled with doleful forebodings.

39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the forest.

40. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre Lay in the fruitful valley.

41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the wherefore?



CONTRACTED SENTENCES.

[Sidenote: Words left out after than or as.]

365. Some sentences look like simple ones in form, but have an essential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as not to need expressing. Such are the following:—

"There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is worthy of our study]."

"The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as [they are marked] in the cities."

To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them the two following:—

"The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior orders than they are in any other country."

"This is not so universally the case at present as it was formerly."

[Sidenote: Sentences with like.]

366. As shown in Part I. (Sec. 333). the expressions of manner introduced by like, though often treated as phrases, are really contracted clauses; but, if they were expanded, as would be the connective instead of like; thus,—

"They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] a smile from the west [would shine]. From her own loved island of sorrow."

This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where like is an adjective complement; as,—

"She is like some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the grove;" "The ruby seemed like a spark of fire burning upon her white bosom."

Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study of simple and complex sentences.



COMPLEX SENTENCES.

[Sidenote: The simple sentence the basis.]

367. Our investigations have now included all the machinery of the simple sentence, which is the unit of speech.

Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of simple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to avoid the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity.

Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The basis of it is two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one member is the main one,—the backbone,—the other members subordinate to it, or dependent on it; as in this sentence,—

"When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur."

The relation of the parts is as follows:—

we are aware __ __ _ _when such a spirit breaks_ _forth into complaint_, _how great must be the suffering_ that extorts the murmur.

This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence forms in the mind,—how the first clause is held in suspense by the mind till the second, we are aware, is taken in; then we recognize this as the main statement; and the next one, how great ... suffering, drops into its place as subordinate to we are aware; and the last, that ... murmur, logically depends on suffering.

Hence the following definition:—

[Sidenote: Definition.]

368. A complex sentence is one containing one main or independent clause (also called the principal proposition or clause), and one or more subordinate or dependent clauses.

369. The elements of a complex sentence are the same as those of the simple sentence; that is, each clause has its subject, predicate, object, complements, modifiers, etc.

But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always has a word or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and modifier, the complex sentence has statements or clauses for these places.

CLAUSES.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

370. A clause is a division of a sentence, containing a verb with its subject.

Hence the term clause may refer to the main division of the complex sentence, or it may be applied to the others,—the dependent or subordinate clauses.

[Sidenote: Independent clause.]

371. A principal, main, or independent clause is one making a statement without the help of any other clause.

[Sidenote: Dependent clause.]

A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement depending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause.

[Sidenote: Kinds.]

372. As to their office in the sentence, clauses are divided into NOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB clauses, according as they are equivalent in use to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Noun Clauses.

373. Noun clauses have the following uses:—

(1) Subject: "That such men should give prejudiced views of America is not a matter of surprise."

(2) Object of a verb, verbal, or the equivalent of a verb: (a) "I confess these stories, for a time, put an end to my fancies;" (b) "I am aware [I know] that a skillful illustrator of the immortal bard would have swelled the materials."

Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc., is retained after a passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is retained, and should not be called an adjunct of the subject; for example, "We are persuaded that a thread runs through all things;" "I was told that the house had not been shut, night or day, for a hundred years."

(3) Complement: "The terms of admission to this spectacle are, that he have a certain solid and intelligible way of living."

(4) Apposition. (a) Ordinary apposition, explanatory of some noun or its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir Walter Raleigh, 'I know that he can toil terribly,' is an electric touch."

(b) After "it introductory" (logically this is a subject clause, but it is often treated as in apposition with it): "It was the opinion of some, that this might be the wild huntsman famous in German legend."

(5) Object of a preposition: "At length he reached to where the ravine had opened through the cliffs."

Notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object of the preposition, and the whole clause is not; thus, "The rocks presented a high impenetrable wall, over which the torrent came tumbling."