In the forms yourself and yourselves we have the possessive your marked as singular as well as plural.

[Sidenote: Use of the reflexives.]

96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:—

(1) As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the same person or thing as the subject; as in these sentences from Emerson:—

He who offers himself a candidate for that covenant comes up like an Olympian.

I should hate myself if then I made my other friends my asylum.

We fill ourselves with ancient learning.

What do we know of nature or of ourselves?

(2) To emphasize a noun or pronoun; for example,—

The great globe itself ... shall dissolve.—SHAKESPEARE.

Threats to all; To you yourself, to us, to every one.—Id.

Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme.—MILTON.

NOTE.—In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and the reflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example,—

Only itself can inspire whom it will.—EMERSON.

My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within them till myself shall die.—E.B. BROWNING.

As if it were thyself that's here, I shrink with pain.—WORDSWORTH.

(3) As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun; as,—

Lord Altamont designed to take his son and myself.—DE QUINCEY.

Victories that neither myself nor my cause always deserved.—B. FRANKLIN.

For what else have our forefathers and ourselves been taxed?—LANDOR.

Years ago, Arcturus and myself met a gentleman from China who knew the language.—THACKERAY.



Exercises on Personal Pronouns.

(a) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some each of masculine, feminine, and neuter.

(b) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the possessive, some of them being double possessives.

(c) Tell which use each it has in the following sentences:—

1. Come and trip it as we go, On the light fantastic toe.

2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it.

3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.

4. Courage, father, fight it out.

5. And it grew wondrous cold.

6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom.

7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because the corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active.

8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word is one with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it.

9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils.

10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonest spoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it is that a touch of water utterly ruins it.



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Three now in use.]

97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are who (with the forms whose and whom), which, and what.

[Sidenote: One obsolete.]

There is an old word, whether, used formerly to mean which of two, but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:—

Whether of them twain did the will of his father?

Whether is greater, the gold, or the temple?

From Steele (eighteenth century):—

It may be a question whether of these unfortunate persons had the greater soul.

[Sidenote: Use of who and its forms.]

98. The use of who, with its possessive and objective, is seen in these sentences:—

Who is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?—DE QUINCEY.

Whose was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?—BOWLES.

What doth she look on? Whom doth she behold?—WORDSWORTH.

From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative who refers to persons only; that it is not inflected for gender or number, but for case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as it always asks about somebody.

[Sidenote: Use of which.]

99. Examples of the use of interrogative which:—

Which of these had speed enough to sweep between the question and the answer, and divide the one from the other?—DE QUINCEY.

Which of you, shall we say, doth love us most?—SHAKESPEARE.

Which of them [the sisters] shall I take?—Id.

As shown here, which is not inflected for gender, number, or case; it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picks out one or more from a number of known persons or objects.

[Sidenote: Use of what.]

100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative what:—

Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, What did thy lady do?—SCOTT.

What is so rare as a day in June?—LOWELL.

What wouldst thou do, old man?—SHAKESPEARE.

These show that what is not inflected for case; that it is always singular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc., not to persons.



DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

101. The following are all the interrogative forms:—

SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR

Nom. who? which? what? Poss. whose? — — Obj. whom? which? what?

In spoken English, who is used as objective instead of whom; as, "Who did you see?" "Who did he speak to?"

[Sidenote: To tell the case of interrogatives.]

102. The interrogative who has a separate form for each case, consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but the case of which and what must be determined exactly as in nouns,—by the use of the words.

For instance, in Sec. 99, which is nominative in the first sentence, since it is subject of the verb had; nominative in the second also, subject of doth love; objective in the last, being the direct object of the verb shall take.

[Sidenote: Further treatment of who, which and what.]

103. Who, which, and what are also relative pronouns; which and what are sometimes adjectives; what may be an adverb in some expressions.

They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in the treatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127).



RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Function of the relative pronoun.]

104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative pronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having a conjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite short statements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sang of Border chivalry." Or, it may be shortened into,—

"The last of all the Bards was he, Who sung of Border chivalry."

In the latter sentence, who evidently refers to Bards, which is called the antecedent of the relative.

[Sidenote: The antecedent.]

105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or other word or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedes the pronoun.

Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, as they take the place usually of a word already used; as,—

The priest hath his fee who comes and shrives us.—LOWELL

In this, both his and who have the antecedent priest.

The pronoun which may have its antecedent following, and the antecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in the remarks on which below.

[Sidenote: Two kinds.]

106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE.

When the word relative is used, a simple relative is meant. Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, will be discussed further on.

The SIMPLE RELATIVES are who, which, that, what.

[Sidenote: Who and its forms.]

107. Examples of the relative who and its forms:—

1. Has a man gained anything who has received a hundred favors and rendered none?—EMERSON.

2. That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon.—DR JOHNSON.

3. For her enchanting son, Whom universal nature did lament.—MILTON.

4. The nurse came to us, who were sitting in an adjoining apartment.—THACKERAY.

5. Ye mariners of England, That guard our native seas; Whose flag has braved, a thousand years, The battle and the breeze!—CAMPBELL.

6. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and women who bless their species.—PARTON

[Sidenote: Which and its forms.]

108. Examples of the relative which and its forms:—

1. They had not their own luster, but the look which is not of the earth.—BYRON.

2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, Whose ponderous grate and massy bar Had oft roll'd back the tide of war.—SCOTT.

3. Generally speaking, the dogs which stray around the butcher shops restrain their appetites.—COX.

4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in which man's nature, with all its capabilities ..., is a divine creation.—W.D. WHITNEY.

5. (a) This gradation ... ought to be kept in view; else this description will seem exaggerated, which it certainly is not.—BURKE.

(b) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, which prevented him from taking his usual ride.—IRVING.

[Sidenote: That.]

109. Examples of the relative that:—

1. The man that hath no music in himself,... Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. —SHAKESPEARE

2. The judge ... bought up all the pigs that could be had.—LAMB

3. Nature and books belong to the eyes that see them.—EMERSON.

4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything that makes the land honorable.—H.W. BEECHER

5. Reader, that do not pretend to have leisure for very much scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you.—DE QUINCEY.

6. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!—CARLYLE.

[Sidenote: What.]

110. Examples of the use of the relative what:—

1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be what it chiefly trusts to, and what it takes most pains to render as complete as possible.—GOLDSMITH.

2. For what he sought below is passed above, Already done is all that he would do.—MARGARET FULLER.

3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of what often happens in that country.—MACAULAY

[To the Teacher.—If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get a much better understanding of the relatives.]



REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Who.]

111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the following facts will be noticed about the relative who:—

(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. 107, a man...who; in the second, that man...whose; in the third, son, whom; and so on.

(2) It has three case forms,—who, whose, whom.

(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. In sentence 4, who is first person; in 5, whose is second person; the others are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives are singular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural.

[Sidenote: Who referring to animals.]

112. Though in most cases who refers to persons there are instances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24) that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or interesting to man. Probably on the same principle the personal relative who is used not infrequently in literature, referring to animals.

Witness the following examples:—

And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], who class With those who think the candles come too soon.—LEIGH HUNT.

The robins...have succeeded in driving off the bluejays who used to build in our pines.—LOWELL.

The little gorilla, whose wound I had dressed, flung its arms around my neck.—THACKERAY.

A lake frequented by every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.—DR. JOHNSON.

While we had such plenty of domestic insects who infinitely excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well as to spin.—SWIFT.

My horse, who, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, seemed as much excited as myself.—IRVING.

Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, Cooper, Gibbon, and others.

[Sidenote: Which.]

113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that—

(1) Which refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons.

(2) It is not inflected for gender or number.

(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of its use as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96).

(4) It has two case forms,—which for the nominative and objective, whose for the possessive.

[Sidenote: Examples of whose, possessive case of which.]

114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that whose is the possessive of which, saying that the phrase of which should always be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that the possessive form whose is quite common in prose as well as in poetry: for example,—

I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious elevations, on whose tops the sun kindled all the melodies and harmonies of light.—BEECHER.

Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without pity, for a religion whose creed they do not understand, and whose precepts they habitually disobey.—MACAULAY

Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the plain, whose grave was dug by the thunder of the heavens.—SCOTT.

Many great and opulent cities whose population now exceeds that of Virginia during the Revolution, and whose names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized world.—MCMASTER.

Through the heavy door whose bronze network closes the place of his rest, let us enter the church itself.—RUSKIN.

This moribund '61, whose career of life is just coming to its terminus.—THACKERAY.

So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others.

[Sidenote: Which and its antecedents.]

115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that which may have other antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (a) there is a participial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (b) there is a complete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs.

Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows which; thus,—

And, which is worse, all you have done Hath been but for a wayward son. —SHAKESPEARE.

Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that men of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich."—RUSKIN.

I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds,—first, as being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing advantages; secondly (which made her stare), as carrying with it no real or enviable distinction.—DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: That.]

116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that—

(1) That refers to persons, animals, and things.

(2) It has only one case form, no possessive.

(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons.

(4) It has the same form for singular and plural.

It sometimes borrows the possessive whose, as in sentence 6, Sec. 109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage.

[Sidenote: What.]

117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that—

(1) What always refers to things; is always neuter.

(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. 1. The man that hath no music in himself,... Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. —SHAKESPEARE (3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, it usually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example,—

What I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I.—Bible

What fates impose, that men must needs abide.—SHAKESPEARE.

What a man does, that he has.—EMERSON.

Compare this:—

Alas! is it not too true, what we said?—CARLYLE.



DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:—

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

Nom. who which that what Poss. whose whose — — Obj. whom which that what

HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES.

119. The gender, number, and person of the relatives who, which, and that must be determined by those of the antecedent; the case depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause.

For example, consider the following sentence:

"He uttered truths that wrought upon and molded the lives of those who heard him."

Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking them out, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He uttered truths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the people;" (3) "These people heard him."

That evidently refers to truths, consequently is neuter, third person, plural number. Who plainly stands for those or the people, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. Here the relative agrees with its antecedent.

We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in case. Truths in sentence (2), above, is subject of wrought upon and molded; in (1), it is object of uttered. In (2), people is the object of the preposition of; in (3), it is subject of the verb heard. Now, that takes the case of the truths in (2), not of truths which is expressed in the sentence: consequently that is in the nominative case. In the same way who, standing for the people understood, subject of heard, is in the nominative case.

Exercise.

First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the following sentences:—

1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant!

2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona.

3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for filling an order.

4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody.

5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this avalanche of earthly impertinences.

6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, which is, after all, the highest result of all education.

7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to the reading of novels as a waste of time.

8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to be cunninger than they.

[Sidenote: Parsing what, the simple relative.]

120. The relative what is handled differently, because it has usually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its case is determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, "What can't be cured must be endured," the verb must be endured is the predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, What can't be cured. The whole expression is its subject. The word what, however, is subject of the verb can't be cured, and hence is in the nominative case.

"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change." Here the subject of is, etc., is what we call nature; but of this, we is the subject, and what is the direct object of the verb call, so is in the objective case.

[Sidenote: Another way.]

Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the following sentences, what is equivalent to that which:—

It has been said that "common souls pay with what they do, nobler souls with that which they are."—EMERSON.

That which is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; and what is disagreeable to nature is called good and virtuous.—BURKE.

Hence some take what as a double relative, and parse that in the first clause, and which in the second clause; that is, "common souls pay with that [singular, object of with] which [singular, object of do] they do."



INDEFINITE RELATIVES.

[Sidenote: List and examples.]

121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct as the simple relatives.

They are whoever, whichever, whatever, whatsoever; less common are whoso, whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever. The simple relatives who, which, and what may also be used as indefinite relatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):—

1. Whoever has flattered his friend successfully must at once think himself a knave, and his friend a fool.

2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm whatever he pleases.

3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or stand on their head, or what else soever, in a new and original way.

4. Whoso is heroic will always find crises to try his edge.

5. Only itself can inspire whom it will.

6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. Take which you please,—you cannot have both.

7. Do what we can, summer will have its flies.

[Sidenote: Meaning and use.]

122. The fitness of the term indefinite here cannot be shown better than by examining the following sentences:—

1. There is something so overruling in whatever inspires us with awe, in all things which belong ever so remotely to terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence.—BURKE.

2. Death is there associated, not with everything that is most endearing in social and domestic charities, but with whatever is darkest in human nature and in human destiny.—MACAULAY.

It is clear that in 1, whatever is equivalent to all things which, and in 2, to everything that; no certain antecedent, no particular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites.

[Sidenote: What simple relative and what indefinite relative.]

123. The above helps us to discriminate between what as a simple and what as an indefinite relative.

As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative what is equivalent to that which or the thing which,—some particular thing; as shown by the last sentence in Sec. 121, what means anything that, everything that (or everything which). The difference must be seen by the meaning of the sentence, as what hardly ever has an antecedent.

The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that who and which have no antecedent expressed, but mean any one whom, either one that, etc.



OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES.

[Sidenote: But and as.]

124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relative pronouns in some expressions; for example,—

1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway but has force in it: how else could it rot?—CARLYLE.

2. This, amongst such other troubles as most men meet with in this life, has been my heaviest affliction.—DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: Proof that they have the force of relatives.]

Compare with these the two following sentences:—

3. There is nothing but is related to us, nothing that does not interest us.—EMERSON.

4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such as Hester never ceased to use, but which only wealth could have purchased.—HAWTHORNE.

Sentence 3 shows that but is equivalent to the relative that with not, and that as after such is equivalent to which.

For as after same see "Syntax" (Sec. 417).

[Sidenote: Former use of as.]

125. In early modern English, as was used just as we use that or which, not following the word such; thus,—

I have not from your eyes that gentleness And show of love as I was wont to have.—SHAKESPEARE

This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example,—

"Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, as charmed your warts for you when you was a boy? "—KINGSLEY

This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works.

[Sidenote: Other substitutes.]

126. Instead of the phrases in which, upon which, by which, etc., the conjunctions wherein, whereupon, whereby, etc., are used.

A man is the facade of a temple wherein all wisdom and good abide.—EMERSON.

The sovereignty of this nature whereof we speak.—Id.

The dear home faces whereupon That fitful firelight paled and shone.—WHITTIER.



PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

[Sidenote: Special caution needed here.]

127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an interrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question the interrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when an antecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:—

1. (a) Like a gentleman of leisure who is strolling out for pleasure.

(b) Well we knew who stood behind, though the earthwork hid them.

2. (a) But what you gain in time is perhaps lost in power.

(b) But what had become of them they knew not.

3. (a) These are the lines which heaven-commanded Toil shows on his deed.

(b) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge which were the best of all these three.

In sentences 1 (a), 2 (a) and 3 (a) the regular relative use is seen; who having the antecedent gentleman, what having the double use of pronoun and antecedent, which having the antecedent lines.

But in 1 (b), 2 (b), and 3 (b), there are two points of difference from the others considered: first, no antecedent is expressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, a question is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as a whole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (b), if expanded, would be, "Who stood behind? We knew," etc., showing that who is plainly interrogative. So in 2 (b), what is interrogative, the full expression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not." Likewise with which in 3 (b).

[Sidenote: How to decide.]

In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of who or which, and whether what = that + which (if so, it is a simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or an interrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirect question (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is an indefinite relative).

[Sidenote: Another caution.]

128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether the pronoun is the word that really asks the question in an interrogative sentence. Examine the following:—

1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue Which doth all hues excel? —DRUMMOND

2. And then what wonders shall you do Whose dawning beauty warms us so? —WALKER

3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of what has lately been in a neighboring land?—MACAULAY

These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does the pronoun ask the question. In the first, whence is the interrogative word, which has the antecedent hue. In the second, whose has the antecedent you, and asks no question. In the third, the question is asked by the verb.



OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES.

[Sidenote: Relative omitted when object.]

129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary English when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardly a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus,—

These are the sounds we feed upon.—FLETCHER.

I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader with all the curiosities I observed.—SWIFT.

Exercise.

Put in the relatives who, which, or that where they are omitted from the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are any smoother or clearer:—

1. The insect I am now describing lived three years,—GOLDSMITH.

2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers are afraid of.—HOLMES.

3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf.—G. ELIOT.

4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of to his poor neighbor.—THACKERAY.

5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew.—FORSTER

6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court Calendars, but the life of man in England.—CARLYLE.

7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by instinct and habitude.—LOWELL.

[Sidenote: Relative omitted when subject.]

130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:—

There isn't one here * knows how to play ball.

There was such a crowd * went, the house was full.

Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,—

The silent truth that it was she was superior.—THACKERAY

I have a mind presages me such thrift.—SHAKESPEARE.

There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, Ne'er looks upon the sun. —SCOTT.

And you may gather garlands there Would grace a summer queen. Id.

'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.—CAMPBELL.

Exercises on the Relative Pronoun.

(a) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives who, which, that, and what.

(b) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives.

(c) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by pronouns.

(d) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:—

1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding.

2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what had happened.

3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word?

4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men; who were to be rulers over whom.

5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him.

6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother.



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Function of adjective pronouns.]

131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double use,—they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain an adjective meaning, but have lost their adjective use. Primarily they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly classed as adjective pronouns.

The following are some examples of these:—

Some say that the place was bewitched.—IRVING.

That mysterious realm where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death. —BRYANT.

How happy is he born or taught That serveth not another's will. —WOTTON

That is more than any martyr can stand.—EMERSON.

[Sidenote: Caution.]

[Sidenote: Adjectives, not pronouns.]

Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have seen in such expressions as, "The dead are there;" that is, a word, in order to be an adjective pronoun, must not modify any word, expressed or understood. It must come under the requirement of pronouns, and stand for a noun. For instance, in the following sentences—"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on each is written, in letters of gold, 'Truth;'" "You needs must play such pranks as these;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselves upon, and another to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on a horse, one must ride behind"—the words italicized modify nouns understood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each cube;" in the second, "these pranks," in the others, "another bank," "one man."

[Sidenote: Classes of adjective pronouns.]

132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:—

(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as this, that, the former, etc.

(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as each, either, neither, etc.

(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as some, any, few, many, none, all, etc.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Definition and examples.]

133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded to in the sentence.

The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be that as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing.

The following are examples of demonstratives:—

I did not say this in so many words.

All these he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see.

Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil.

How much we forgive in those who yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners!

The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when the latter was the King of Spain.

Such are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved.

Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reap the same.

They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties. They have not shunned the one, and they have well performed the other.

NOTE.—It will be noticed in the first four sentences that this and that are inflected for number.



Exercises.

(a) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns.

(b) In which of the following is these a pronoun?—

1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books, and to hand these over to his successor as little worn as he could.—LOWELL.

2. They had fewer books, but these were of the best.—Id.

3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait for these.—EMERSON

4. Souls such as these treat you as gods would.—Id.

5. These are the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface.—AGASSIZ

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Definition and examples.]

134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered singly.

[Sidenote: Simple.]

Some of these are simple pronouns; for example,—

They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to each.

As two yoke devils sworn to other's purpose.

Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which neither could have claimed as all his own.

[Sidenote: Compound.]

Two are compound pronouns,—each other, one another. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; as,

We violated our reverence each for the other's soul. —HAWTHORNE.

More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.

They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their thoughts.—HAWTHORNE.

Men take each other's measure when they react.—EMERSON.

Exercise.—Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns.

NUMERAL PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Definition and examples.]

135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or things.

The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:—

Trusting too much to others' care is the ruin of many.

'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to the end of all.

Another opposes him with sound argument.

It is as if one should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.

There were plenty more for him to fall in company with, as some of the rangers had gone astray.

The Soldan, imbued, as most were, with the superstitions of his time, paused over a horoscope.

If those [taxes] were the only ones we had to pay, we might the more easily discharge them.

Much might be said on both sides.

If hand of mine another's task has lightened. It felt the guidance that it does not claim. So perish all whose breast ne'er learned to glow For others' good, or melt for others' woe.

None shall rule but the humble.

[Sidenote: Some inflected.]

It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and number; such as one other, another.

The word one has a reflexive form; for example,—

[Sidenote: One reflexive.]

The best way to punish oneself for doing ill seems to me to go and do good.—KINGSLEY.

The lines sound so prettily to one's self. HOLMES.

Exercise.—Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns.



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: Definition and examples.]

136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never used as adjectives.

Most of them are compounds of two or more words:—

[Sidenote: List.]

Somebody, some one, something; anybody, any one (or anyone), anything; everybody, every one (or everyone), everything; nobody, no one, nothing; somebody else, anyone else, everybody else, every one else, etc.; also aught, naught; and somewhat, what, and they.

The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:—

As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit everybody's fancy.

Every one knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences.

Nothing sheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.

Let us also perform something worthy to be remembered.

William of Orange was more than anything else a religious man.

Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of everything that nobody else would buy.

These other souls draw me as nothing else can.

The genius that created it now creates somewhat else.

Every one else stood still at his post.

That is perfectly true: I did not want anybody else's authority to write as I did.

They indefinite means people in general; as,—

At lovers' perjuries, they say, Jove laughs.—SHAKESPEARE.

What indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you what." It means something, and was indefinite in Old English.

Now, in building of chaises, I tell you what, There is always somewhere a weakest spot.

Exercise.—Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns.

137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in the words everybody's, anybody else's, etc.

See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms with else.



HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.

[Sidenote: A reminder.]

138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of parsing words according to form instead of according to function or use.

Exercise.

Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:—

1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which they were translated.

2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of herself.

3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he pretends to, in his negotiations.

4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.

5. All was now ready for action.

6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.

7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.

8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government, and of no other.

9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an extent.

10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.

11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.

12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.

13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.

14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!

15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours.

16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.

17. For this did God send her a great reward.

18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared little about.

19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature?

20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.

21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last night like a corpse?

22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form.

23. What hand but would a garland cull For thee who art so beautiful?

24. And I had done a hellish thing, And it would work 'em woe.

25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth doing, that let him communicate.

26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.

27. And will your mother pity me, Who am a maiden most forlorn?

28. They know not I knew thee, Who knew thee too well.

29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake, By the old Hall which may be mine no more.

30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced Words which I could not guess of.

31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow: Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.

32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere; Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!

33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.

34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.

35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?

36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.

37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.

38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.

39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.

40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say.

41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep.

42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present.

43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit.

44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad step towards my liberation.

45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two—which is the master.



ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: Office of Adjectives.]

139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it a house. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.

As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives telling the characteristics of an object. If a chemist discovers a new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its qualities: he will say it is solid, or liquid, or gaseous; heavy or light; brittle or tough; white or red; etc.

Again, in pointing out an object, adjectives are used; such as in the expressions "this man," "that house," "yonder hill," etc.

Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the number is limited by adjectives; as, "one hat," "some cities," "a hundred men."

The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the same time add to the meaning of the noun.

[Sidenote: Substantives.]

140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by adjectives.

To make this clear, notice the following sentences:—

[Sidenote: Pronoun.]

If he be thankful for small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and their trash.—BACON.

[Sidenote: Infinitives.]

To err is human; to forgive, divine.—POPE.

With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still less significant "and so," they constitute all his connections.—COLERIDGE.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application.

[Sidenote: Classes of adjectives.]

142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:—

(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities or attributes of a substantive.

(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken of, or how much of a thing.

(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things.

(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. They include relative and interrogative words.



DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.

143. This large class includes several kinds of words:—

(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as safe, happy, deep, fair, rash, beautiful, remotest, terrible, etc.

(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "Heaven-derived power," "this life-giving book," "his spirit wrapt and wonder-struck," "ice-cold water," "half-dead traveler," "unlooked-for burden," "next-door neighbor," "ivory-handled pistols," "the cold-shudder-inspiring Woman in White."

(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old English manuscript," "the Christian pearl of charity," "the well-curb had a Chinese roof," "the Roman writer Palladius."

(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to express quality. Examples are,—

Pure participial adjectives: "The healing power of the Messiah," "The shattering sway of one strong arm," "trailing clouds," "The shattered squares have opened into line," "It came on like the rolling simoom," "God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb."

Faded participial adjectives: "Sleep is a blessed thing;" "One is hungry, and another is drunken;" "under the fitting drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are amazing;" "an aged man;" "a charming sight."

[Sidenote: Caution.]

144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun.

For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly accomplished," was accomplished is a verb; in this, "No man of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished," was is the verb, and accomplished is an adjective.



Exercises.

1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.

2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—

The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh exhausted.



ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.

145. Adjectives of quantity tell how much or how many. They have these three subdivisions:—

[Sidenote: How much.]

(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as little, much, some, no, any, considerable, sometimes small, joined usually to singular nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.

The following examples are from Kingsley:—

So he parted with much weeping of the lady. Which we began to do with great labor and little profit. Because I had some knowledge of surgery and blood-letting. But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take no care as long as he was by.

Examples of small an adjective of quantity:—

"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and walked away with a laugh of small satisfaction.—MACDONALD.

'Tis midnight, but small thoughts have I of sleep.—COLERIDGE.

It gives small idea of Coleridge's way of talking.—CARLYLE.

When some, any, no, are used with plural nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.

[Sidenote: How many.]

(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the natural division into—

(a) Definite numerals; as, "one blaze of musketry;" "He found in the pathway fourteen Spaniards;" "I have lost one brother, but I have gained fourscore;" "a dozen volunteers."

(b) Indefinite numerals, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave several thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, and with them a few negroes;" "Then we wandered for many days;" "Amyas had evidently more schemes in his head;" "He had lived by hunting for some months;" "That light is far too red to be the reflection of any beams of hers."

[Sidenote: Single ones of any number of changes.]

(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,—

Every town had its fair; every village, its wake.—THACKERAY.

An arrow was quivering in each body.—KINGSLEY.

Few on either side but had their shrewd scratch to show.—Id.

Before I taught my tongue to wound My conscience with a sinful sound, Or had the black art to dispense A several sin to every sense.—VAUGHAN.

Exercise.—Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.



DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: Not primarily pronouns.]

146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close connection.

[Sidenote: The list.]

The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, (plural these, those), yonder (or yon), former, latter; also the pairs one (or the one)—the other, the former—the latter, used to refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.

[Sidenote: Examples.]

The following sentences present some examples:—

The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance that would those looks reprove.—GOLDSMITH.

These were thy charms...but all these charms are fled.—Id.

About this time I met with an odd volume of the "Spectator."—B. FRANKLIN.

Yonder proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.—D. WEBSTER.

Yon cloud with that long purple cleft.—WORDSWORTH.

I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic examples of early art, of equal skill; but in the one case, skill which was progressive—in the other, skill which was at pause.—RUSKIN.

Exercise.—Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.

[Sidenote: Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives.]

147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The following are examples:—

The first regular provincial newspapers appear to have been created in the last decade of the seventeenth century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century almost every important provincial town had its local organ.—BANCROFT.

These do not, like the other numerals, tell how many things are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily pronouns; but, when they modify words instead of referring to them as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two kinds,—RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,—and are used to join sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.

[Sidenote: Modify names of persons or things.]

149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are which and what; for example,—

It matters not what rank he has, what revenues or garnitures. —CARLYLE.

The silver and laughing Xenil, careless what lord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course.—BULWER.

The taking of which bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of every mother's son of us.—KINGSLEY.

In which evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.—Id.

[Sidenote: Indefinite relative adjectives.]

150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are what, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever. Examples of their use are,—

He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make what sour mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him.—LAMB.

Whatever correction of our popular views from insight, nature will be sure to bear us out in.—EMERSON.

Whatsoever kind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son.—RUSKIN.

Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity, whichever way he turned himself?—HAWTHORNE.

New torments I behold, and new tormented Around me, whichsoever way I move, And whichsoever way I turn, and gaze. —LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE).

151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are which and what. They may be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, which is selective among what is known; what inquires about things or persons not known.

[Sidenote: In direct questions.]

Sentences with which and what in direct questions:—

Which debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt to the poor?—EMERSON.

But when the Trojan war comes, which side will you take? —THACKERAY.

But what books in the circulating library circulate?—LOWELL.

What beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?—POPE.

[Sidenote: In indirect questions.]

Sentences with which and what in indirect questions:—

His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew.—IRVING.

A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best.—CARLYLE.

He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any.—Id.

At what rate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to determine.—AGASSIZ.

[Sidenote: Adjective what in exclamations.]

152. In exclamatory expressions, what (or what a) has a force somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,—

Oh, what a revolution! and what a heart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!—BURKE.

What a piece of work is man!—SHAKESPEARE.

And yet, alas, the making of it right, what a business for long time to come!—CARLYLE

Through what hardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit!—THOREAU.

Exercise.—Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.



INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.

153 .Adjectives have two inflections,—number and comparison.

NUMBER.—This, That.

[Sidenote: History of this—these and that—those.]

154. The only adjectives having a plural form are this and that (plural these, those).

This is the old demonstrative; that being borrowed from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The article that was used with neuter nouns.

In Middle English the plural of this was this or thise, which changed its spelling to the modern form these.

[Sidenote: Those borrowed from this.]

But this had also another plural, thas (modern those). The old plural of that was tha (Middle English tho or thow): consequently tho (plural of that) and those (plural of this) became confused, and it was forgotten that those was really the plural of this; and in Modern English we speak of these as the plural of this, and those as the plural of that.

COMPARISON.

155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.

[Sidenote: Meaning of comparison.]

When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a cow is larger than a sheep, gold is heavier than iron, a sapphire is bluer than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or amount, of the quality.

The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" "the largest soul."

Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."

[Sidenote: Words that cannot be compared.]

156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for example,—

His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whose favorite pupil he was.—THACKERAY.

A main difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not.—EMERSON

It was his business to administer the law in its final and closest application to the offender—HAWTHORNE.

Freedom is a perpetual, organic, universal institution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.—SEWARD.

So with the words sole, sufficient, infinite, immemorial, indefatigable, indomitable, supreme, and many others.

It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.

[Sidenote: The two forms.]

158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.

These are called degrees of comparison.

These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the positive degree.

159. The comparative is formed by adding -er, and the superlative by adding -est, to the simple form; as, red, redder, reddest; blue, bluer, bluest; easy, easier, easiest.

[Sidenote: Substitute for inflection in comparison.]

160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.

They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century later.

[Sidenote: Which rule,— -er and -est or more and most?]

161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with more and most, so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative and the superlative.

The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add -er and -est; and other words are preceded by more and most.

But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression.

To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:—

From Thackeray: "The handsomest wives;" "the immensest quantity of thrashing;" "the wonderfulest little shoes;" "more odd, strange, and yet familiar;" "more austere and holy."

From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and patientest fusing;" "distantest relationships;" "sorrowfulest spectacles."

Carlyle uses beautifulest, mournfulest, honestest, admirablest, indisputablest, peaceablest, most small, etc.

These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but more and most are frequently used with monosyllables.

162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to very with the positive degree; as,—

To this the Count offers a most wordy declaration of the benefits conferred by Spain.—The Nation, No 1507

In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a most genuine substance.—CARLYLE

A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was most finished, polished, witty, easy, quiet.—THACKERAY

He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in the queerest way.—Id.

"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of his dearest mistress.—Id.

[Sidenote: Adjectives irregularly compared.]

163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These are adjectives irregularly compared.

Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many centuries.

The following lists include the majority of them:—

LIST I.

1. Good or well Better Best 2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst 3. Little Less, lesser Least 4. Much or many More Most 5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest 6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next 7. Near Nearer Nearest 8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest 9. Late Later, latter Latest, last 10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost

LIST II.

These have no adjective positive:—

1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost 2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost {Utmost, uttermost 3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost

LIST III.

A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:—

After Over Under Nether

Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.

[Sidenote: List I.]

164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to better and best. There was an old comparative bet, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th century), "Ich singe bet than thu dest" (I sing better than thou dost). The superlative I form was betst, which has softened to the modern best.

(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to worse, worst; but later bad and ill were borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same comparative and superlative. Worser was once used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,—

O, throw away the worser part of it.—HAMLET.

(3) Little is used as positive to less, least, though from a different root. A double comparative, lesser, is often used; as,—

We have it in a much lesser degree.—MATTHEW ARNOLD.

Thrust the lesser half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. —LAMB.

(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former times much was used in the sense of large, great, and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes a mickle." Its spelling has been micel, muchel, moche, much, the parallel form mickle being rarely used.

The meanings greater, greatest, are shown in such phrases as,—

The more part being of one mind, to England we sailed.—KINGSLEY.

The most part kept a stolid indifference.—Id.

The latter, meaning the largest part, is quite common.

(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than older, oldest. A few other words with the vowel o had similar change in the comparative and superlative, as long, strong, etc.; but these have followed old by keeping the same vowel o in all the forms, instead of lenger, strenger, etc., the old forms.

(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, except the form next; but originally the comparison was nigh, near, next. In the same way the word high had in Middle English the superlative hexte.

By and by the comparative near was regarded as a positive form, and on it were built a double comparative nearer, and the superlative nearest, which adds -est to what is really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.

(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, coming about as follows: further really belongs to another series,—forth, further, first. First became entirely detached from the series, and furthest began to be used to follow the comparative further; then these were used as comparative and superlative of far.

The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative farrer, farrest. In imitation of further, furthest, th came into the others, making the modern farther, farthest. Between the two sets as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps further is more used than farther in the sense of additional; as, for example,—

When that evil principle was left with no further material to support it.—HAWTHORNE.

(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since later, latest, came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. Later and latest have the true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; latter and last are used in speaking of succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with the word late.

(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form hindmost is really a double superlative, since the m is for -ma, an old superlative ending, to which is added -ost, doubling the inflection. Hind-er-m-ost presents the combination comparative + superlative + superlative.

[Sidenote: List II.]

165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no adjective positives.

The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.

The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of comparative added to double-superlative inflection.

Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the inner splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the inmost heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the outermost developments of a man;" "The outer is of the day;" "far-seeing as the sun, the upper light of the world;" "the innermost moral soul;" "their utmost exertion."

[Sidenote: -Most added to other words.]

166. The ending -most is added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no comparative forms.

There, on the very topmost twig, sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink.—H.W. BEECHER.

Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of family in northernmost Spain.—DE QUINCEY.

Highest and midmost, was descried The royal banner floating wide.—SCOTT.

[Sidenote: List III.]

167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive.

Her bows were deep in the water, but her after deck was still dry.—KINGSLEY.

Her, by the by, in after years I vainly endeavored to trace.—DE QUINCEY.

The upper and the under side of the medal of Jove.—EMERSON.

Have you ever considered what a deep under meaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers?—RUSKIN.

Perhaps he rose out of some nether region.—HAWTHORNE.

Over is rarely used separately as an adjective.



CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.

[Sidenote: Think what each adjective belongs to.]

168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group of words.

For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four adjectives after was modify the noun voice. But in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision," decision is modified by the adjective incomparable; usual modifies incomparable decision, not decision alone; and the pronoun her limits usual incomparable decision.

Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the same rank; those modifying different words or word groups are said to be adjectives of different rank. This distinction is valuable in a study of punctuation.

Exercise.

In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:—

1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and intangibility.—HAWTHORNE.

2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be controlled by some religious denomination.—NOAH PORTER.

3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart.—MRS. STOWE.

4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.—A.H. STEPHENS

5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests?—Id.

6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.—HAWTHORNE.

7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate and profound impression.—HOLMES.



ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.

169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in which then is an adverb, we may say "the then king," making then an adjective. Other instances are,—

My then favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.—RUSKIN.

Our sometime sister, now our queen.—SHAKESPEARE

Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the then and still owners. —TROLLOPE.

The seldom use of it.—TRENCH.

For thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities.—Bible.



HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.

[Sidenote: What to tell in parsing.]

170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of parsing is simple.

In parsing an adjective, tell—

(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.

(2) Its number, if it has number.

(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.

(4) What word or words it modifies.

MODEL FOR PARSING.

These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.

These points out what truths, therefore demonstrative; plural number, having a singular, this; cannot be compared; modifies the word truths.

Unfamiliar describes truths, therefore descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixing more and most; positive degree; modifies truths.

Exercise.

Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:—

1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to Eliza.

2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked.

3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end by a direct, frank, manly way.

4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.

5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.

6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and most astounding were those frightful yells.

7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent.

8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.

9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, seventy-five drachmas.

10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were bound to be absent.

11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.

12. I know not what course others may take.

13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.

14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!

15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.

16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?

17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his country.

18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.

19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.

20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.

21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.

22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.

23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.

24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.

25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable.

26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and hates nothing so much as pretenders.

27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many by half.

28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same love to France would have been nurtured.

29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?

30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to us, is the settlement of our own country.

31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.

32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.

33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit.

34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no literary man.

35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!

36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.

37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.



ARTICLES.

171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words the and an belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.

[Sidenote: Their origin.]

172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective (se, seo, ethat, later the, theo, that) which was also an article in Old English. In Middle English the became an article, and that remained a demonstrative adjective.

An or a came from the old numeral an, meaning one.

[Sidenote: Two relics.]

Our expressions the one, the other, were formerly that one, that other; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in vulgar English, the tother. Not only this is kept in the Scotch dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as the tane, the tother, or the tane, the tither; for example,—

We ca' her sometimes the tane, sometimes the tother.—SCOTT.

[Sidenote: An before vowel sounds, a before consonant sounds.]

173. Ordinarily an is used before vowel sounds, and a before consonant sounds. Remember that a vowel sound does not necessarily mean beginning with a vowel, nor does consonant sound mean beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "a house," "an orange," "a European," "an honor," "a yelling crowd."

[Sidenote: An with consonant sounds.]

174. Many writers use an before h, even when not silent, when the word is not accented on the first syllable.

An historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.—MACAULAY.

The Persians were an heroic people like the Greeks.—BREWER.

He [Rip] evinced an hereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business.—IRVING.

An habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images.—COLERIDGE.

An hereditary tenure of these offices.—THOMAS JEFFERSON.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or class.

[Sidenote: Kinds.]

176. Articles are either definite or indefinite.

The is the definite article, since it points out a particular individual, or group, or class.

An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of a group or class of things.

An and a are different forms of the same word, the older an.



USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

[Sidenote: Reference to a known object.]

177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in the sentence,—

Don't you remember how, when the dragon was infesting the neighborhood of Babylon, the citizens used to walk dismally out of evenings, and look at the valleys round about strewed with the bones?—THACKERAY.

NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is introduced by a, and afterwards referred to by the:—

By and by a giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on the ice near Audhumla.... The giant frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair.—Heroes of Asgard.

[Sidenote: With names of rivers.]

178. The is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the word river is omitted, as "the Mississippi," "the Ohio," the article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other geographical division, is referred to.

No wonder I could face the Mississippi with so much courage supplied to me.—THACKERAY.

The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest of the Missouri.—G. BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: To call attention to attributes.]

179. When the is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing attention to certain qualities possessed by the person or thing spoken of; thus,—

The Bacon, the Spinoza, the Hume, Schelling, Kant, or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your consciousness.—EMERSON.

[Sidenote: With plural of abstract nouns.]

180. The, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks it as half abstract or a common noun.

[Sidenote: Common.]

His messages to the provincial authorities.—MOTLEY.

[Sidenote: Half abstract.]

He was probably skilled in the subtleties of Italian statesmanship.—Id.

[Sidenote: With adjectives used as nouns.]

181. When the precedes adjectives of the positive degree used substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities.

1. The simple rise as by specific levity, not into a particular virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.—EMERSON.

2. If the good is there, so is the evil.—Id.

[Sidenote: Caution.]

NOTE.—This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns; as,—

As she hesitated to pass on, the gallant, throwing his cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.—SCOTT.

But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish the temerity of the natives.—G. BANCROFT.

[Sidenote: One thing for its class.]

182. The before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which it belongs; for example,—

The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and moist fields from the bluebird, the song sparrow, and the redwing, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they fell!—THOREAU.

In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift.—GIBBON.

[Sidenote: For possessive person pronouns.]

183. The is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronouns his, her, etc.

More than one hinted that a cord twined around the head, or a match put between the fingers, would speedily extract the required information.—KINGSLEY.

The mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the strongest features in Wordsworth's face.—DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: The for a.]

184. In England and Scotland the is often used where we use a, in speaking of measure and price; as,—

Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the middle of the fourteenth century tenpence the bushel, barley averaging at the same time three shillings the quarter.—FROUDE.

[Sidenote: A very strong restrictive.]

185. Sometimes the has a strong force, almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,—

No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you.—Bible.

As for New Orleans, it seemed to me the city of the world where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.—THACKERAY.

He was the man in all Europe that could (if any could) have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.—DE QUINCEY.

[Sidenote: Mark of a substantive.]

186. The, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, but substantively.

In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for the gathering.—EMERSON.

I thought the writing excellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate it.—FRANKLIN.

[Sidenote: Caution.]

187. There is one use of the which is different from all the above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare this sentence with those above:—

There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not previously noticed, and which grew still the more obvious to the sight the oftener they looked upon him.—HAWTHORNE.

Exercise.—Find sentences with five uses of the definite article.



USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

[Sidenote: Denotes any one of a class.]

188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to singular words; as in the sentence,—

Near the churchyard gate stands a poor-box, fastened to a post by iron bands and secured by a padlock, with a sloping wooden roof to keep off the rain.—LONGFELLOW

[Sidenote: Widens the scope of proper nouns.]

189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,—

The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced an Alcibiades or a Caesar, have been exchanged for the higher ideals of a Bayard or a Sydney.—PEARSON

[Sidenote: With abstract nouns.]

190. An or a before abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only one instance or example of things possessing the quality.

[Sidenote: Become half abstract.]

The simple perception of natural forms is a delight.—EMERSON

If thou hadst a sorrow of thine own, the brook might tell thee of it.—HAWTHORNE

In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of delight, which cannot be singular or plural, a delight means one thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.

So a sorrow means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are other things that bring sorrow.

[Sidenote: Become pure class nouns.]

NOTE.—Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,—

If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not a wit, who deserves to be called so?—THACKERAY.

He had a little brother in London with him at this time,—as great a beauty, as great a dandy, as great a villain.—Id.

A youth to fortune and to fame unknown.—GRAY.

[Sidenote: Changes material to class nouns.]

191. An or a before a material noun indicates the change to a class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,—

They that dwell up in the steeple,... Feel a glory in so rolling On the human heart a stone. —POE.

When God at first made man, Having a glass of blessings standing by. —HERBERT.

The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by a cement that grew harder by time.—JOHNSON.

[Sidenote: Like the numeral adjective one.]

192. In some cases an or a has the full force of the numeral adjective one. It is shown in the following:—

To every room there was an open and a secret passage.—JOHNSON.

In a short time these become a small tree, an inverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other.—THOREAU.

All men are at last of a size.—EMERSON.

At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, two at a time.—THOREAU.

[Sidenote: Equivalent to the word each or every.]

193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of each or every, particularly to express measure or frequency.

It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to work eight or ten hours a day.—BULWER

[Sidenote: Compare to Sec. 184.]

Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence a gallon, was then a penny a gallon.—FROUDE

[Sidenote: With such, many, what.]

194. An or a is added to the adjectives such, many, and what, and may be considered a part of these in modifying substantives.

How was I to pay such a debt?—THACKERAY.

Many a one you and I have had here below.—THACKERAY.

What a world of merriment then melody foretells!—POE.

[Sidenote: With not and many.]

195 LIST III.

A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:—

After Over Under Nether.

Not and never with a or an are numeral adjectives, instead of adverbs, which they are in general.

Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note.—WOLFE

My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said never a word.—THACKERAY.

NOTE.—All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last analysis of the expressions, such, many, not, etc., might be considered as adverbs modifying the article.

[Sidenote: With few or little.]

196. The adjectives few and little have the negative meaning of not much, not many, without the article; but when a is put before them, they have the positive meaning of some. Notice the contrast in the following sentences:—

Of the country beyond the Mississippi little more was known than of the heart of Africa.—MCMASTER

To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope that when a little time, a few years, shall have tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them together.—Keats's Letters.

Few of the great characters of history have been so differently judged as Alexander.—SMITH, History of Greece

[Sidenote: With adjectives, changed to nouns.]

197. When the is used before adjectives with no substantive following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as nouns, or pure nouns; but when an or a precedes such words, they are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for example,—

Such are the words a brave should use.—COOPER.

In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be a favorite, and to have a good place.—THACKERAY

Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for use in the verses of a rival.—PEARSON.

Exercise.—Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite article.



HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES.

198. In parsing the article, tell—

(1) What word it limits.

(2) Which of the above uses it has.

Exercise.

Parse the articles in the following:—

1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole atmosphere are ours.

2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.

3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no more.

4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is mediaeval; the whole city is of a piece.

5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a new light has arisen.

6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.

7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.

8. This resistance was the labor of his life.

9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.

10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist with faultless beauty.

11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, jumping, tearing savage.

12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.

13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.

14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!

15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making of that brick.

16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent.



VERBS AND VERBALS..



VERBS.

[Sidenote: Verb,—the word of the sentence.]

199. The term verb is from the Latin verbum meaning word: hence it is the word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, See the apple! or I have an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the meaning is, "Yonder is a sail!"

Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb.

[Sidenote: One group or a group of words.]

200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the lack of inflections, verb phrases are very frequent. Hence the verb may consist of:

(1) One word; as, "The young man obeyed."

(2) Several words of verbal nature, making one expression; as, (a) "Some day it may be considered reasonable," (b) "Fearing lest he might have been anticipated."

(3) One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one verb phrase: as in the sentences, (a) "They knew well that this woman ruled over thirty millions of subjects;" (b) "If all the flummery and extravagance of an army were done away with, the money could be made to go much further;" (c) "It is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which this preying upon people of small incomes can be put a stop to."

In (a), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (b), a verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (c), an article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb phrase.

[Sidenote: Definition and caution.]

201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb as one word.

Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), obeyed is a predicate; in (2, a), may be considered is a unit in doing the work of one predicate; in (2, b), might have been anticipated is also one predicate, but fearing is not a predicate, hence is not a verb; in (3, b), to go is no predicate, and not a verb; in (3, c), to pretend and preying have something of verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but cannot be predicates.

In the sentence, "Put money in thy purse," put is the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Put thou money in thy purse."



VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

[Sidenote: The nature of the transitive verb.]

202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for example, in this sentence from Bulwer,—"The proud lone took care to conceal the anguish she endured; and the pride of woman has an hypocrisy which can deceive the most penetrating, and shame the most astute,"—every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words before or after it, representing something which it influences or controls. In the first, lone took what? answer, care; endured what? anguish; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a person, or a material thing, or an idea. Has takes the object hypocrisy; can deceive has an object, the most penetrating; (can) shame also has an object, the most astute.