Moral Justice.

The imperial army being encamped in Temsena, on the confines of 307 Tedla, (see the map,) an Arab chieftain found that a friend of the Emperor came into his keyma[192] at night, and took liberties with his wife. The Arab suspected that he was (shereef) a prince, and therefore did not dare to kill him, but preferred a complaint to the Emperor. The Emperor was vexed to hear of such a gross breach of hospitality, and asked what time he made his visits? "At one hour after midnight," the Arab replied. Then, said the Emperor, "when he comes, do you let me know by giving the watch-word to this man, and he will then know what to do; and depend thou on my seeing justice done to thee for the aggression." The marauder came; the Arab repaired to the guard of the imperial tent, and gave the word; the guard apprised the emperor, as he was directed, who personally repaired to the tent of the Arab, and, being convinced of the fact, ran the man through with his lance; this was done without a light. The body was brought before the tent, and it was discovered to be an officer of the imperial guard. The Emperor, on seeing that it was not a shereef (a prince) prostrated himself in fervent prayer for a considerable time. The courtiers who were all assembled by this time to witness this extraordinary occurrence, wondered what could induce the Emperor to be so fervent in prayer; which his majesty observing, told them, "that he went alone to the tent, 308 thinking that nobody but a shereef would have dared to commit such a breach of hospitality, in so open a manner; therefore he killed him without having a light, lest, on discovering him to be a prince, personal affection might give way to justice; but that when he discovered that it was not a relation, he returned thanks to God Almighty, that, in his determination to have justice administered, he had not killed his own son!"

[Footnote 192: Keyma is the name for an Arab's tent; they are made of goats' hair, and are black.]

Contest between the Emperor and the Berebbers of Atlas.

March 10, 1797. The Sultan Soliman proceeds with a powerful army against the warlike province of Shawiya, the rebellious Arabs' retreat. The imperial army takes some of the women who are renowned for personal charms. The army can get no food; and, being in danger of starving, returns to Salee. The Arabs promise submission, in hopes of having the women restored; but the Emperor's officers violate them. The Arabs swear vengeance (alia l'imin[193]) by their right hand. The emperor attacks them again, is repulsed, and returns to Fas.

[Footnote 193: Alia l'imin, swearing by the right hand, is a sacred oath; and those who take it will not swerve from its obligation, which is peremptory.]

Characteristic Trait of Muhamedans.

One of the Emperor's ministers, when an English fleet was cruising 309 off Salee, and just after some impost had been levied on the merchandise already purchased and warehoused by the Christian merchants, suggested the impolicy at that moment, of harsh measures against Europeans: the Emperor, in a jocose manner, asked what harm he could suffer from the fleets of Europeans? "They could destroy your Imperial Majesty's ports," replied the minister. "Then I would build them again for one-half what it would cost them to destroy them. But if they dared to do that, I could retaliate, by sending out my cruisers to take their trading ships, which would so increase the premiums of insurance (for the (kaffers) infidels insure all things on earth, trusting nothing to God[194]), that they would be glad to sue for peace again."

[Footnote 194: The Muhamedans abuse the Christians for their mistrust of Providence, exemplified in their insuring ships, merchandise, &c.]

Political Deception.

When an embassy is going to the Emperor, the alkaid of the escort endeavours to make the present, which necessarily accompanies every embassy, as bulky and conspicuous as possible, that the Arabs of the kabyls through which they pass, may be dazzled and astounded with the great appearance of the presents, which the alkaid proclaims to consist chiefly of money, or treasure. The Arabs accordingly observed, on Mr. Matra's (the British consul) presents, that the English, who had conquered Bonaparte in Egypt, and were masters of the ocean and seas, yet were tributary to the Sultan. This idea is industriously propagated by the officers of the Emperor's court. "Thinkest thou," they ohserved, "that these Christians give such large presents with a free-will? Certainly not! They are compelled to do so. The (Romee) Europeans are too fond of money to give it away in such loads,—even the English, thou seest, are tributary to the Seed." [195]

[Footnote 195: A higher title among the true Arabs than Emperor: it implies conjointly, Emperor, Father of the People, Protector, and Brother.]

Etiquette of the Court of Marocco.

The European commerce of Mogodor went to pay their respects to the Emperor Seedi Muhamed, on his arrival, from Fas, at Marocco, as is customary. The Emperor's son, Muley El Mamune, was master of the audience, and ordered the commerce to advance into the imperial presence; and standing barefooted, as is the custom before the Emperor, he requested the merchants to take off their shoes, as he had done; but they expostulated, and said it was not their custom. The Prince, however, stopped them, and would not allow them to approach the imperial presence without first submitting to this ceremony. Seedi Muhamed, observing the impediment, and knowing the 311 cause, but willing at the same time to initiate the young prince in the custom of foreign countries, called his son to him, and said, "What do muselmen do, when they enter the Jamaa?"[196] "Revere the holy ground, by entering barefooted," replied the prince.—"And what do the Christians, when they enter their church?"—"They take off their hats," rejoined the Prince. (Allah e berk Amer Seedi,[197]) "God bless your Majesty's life."—"Then, what would you more of these my merchants, than that they pay me, even the same respect that they pay when they pray to Allah. Let them approach uncovered, with their shoes on, which they never take off, but to go to bed to rest".

[Footnote 196: An Arabic or Korannick word, signifying, the congregation of prayer, or mosque.]

[Footnote 197: A term invariably used at court, in addressing the Emperor.]

* * * * *

The province of Ait Atter, or the Atterites, in Lower Suse, is considered as an independent province, and it pays no tribute. They have a great dislike to kadis[198], talbs, and attornies, alleging that they only increase disputes between man and man, which is not at all necessary; all disputes are, therefore, decided by the sheik, who is not a logical wrangler, but decides according 312 to the simplest manner. The following decree of their sheik is on record:—

"Four men conjointly bought a mule, which for elucidation, we will call A, B, C, and D: each claimed a leg. D's leg was the off-hind one. In a few days this leg began to swell: it was agreed to cure it by (el keeh) burning it with a hot iron, (a common remedy in this country.) This done, the mule was turned out, and went into a field of barley. Some spark was attached to the hoof, and set fire to the corn, which was consumed. The proprietors of the barley applied to the sheik for justice; and A, B, C, and D, the owners of the mule, were summoned to appear. The sheik, finding the leg which caused the barley to be burnt, belonged to D, ordered him to pay the value of the barley. D expostulated, and maintained that he had no right to pay; for, if it had not been for A, B, and C's portions of the mule, the barley would have remained. "How so?" replied the sheik. "Because," quoth D, "the leg which belongs to me cannot touch the ground; but it was brought to the corn-field by the legs of A, B, and C, which were the efficient cause of the ignition of the barley. The sheik reversed his decree, and ordered A, B, and C to pay the damage, and D got off without expense.

[Footnote 198: Kadis, i.e. judges. Talbs, i.e. record writers. Kadi is generally spelt by the Europeans of the south Cadi, because they have no K in their alphabet: the Arabs have no C; the letter is Kaf or K, not C.]

313 Customs of the Shelluhs of the Southern Atlas, viz. of Idaultit (in Lower Suse.)

The mountains of Idaultit are inhabited by a courageous and powerful people, strict to their honour and word, unlike their neighbours of Elala. They make verbal contracts between themselves, and never go to law, or record their contracts or agreements, trusting implicitly to each other's faith and honour. If a man goes to this country to claim a debt due, he cannot receive it while there, but must first leave the country, and trust to the integrity of the Idaultitee, who will surely pay when convenient, but cannot bear compulsion or restraint. They do not acknowledge any sultan, but have a divan of their own, called Eljma, who settle all disputes between man and man. These people cultivate the plains, when there is no khalif in Suse; but when there is, they retire to the fastnesses in their mountains, and defy the arm of power; satisfying themselves with the produce of the mountains.

Connubial Customs.

The (shereef) Prince Muley Bryhim, son of the present Emperor Soliman, was married to the daughter of the bashaw Abdrahaman ben Nassar, who was powerful and rebellious, and prevented the Emperor for some time from proceeding to the south. This couple was married 314 in 1803. The bashaw died the same year; and in 1805 she was divorced, and sent by the Emperor to Mogodor, with orders to a sheik of Shedma to marry her, it being considered a degradation for a prince to be united to the daughter of a rebellious subject. This happened in January, 1806. The widow of the late Prince Muley Abdrahaman, who rebelled against his father, and who was elder brother to the Emperor Soliman, has been recently sent by the Emperor to Bu Azar, a negro bashaw, and governor of the city of Terodant, in Suse, to marry her. These marriages are promoted by the royal decree, to prevent the females from contaminating the royal blood by illicit connection, if they remain divorced, without a new husband.

Political Duplicity.

A fakeer having interceded in behalf of a state prisoner, his friend, who was confined in the island of Mogodor (the state prison of the empire, except for princes, who are sent to Tafilelt), the Emperor assured him he would release him; and urged the fakeer to proceed to Mogodor, and wait there his Majesty's arrival. The fakeer departed, and soon after his arrival at Mogodor, he learned that the Emperor was not going there; but the alkaid of Mogodor showed him a letter from the Emperor, ordering him to retain the prisoner in safe keeping, and not attend to what the fakeer should say. This system of breaking engagements and promises, is too often 315 denominated policy. "Dost thou think I am a Christian," said an emperor to a prince who was expostulating with him for not fulfilling his engagements,—"Dost thou think I am a Christian, to be a slave to my word?"

Senor P. a Spanish merchant, received a letter from the Emperor, directed to the (alkaid) governor of Rabat, ordering him to show Senor P. every attention, and to assist him if he should be desirous of establishing a house at Rabat. Senor P. left the court at Mequinas, well satisfied with his letter; but a few days after his arrival, the alkaid told him he must embark and quit the country in twenty-four hours, by the Emperor's order, which he showed to Senor P. who could read Arabic. He was obliged to embark immediately.

Etiquette of Language at the Court of Marocco.

If the Emperor should enquire about any person that has recently died, it is not the etiquette to mention the word "death,"—a muselmen is supposed never to die;—the answer is Ufah Ameruh, "his destiny is closed," or "he has completed his destiny." To which the following answer is invariably given—Allah e Erhammoh, "God be merciful to him." If a Jew's death is announced to any muselman prince, fakeer, or alkaid, the expression is, Maat hashak asseedi, "He is dead, Sir." Ashak is an Arabic idiom, the exact meaning of which cannot easily be conveyed in English; but it may 316 be assimilated to—"Pardon me for mentioning in your presence a name contemptible or gross (as Jew)." Thus, for further elucidation to the enquirer after the peculiarities of language, Kie 'tkillem ma el Kaba hashak asseedi,—"He is talking with a prostitute—your pardon, Sir, for the grossness of the expression."

If a man goes to the alkaid, to make a complaint against any one for doing any indecent act, and in relating the circumstance he omits the word hashak asseedi, the persons present will interrupt him thus,—Kul hashak b'adda, "Say hashak before you proceed." Blood, dung, dirt, pimp, procuress, prostitute, traitor, &c. &c. are words that (in correct company) are invariably followed by the qualifying word hashak.

If a Christian is dead, the expression is Mat el kaffer, or Mat el karan, or Mat bel karan, "The infidel is dead, the cuckold, or the son of a cuckold is dead."

Food.

Kuscasoe is, flour moistened with water, and granulated with the hand to the size of partridge-shot. It is then put into a steamer uncovered, under which fowls, or mutton, and vegetables, such as onions, and turnips, are put to boil: when the steam is seen to pass through the kuscasoe it is taken off and shook in a bason, to prevent the adhesion of the grains; and then put in the steamer again, and steamed a second time. When it is taken off, some 317 butter, salt, pepper, and saffron, are mixed with it, and it is served up in a large bowl. The top is garnished with the fowl or mutton, and the onions and turnips. When the saffron has made it the colour of straw, it has received the proper quota. This is, when properly cooked, a very palatable and nutritious dish.

Hassua is gruel boiled, and then left over the fire two hours. It is made with barley not ground into flour, but into small particles the size of sparrow-shot. It is a very salubrious food for breakfast, insomuch that they have a proverb which intimates that physicians need never go to those countries wherein the inhabitants break their fast with hassua.

El Hasseeda is barley roasted in an earthen pan, then powdered in a mortar, and mixed with cold water, and drank. This is the travelling food of the country—of the Arab, the Moor, the Berebber, the Shelluh, and the Negro; and is universally used by travellers in crossing the Sahara: the Akkabas that proceed from Akka and Tatta to Timbuctoo, Houssa, and Wangara, are always provided with a sufficient quantity of this simple restorative to the hungry stomach.

The Woled Abbusebah, a whole Clan of Arabs, banished from the Plains of Marocco.

This populous, powerful, and valiant kabyl, during the former part of the reign of the Sultan Seedi Muhamed ben Abdallah, father of 318 the present Emperor Soliman, occupied the plains west of the city of Marocco (being an emigration from the Bedouin tribe of the same name in the Sahara); but their depredatory disposition made travelling through their territory unsafe; wherefore the Emperor, after endeavouring in vain to make an example of them, issued a decree that they should all to a man leave his dominions, and they were driven by his army out of their country to the south, and entered the Sahara. The whole kabyl was thus outlawed, so that they were plundered and killed as they passed through the plains of Fruga, Ait Musie, Haha, and Suse, by the natives of those countries respectively. Not half the number that emigrated, (which was some thousands,) reached the original clan in the Sahara.

The Koran, called also El Kateb el Aziz.

The word Koran conveys the same signification as Bible: it means "the reading" or "the book;"—kora, "to read; "el Kateb el Aziz, i.e. "the dear or beloved book," meaning thereby the Koran.

Arabian Music.

The Sultan Seedi Muhamed, after hearing the musical band of the Marquis de Vialli, ambassador from Venice, expressed his gratification at the music of the Italians, and laconically observed that it possessed more harmony than that of any other nation, excepting his own. 319 Sigin Messa. (Sigilmessa.)

The country of Sigin Messa, called in the maps Sigilmessa, was the state prison of the kingdom of Suse, when it formed a part of the empire of Muley el Monsore, in the twelfth century of the Christian era. Messa, a port in Suse, was then a large city, and the capital of the kingdom of Suse. The state prisoners were sent to a place of safe keeping, which was east of Tafilelt, and was therefore called Sigin Messa, i.e. the prison of Messa.

Mungo Park at Timbuctoo.

In the month of March, 1806, a letter was received at Mogodor by Seedi L'Abes Buhellal Fasee, from his liberated slave at Timbuctoo. This letter was in Arabic, and the following is an extract literally translated from it by myself:—

"A boat arrived a few days since from the West at Kabra, having two or three Christians in it. One was (rajel kabeer) a tall man, who stood erect in the boat, which displayed (shinjuk bied) a white flag. The inhabitants of Kabra did not, however, understand the signal to be emblematic of peace, and no one went to the boat, although it remained at anchor before Kabra the whole day, till night. In the morning it was gone."

320 Troglodytae.

The Shelluhs of the Atlas, south-east of Santa Cruz, in Suse, during the rainy season, from November till February inclusive, live in caves and excavations in the rocks and earth; laying up provisions sufficient for that period, until the snow begins to melt. The Berebbers of North Atlas have followed the same custom from time immemorial.

Police of West Barbary.

When the present Emperor came to the throne, he gave indefatigable attention to the police. He wished, he said, to make the roads safe for travellers, from the Desert, or Sahara, to the shores of the Mediterranean. He was vigilant in discovering thefts, and rigorous in punishing them. If any one was robbed, he had only to report it to the Emperor, who would forthwith order the douar where the robbery was committed to restore the sum stolen, and to pay a fine to the treasury of the same amount. By adhering strictly to this system, he improved the revenue, and made travelling perfectly safe; so that one may travel now (1805), without danger, with property or money, from one end of the empire to the other. Before this system of policy was renewed, (for it is an old law of the land,) travellers with property were obliged to have a statta: thus, if a caravan was going from Terodant or Marocco to Fas, it took a statta; that is, two men, natives of the district of 321 Rahamena, who accompanied the caravan in safety to the confines of their territory; they then received a remuneration, and delivered over the caravan to two men of Abda, who conducted it to the border of Duquella: it was then delivered into the hands of two Duquella Arabs; and so it went through the different provinces till it reached Fas, under the protection, through each province, of a statta, each of which statta receives a remuneration. So that, by the time of arrival at Fas, the merchandise was sometimes subject to a charge of 8 or 10 per cent. for statta or convoy through the various provinces.

Before the Emperor Soliman thus established his authority, caravans of gums, almonds, ostrich feathers, gold-dust, &c. &c. from Suse, were sometimes twenty days going from Santa Cruz to Mogodor, a distance of less than one hundred miles, the statta being changed and paid at the entrance of every kabyl, of which there are twelve in the province of Haha alone; the camels being also changed at every change of statta, increased the charge on the merchandise to an immoderate amount. It would be a great acquisition to England, if His Majesty were to negociate with the Emperor of Marocco for the port of Santa Cruz; for the province of Suse produces in abundance olive oil, almonds, and gums; worm-seed, annis-seed, cummin-seed, and orchilla; oranges, grapes, pomegranates, figs, melons, &c. This port was farmed, during the reign of Muley Ismael, for an annual stipend. It is the key to 322 Sudan, and a communication might be opened on an extensive scale from hence with Timbuctoo, Housa, Wangara, and other regions of Sudan, so as to supply, in a few years, the whole of the interior of Africa with British and East-India manufactures.

Muley Abdrahaman ben Muhamed.

This prince, who was elder brother of the present Emperor Soliman, had accumulated considerable treasure in executing the office of (khalif) viceroy of the provinces of Duquella, Abda, and Shedma. His father, jealous of his son's power, when supported by a command of treasure, had recourse to the usual means of transferring it to the imperial treasury. It is held as law in this country, that little is sufficient for every purpose of life. When property becomes accumulated, it is alleged that more than a sufficiency is derogatory of the principles laid down in the Koran, and ought to revolve to the national treasury, there to be deposited as a fund in reserve against the invasion of the country by the Europeans, an event, which they are quite sure, from an ancient tradition, will happen at no very distant period.

Abdrahaman, however, equally avaricious with his father, objected to deliver up his treasure; which so irritated the Sultan, that he ordered a party of his negro soldiers to go to the Prince's house and seize every thing valuable. These men, in their thirst for plunder, out-ran their discretion, as it appears; for they 323 proceeded to examine the ladies in the Horem, putting their base hands on their persons, under the pretence of discovering if they had concealed their jewels and gold. This outrage roused the Prince's indignation and he lost no time in absenting himself for ever from his father's dominions, for this insult on his dignity.—"If my father," said the Prince, "had taken my treasure, it would have passed from my hands to his; but to permit the ignoble hands of slaves to offer me such an indignity, is more than I can or will suffer." Abdrahaman therefore emigrated to the province of Lower Suse, on the confines of Sahara, where he remained encamped, ready, upon any alarm, at a moment's notice, to penetrate into the Desert. He had always two heiries ready saddled at the gate of his (keyma) tent; one for carrying his treasure, viz. gold dust and jewels, and the other for himself to ride, on any emergency. Many fakeers were sent from the Sultan to the Prince; with the most solemn assurances of his reconciliation, and with urgent solicitations to him to return; but the Prince never forgave or forgot the insult.

Anecdote of Muley Ismael.

Muley Ismael compared his subjects to a bag full of rats.—"If you let them rest," said the warrior, "they will gnaw a hole in it: 324 keep them moving, and no evil will happen." So his subjects, if kept continually occupied, the government went on well; but if left quiet, seditions would quickly arise. This sultan was always in the tented-field: he would say, that he should not return to his palace until the tents were rotten. He kept his army incessantly occupied in making plantations of olives, or in building: rest and rebellion were with him synonymous terms.

Before the Portuguese transplanted their African colonies to South America, they had penetrated far into West Barbary; they frequently made incursions into the country from Mazagan to Marocco, and eastward of that city. They had a church near Diminet, on the declivity of the Atlas, about thirty-five miles east of Marocco, which is still existing: it is a kind of sanctuary; the Berebbers say it is haunted; they will not approach it. There is said to be an inscription on the building in Roman characters, over the entrance; but I never could ascertain what it is.

Library at Fas.

When the present Emperor came to the throne there was a very extensive and valuable library of Arabic manuscripts at Fas, consisting of many thousand volumes. Some of the more intelligent literary Moors are acquainted with events that happened formerly, 325 during the time of the Roman power, which Europeans do not possess. Abdrahaman ben Nassar, bashaw of Abda, was perfectly acquainted with Livy and Tacitus, and had read those works from the library at Fas. It is more than probable that the works of these authors, as well as those of many other Romans and Greeks, are to be found translated into the Arabic language, in the hands of private individuals in West and in South Barbary. This library was dispersed at the accession of Muley Soliman, and books commenting on the Koran only were retained; the rest were burned or dispersed among the natives.

Deism.

Deism was very prevalent throughout the empire. When the present Emperor Soliman came to the throne, the deists went about in large numbers, exclaiming, La Allah ila Allah, "There is no God but God." The Emperor soon silenced these people, by proclaiming that if any should be found uttering this truth, without adding, "Muhamed is his prophet," should ([199]ekul lassah) be beat. The sect soon disappeared.

[Footnote 199: This punishment is inflicted by two men, one on each side; the culprit is stretched naked on the ground, and beat on the back unmercifully, with sticks two yards long, and as thick as a finger.]

326 Muhamedan Loyalty.

An alkaid of a district in the province of Abda, when that province submitted to the Emperor, went to His Majesty, taking with him the fruit of his government, viz. 100,000 dollars. He prostrated himself before the Emperor, and announced that he had brought this money to the Muselman treasury, being what he had collected since the death of the Emperor's father. "I have lived splendidly, and have never wanted any thing, or I should have brought Your Majesty much more treasure." "You have been," said the Emperor, "a faithful servant, and you shall be rewarded." He was promoted to a government, and had many opportunities of refunding his loss. A large sum was returned to him for his fidelity.

Cairo.

The city of El Kahira is called by Europeans Cairo. When Kairo was founded, in the 359th year of the Hejra, the planet Mars was in ascension; and it is Mars who conquers the universe: "therefore," said Moaz, (the son of El Mansor) to his son, "I have given it the name of El-Kahira."[200]

[Footnote 200: El Kahira is the Arabic for the planet Mars, and signifies victorious.] 327 Races of Men constituting the Inhabitants of West and South Barbary, and that Part of Bled el Jereed, called Tafilelt and Sejin Messa, east of the Atlas, forming the Territories of the present Emperor of Marocco.

The Moors, who inhabit the towns on the coast, and the cities of Fas, Mequinas, Marocco, and Terodant; who speak a corrupt Arabic language.

The Berebbers, who appear to be the Aborigines, and who retain precisely the same character that was anciently given of the Mauritanians by Sallust. These people inhabit the mountains of Atlas, north of the city of Marocco, and have a language peculiar to themselves. They are a hardy race of warriors, as artful as they are indefatigable in war; when attacked by the imperial troops, they defend themselves valiantly; and, by stratagem and device, often surprise and defeat the Emperor's best troops, the abeed Seedy Bukaree. They call the Negro and Arab troops of the Emperor, (maden el grudder), a mine of deceit, and never trust to their vows and promises, even if they swear by the Koran. They are a restless turbulent race, and have never been conquered. They have adopted the Muhamedan doctrines.

The Shelluhs, or inhabitants of the Atlas, who dwell in houses in the mountains south of Marocco, in the province of Haha, and in 328 part of Suse. These are a weaker race, not so athletic and robust as the Berebbers. Their language has been represented to be similar to that of the Berebbers, but that is evidently a mistake; I have travelled through their country, and through the country of the Berebbers, and have conversed with hundreds, nay, I may say, with thousands of them: I have no hesitation in declaring them to be a different race. Their language, costume, and habits differ; the Shelluhs, however, possess the same art and duplicity with the Berebbers.

The Arabs, who live in douars of tents, and inhabit the immense plains west of the Atlas, are the agriculturists of the country. They form the principal population of this terrestrial paradise; they are for the most part emigrations from the Sahara, several centuries ago, and speak the true Arabic language. These are a fine race of men, possessing, in a superlative degree, some of the noblest qualities of the human race. To these may be added

The Jews, who wear a distinguishing costume, and a black cap; they are all engaged in trade, and form one-seventh of the population of the walled habitations. They are held in great contempt, and are treated very rudely by the Arabs, and therefore are seldom met with among the encampments of that people.

A douar is a village of tents; these tents are made of goats' and camels' hair; they are made by the females, are of a close texture, 329 extremely warm, and impervious to the rain: thus they are cool in the summer, and warm in the rainy season. In countries exposed to the attacks of neighbouring kabyles, they are arranged in a circular form, covering sometimes several acres of ground, having a large keyma or Arab tent in the centre of the circle, which serves for a jamma, or meeting for morning and evening prayers, and at other times for an emdursa, or seminary, where the Muhamedan youth are taught to read the Koran, and to write, as they call it, (Sultan men Elsen) the sultan of languages, or language of languages. The tent-pegs of the respective tents are indented within each other, so that the cattle cannot go out or in; moreover, a hedge of thorny bushes encircles the whole, secured by staves drove into the ground. The camels, horses, mules, horned cattle, sheep, and goats, are all inclosed in a division of the circular area during the night, and a fire is kept all night, to keep off the lions and wild beasts. The incessant barking of dogs, which are very numerous among the Arabs, prevent the travellers unaccustomed to these habitations from sleeping.

Various Modes of Intoxication.

All nations have some method of getting rid of reason, for the purpose of indulging in the vacuum and temporary independence produced by intoxication. We, of Europe, have recourse to wine to effect this purpose: the opulent indulge in the libations of 330 claret, burgundy, and champagne; the middling classes have recourse to brandy, rum, and gin; but the African effects this purpose at far less expense. A muselman procures ample temporary relief from worldly care for a mere trifle: he buys at the (attara), drug shop, for a penny, a small pipe of el keef or hashisha; this completely effects his purpose. The leaves of this drug, which is a kind of hemp, are called el hashisha; the flower of the plant is called el keef, and is much more powerful in its inebriating quality than the hashisha, but a pipe of the latter will have as powerful an effect as two or three bottles of wine. It is said, that when the patient is under the influence of pleasant imaginations, the fume of this drug increases the sensation into the most pleasing delirium, engendering the most luxuriant images, and promoting a voluptuous vacuum. But when the person's ill fate tempts him to taste it in a melancholy mood, it protracts the gloomy moments, and gives the woes of life a longer duration: he utters sighs and lamentations, he apprehends nothing but misery and misfortune, till the effect of the drug is exhausted, and he awakes from his dream of woe.

Division of Agricultural Property.

Agricultural property is ascertained by a large stone laid at each corner of a plantation of corn, a direct line is drawn from stone 321 to stone at the season of reaping; it has, perhaps, never been known, that these partitions have been removed for the purpose of encroachment; a mutual confidence, and a point of honour renders this mode of discriminating the respective property of individuals adequate to every purpose of hedge or ditch.

Mines.

The mountains that separate the province of Suse from that of Draha, abound in iron, copper, and lead. Ketiwa, a district on the declivity of Atlas, east of Terodant, contains also mines of lead and brimstone; and saltpetre also, of a superior quality, abounds in the neighbourhood of Terodant. In the same mountains, about fifty or sixty miles south-west of Terodant, there are mines of iron of a very malleable quality, equal to that of Biscay in Spain, from which the people of Tagrasert manufacture gun-barrels, equal to those made in Europe. At Elala in Suse, in the same ridge of mountains, are several rich mines of copper, some of which are impregnated with gold: they have also a rich silver mine, the metal of which latter is cast in round lumps, weighing two or three ounces each piece. I have bought of this silver at Santa Cruz, and have paid Spanish dollars for it, weight for weight; it is very pure. Mines of antimony and lead ore are also found in Suse, 332 impregnated with gold, some specimens of which I sent to England to be analyzed; but being informed that it yielded gold sufficient only to pay the expenses of purifying, I gave no farther attention to it, although I have had reason to think, since then, that an importation of the ore would amply pay the importer.

Nyctalopia, Hemeralopia, or Night-blindness, called by the Arabs Butelleese; and its Remedy.

During my residence at Santa Cruz, I had a cousin with me who was afflicted with this disorder. When the sun sat his blindness came on, and continued till the rising sun. This youth was so afflicted, during a month, with this disorder, that he could scarcely see his way with a candle in his hand, so that it was quite painful to see him groping about. An Arab of the Woled Abbusebah Kabyl, who retain much of the science and art of their ancestors, and whose prosperity I had promoted at Santa Cruz, by facilitating his commercial adventures, communicated to me a simple remedy for this disorder; I put no faith in it, for it was so simple that I was disposed to think it an illusion. He called on me, however, repeatedly, and finding I had not applied it, he brought it one morning himself, and urged me to try it, I did so; and that same evening the eyes of the youth were almost well, and his sight was 333 completely restored the following night. This ophthalmic affection, in an Arabic translation of Hippocrates, is called Butelleese; another translation of ancient date calls it Shebkeret: the name, however, by which it is known at the present day in Africa, is Butelleese: the Latins called it Lusciosus, which word denotes precisely the disease, viz. one who sees imperfectly in the morning and evening twilight, but whose vision is clear at broad day-light. Lusciosus ad lucernam non videt. Vesperi non videre quos lusciosos appellant. Plaut. Mil. Gl. ii. 3.

This ophthalmia has been by some denominated hen-blindness, from the circumstance of hens' eyes being thus affected, when they are unable to see to pick up small grains in the dusk of the evening. I have frequently seen fowls thus affected soon after going to sea, from the coast of Africa, after which they decline and grow sick. A quantity of small gravel should be spread in their coops at sea, which prevents this disorder, and will sometimes cure it. At the commencement of this complaint, the circumstance that first engages the patient's attention is the dimness of his eye-sight at twilight: the nocturnal dimness of vision was such, in the instance before-mentioned, that the youth could scarcely see, even with a candle in his hand, which he described, as seen by him, as if it were misty, or as glimmering in a thick fog. There was no external disfiguration visible in the eyes, but they appeared as usual. 334 What the cause of this disorder was I am unable to say; but I have often suspected that it was contracted from the shining of the sun on the white terras of the house where my cousin used to go of a morning to shoot tibeebs, a bird somewhat resembling the European sparrow. This youth was rather of a weak or delicate constitution. I did not repeat the above remedy, as the boy's eyes continued well, without any defect in the vision at any time of the day or night, till seven-and-twenty days had elapsed, when the disorder returned. I procured the remedy again, and he took it; it had the same effect as before; he took it again, and then continued well for a month. It again returned a third time, and was cured by one single administration, after which it entirely disappeared, and never returned. Some time after this, I was informed that the British fleet in the Mediterranean was affected with this disorder; that one-tenth, or more, of the crews of our ships had laboured under it; and, on my return to England, I was urged to represent to His Majesty's ministers, that I had an infallible remedy for the disorder. I was referred to Doctor Harness, of the Transport Board. I waited on the Doctor, and afterwards corresponded with him. He appeared very desirous of knowing the remedy; but he was not at liberty to grant me any remuneration for it. I, however, offered to discover it, on being reimbursed the sum which the remedy cost me, 335 on experimental proof being produced of its infallibility; which proposition was rejected by the Transport Board in August, 1812, who informed me at the same time, that the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty did not judge proper to grant the sum required by me for the discovery of the remedy for Nyctalopia, which, I should add, was between 500l. and 600l. The remedy, therefore, remains a secret to this day.

A celebrated electrician and galvanist having conversed with me lately respecting this remedy for Nyctalopia, suggested to me the probability, that the same remedy might be effectual also in gutta serena, as both those disorders are known to proceed from a defect in the optic nerve. This opinion he corroborated, by quoting, in confirmation of it, the opinion of a well-known author. The electrician perceiving my incredulity, or more properly, my ignorance of the wonderful connection that exists between the intestines and the head, was prompted, as I verily believe, by a philanthropic disposition; and actually proved to me, experimentally, the influence which the eyes have on the intestines, and vice versa. A patient with a gutta serena, who had been, as he informed me, twelve months under the hands of a celebrated oculist, was recommended by the latter, as a last resource, to try galvanism. He had received no benefit whatever whilst under the direction of the oculist above alluded to, but his intestines were intolerably deranged by the effects of the mercury 336 which he had taken. This gentleman galvanised his eyes, and the man, who is a gunsmith, told me, that when he first went to have the operation performed, he could not see the red border round the hearth-rug in the front parlour, but when he returned into that room, after having been galvanised, he assured me he saw it plainly. He moreover declared that his bowels had been, and then were, in a very deranged state, from the effects of the mercury which he had taken, but that he felt incredible relief after having been galvanised, and that, two or three days afterwards, they were quite restored to health and strength. Being thus satisfied with the influence that so wonderfully exists between the intestines and the eyes, I am now making arrangements with the same gentleman, to administer the remedy for the benefit, as we hope, of patients afflicted with gutta serena. But I now declare to the public a third time, that the remedy is simple, safe, and effectual, and that I am ready and desirous of administering it to any one who may choose to apply for it, who is afflicted with the disorder, with my positive assurances, that it will effect a cure in eight-and-forty hours at the utmost, but probably in twenty-four.

Vaccination.

Intelligence received from West Barbary was instrumental in 337 promoting the adoption of vaccination. In the latter years of the last century, the small-pox pervaded West and South Barbary. Mr. Matra, the British consul-general to the Empire of Marocco, wrote to me at that period officially, to procure him every information possible, and to inform him if I could discover if cattle in this country were subject to the small-pox. I made every inquiry without delay, and I reported to His Excellency, (who was ambassador as well as consul), that I had ascertained that the horses, mules, asses, and oxen were subject in this country to the small-pox, of which there could be no doubt, as the name given to the disorder in the beasts of the field, was the same as that which designated the small-pox in the human species, viz. JEDRIE. In consequence of this information, confirmed afterwards by other enquiries, His Excellency wrote to England on the subject, and, I believe, sent some vaccine pus home; soon after which Dr. Jenner began his experiments on vaccine inoculation, which have since been adopted throughout Europe, and in great part of Asia and America. Although I was thus instrumental in the propagation of vaccine inoculation, yet I never asked for or received any remuneration; but I feel a satisfaction in having been thus instrumental of good to mankind, in this new and eligible system of inoculation, by means of which human life has been preserved; for, according to Sir Gilbert 338 Blane's late statement, 23,134 lives have been saved during the last 15 years by vaccination.

Game.

All kinds of game are plentiful in South and in West Barbary; viz. el gror, a bird somewhat similar to the English partridge, but unknown in Europe. I shot some of these birds for Doctor Brussonet, the naturalist, who was intendant of the national garden of botany at Montpelier, which that gentleman prepared in the oven, and sent to the National Institute at Paris. He informed me this bird was a non-descript. Hares, antelopes, woodcocks, snipes, plovers, bustards. There is an abundance of partridges, red ducks as large as geese, ducks, wigeon, and teal; curlews, in immense quantities, are found in the flat parts of the country on the coast; immense quantities of doves, wild pigeons, wood-pigeons, and large sand-larks. Every person is at liberty to shoot; but the princes and the great, consider field-sports beneath their dignity, except hawking, and hunting the wild boar, the lion, and the tiger. The Muhamedans do not prefer game to other food. When they have shot a bird, they immediately cut its throat, that the blood may flow freely; otherwise it is not lawful to eat it. Game is never seen in the public markets. When they shoot for Europeans, they dispense with the ceremony of cutting the throat of the game. They reproach the Christians for eating such food, which they call (m'jeefa) "strangled." 339 Agriculture.—Mitferes.

The agriculturists, in all the Arab provinces throughout this empire, have subterraneous caverns or apartments, generally in the form of a cone, for the preservation of their corn during a scarcity or famine. During my residence in this country, I have investigated the method, and have learned the art of constructing these depositories of grain. They season them before the corn is deposited. They should not be constructed in a clay soil. In these mitferes, throughout the Arab provinces of Duquella, Temsena, Shawiya, &c. they preserve the corn sound during thirty years. I have been present at the opening of them after the corn had been deposited twenty-one years. It was perfectly sound. When these depositories are opened, each family takes a portion of the grain, so as to distribute the whole immediately; otherwise, in a few months, if not consumed, it acquires a peculiar bad flavour, which is called the mitfere twang. To prevent this, an Arab, on opening one of these depositaries, lends corn to all his neighbours, and in his turn he receives it back again, when they respectively open theirs. It is unnecessary to expatiate on the expediency of constructing mitferes in a country oftentimes visited by locusts, the plague, drought, or inundation. There would be a manifest policy in establishing similar granaries in our 340 colony in South Africa, where I understand they are visited by locusts, and where the soil is similar to that of West and South Barbary. All the valuable gums that Barbary now supplies Europe with, and also many articles of commerce not yet known at the Cape, might be procured from Barbary, and if transplanted to that colony, would undoubtedly thrive, from the similarity of climate and soil.

Laws of Hospitality.

The territory of the Emperor of Marocco, west of the mountains of Atlas, and from the shores of the Mediterranean to the confines of the Shelluh province of Haha, is one continual corn-field, inhabited by Arabs living in douars or encampments: much of the ground, however, lies fallow. These encampments are fixed generally at a considerable distance from the track of travellers, so that a person unacquainted with this circumstance, would be disposed to imagine the country thinly inhabited. The tents in safe countries, where there is no fear of wild beasts, are pitched in a straight line; but where lions or other ferocious animals are found, the tents are disposed in a circular form; and thorny bushes are placed round the douar, to prevent the visits of these unwelcome guests. The Arabs are the agriculturists of the country, and are for the most part emigrations from the original stock in Sahara. These people have preserved from time immemorial the practice of open and 341 unrestrained hospitality. Their prophet confirmed these propensities; and hospitality has been ever since, the predominant virtue of the Arab. Accordingly, Muhamedans are entitled, through their various journeys, to be entertained three days wherever they sojourn. A traveller, therefore, when he chooses to rest from the fatigue of his journey, goes to one of these douars and exclaims (Deef Allah) "the guests of God." The sheik then comes forth from his tent to receive him or them: (Kheyma Deaf) the travellers' or guests' tent is appropriated to the stranger; food is brought to him, agreeably to his rank in life, but always simple, good, and wholesome. Here he may remain, if he chooses, for three days, without being considered an intruder, and free of all expense whatsoever. If he wishes to exceed the three days allowed by the Muhamedan law, he must prove his poverty; which being done, he may be entertained for a further period of time: but this latter is quite optional; no man is compelled to entertain and provide food for strangers and travellers, without remuneration, above three days.

This hospitality extends not generally to all mankind, but to Muhamedans only. A Christian or a Jew would be expected to pay a trifle for his entertainment; although, in travelling through the province of Suse, the Arabs have absolutely refused to take any remuneration from me; but, that is not generally the case, nor 342 ought such conduct to be expected: in the instances before-mentioned, these people considered themselves so much benefited by the opening of the port of Santa Cruz, that they thought they could not do enough for me. I was, therefore, every where received in that province with the most cordial marks of disinterested hospitality.

The laws of hospitality are sacred and inviolable. This I will elucidate, by relating a circumstance that happened while I was at Marocco. The Emperor was dissatisfied with the conduct of four sheiks of Suse: they had not discharged the duties of their public vocation, but had abused their office; the Emperor had issued orders to arrest them, but by some means they got intelligence of the orders; they therefore immediately ordered their horses, and decamped in the evening from Marocco: they knew they should not be safe any where from the Emperor's grasp, but under the protection of the Khalif Muhamed ben Delemy, whom, however, they had in some manner injured; nevertheless, knowing the noble character of the man, they were resolved to try their fate; accordingly, they made haste to reach the gates of his castle in Shtuka, before the Emperor might discover their departure. They arrived, and exclaiming Deef Allah, they were admitted. Delemy told them, that although they had not behaved friendly to him, he would protect them. His gates, he said, were always open to the children of 343 adversity, and they might depend on his protection. The Emperor soon discovered, by diligent enquiry, what route they had taken, and His Imperial Majesty urged Delemy to deliver them up; but the latter expostulated, and observing that he should not deserve the name of an Arabian sheik, if he degraded himself by giving up those who had claimed his protection, in his own country: and he actually granted them protection several months; till, at length, finding they could not escape the hand of power, by any plan but that of going into the Sahara, Delemy agreed to see them safe out of the Emperor's dominions, and accompanied them to Akka, and beyond that place, till they reached the Sahara, where, being perfectly safe, he took his leave of them, and they exchanged Salems.

Punishment for Murder.

If a man commits murder, the friends of the murdered claim redress of the alkaid, if in a town,—of the bashaw of the province, if in the country. If the murderer is discovered, he is taken into custody, to suffer death, unless the relations of the murdered man choose to compromise with the relations of the murderer: in which case, a sum of money is paid to the former, and the matter is thus settled.

Insolvency Laws.

An insolvent cannot be detained in prison after his insolvency is ascertained. He gives up his property to his creditors; but if he 344 should afterwards become a man of substance, his creditors can claim the amount of their debts, deducting what they have already received.

Dances.

The dances of the Arabs are peculiar to themselves. The youths dance without females, and the females without youths. On all marriages and rejoicings, music and dancing continue till the dawn of day. Among the encampments of Arabs, in the summer season, the whole country, at night, is in a blaze of light. The kettle-drum, the triangle, the shepherd's pipe, and the erbeb an instrument resembling the fiddle, with two strings, form the band of music.

The youths form a double row of six or eight in each, and carry themselves erect, with their arms hanging down close to their side; moving obliquely to the right, then to the left, without taking their feet from the ground, but moving their heels, then their toes on the ground, advancing or gliding slowly along; keeping exact time with the music: they then vault in the air, perform somersets and various feats of agility. They sing also with great taste and judgment, and some of them have excellent voices, being selected for the purpose of affording entertainment to the spectators. The ladies dance also in a similar manner, but without the vaulting and somersets. They have a very elegant shawl-dance, which some of them dance with great taste, and with much graceful movement. 345 Circumcision.

The circumcision of male children is the general practice of Islaemism; it is also used among some of the[201] Khaffers or Cafers of North, Central, and South Africa. Circumcision is not a practice ascribed to a principle of cleanliness, or any other cause, but ancient usage. The period of performing this operation among the Arabs is at the age of eight years.

[Footnote 201: Khaffer (singular number) is an Arabic term, applied to all who are not Muhamedans; all Pagans, Jews, and Christians, are called Khaffer, K'fer (plural) Kaffir billa, an atheist: hence Caffraria, the name of the country near the Cape of Good Hope.]

Invoice from Timbuctoo to Santa Cruz.

Transport of ([202]Alk Sudan) gum of Sudan, bought at Timbuctoo, on account of Messrs. James Jackson and Co. by their agent, L'Hage Muhamed O——n, and dispatched to Akka by the spring (akkaba) accumulated caravan, in February, 1794.

M. Doll

200 camel loads of gum-sudan, each weighing 250 lb. net, bought at Timbuctoo, at four Mexico dollars per load, 800 346 Charges.—Cow-skins to pack it in, sticks to stow it on the camels, &c. 25

200 camels hired to Akka, at 18 Mexico dollars each, 3600

Stata, i.e. convoy through the Sahara, from Timbuctoo to Arawan, at 20 cents per camel, 40

Do. from Arawan to East Tagrassa, at 20 cents per camel, 40

Do. from East Tagrassa to Akka, at 40 cents per camel, 40

20 per cent., or one-fifth, on the first cost, to be allowed to the purchaser on safe arrival at Akka, 160 —— 4705

[Footnote 202: This gum is the produce of an enormous tree of Sudan, which flourishes near Timbuctoo, Housa, Wangara, and Bernoh (or Bernou) it is transported by the caravans to Alexandria in Egypt, to Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. From the African ports in the Mediterranean it is shipped to Smyrna and Constantinople, and from thence to England, under the denomination of Turkey gum; some goes to Mogodor and Tetuan, and thence to London.] 347 The adventure is subject to this charge, provided it arrive safe at Akka, not otherwise, as also to encourage the agent at Timbuctoo, to exert himself in procuring trusty guides and competent statas, which he would not do, without having a certain interest in the safe delivery.

N.B. No stata is necessary from Akka to Santa Cruz, but the hire is 3 dollars per camel.

Translation of a Letter from Timbuctoo, which accompanied the foregoing Consignment.

Praise be to God alone; for there is nothing durable but the kingdom of heaven.

To the Christian merchant, Jackson, at Agadeer. Peace be to those who follow the right way.

This being premised, know that I have sent you by this akkabah, two hundred camel load of gum-sudan, agreeable to the account herewith transmitted. The stata will be paid by my friend, L'Hage Aly, sheik of Akka, whom I request you will reimburse according to the account which I have sent to you by him; and if he goes to Agadeer, be kind, friendly, and hospitable to him on my account, for he stands high in my esteem; and peace be with you.

Written at Timbuctoo, 10th of the month Muharram, year of the Hejra 1208, (corresponding with 15th Feb. A.C. 1794). By your friend,

L'HAGE MUHAMED O——N. God be merciful to him.

Invoice from Timbuctoo to Fas.

Transport of gold, gum, and cottons, from Timbuctoo to Fas, consigned to L'Hage Seyd and L'Hage Abdrahaman Elfellely, Timbuctoo merchants at Fas, by (akkaba el Kheriffy) the autumnal caravan. Dispatched 29th Duelhaja el Hurem, year 1204, corresponding with 10th October, A.C. 1790.

500 skins (Tibber Wangaree) gold dust of Wangara, each skin containing 4 ounces, bought on their account, in barter for 800 Flemish plattilias.

100 (Sibikat deheb Wangaree). Wangara gold in bars, weighing 20 ounces each, bought in exchange for 400 pieces (Shkalat) Irish cloth, averaging 44 cubits each piece (7 cubits are equal to 4 English yards). 348 10 bed-covers, 9 cubits long, 4 wide, chequered pattern, blue and white cotton, with scarlet silk between the chequers, manufactured at Timbuctoo, bought in barter for 100 lb. sugar, 30 loaves.

50 camel-load gum-sudan, weighing net 120 quintals.

Charges.—Hire of 50 camels to Akka, at 18 dollars each.

Stata to ditto, 1 dollar per load, to be paid by Sheik Aly ben A——r.

Copy of the Letter accompanying the foregoing Remittance.

Praise be to God alone; for there is neither beginning nor strength, without God, the eternal God.

To my friends, L'Hage Zeyd and L'Hage Abdrahaman Elfellely. Peace be with ye, and the mercy of the High God; and after that, know, that I have sent to our agents at Akka, by the autumnal caravan, 50 camel loads of gum-sudan, being 100 skins; in each skin of gum I have packed 5 skins of gold dust, and 1 bar of gold. L'Hage Tahar ben Jelule will deliver to our agent at Akka, for you, 10 very handsome cotton covers for beds, of Sudan manufacture. May all this arrive safe, with the blessing of God. I will inform you by the spring caravan what merchandize to send here next autumn. I refer you to a long letter, which I have sent to you by L'Hage Tahar. Peace be with you, and the blessing of God be upon you. 349 Written at Timbuctoo, the 29th Duelhaja El Huram, year 1204.

L'HAGE HAMED ELWANGARIE. [203]God protect him.

[Footnote 203: The Muhamedans, in signing their name, always invoke the protection, mercy, or providence of God upon themselves.]

Food of the Desert.

The people, whose interest induces them to cross the desert, (for there are no travellers from curiosity in this country,) obviate the objection to salt provisions, which increases the propensity to drink water, by taking with them melted butter, called smin; this is prepared without salt. They also cut beef into long pieces, about six inches long, and one inch square, without fat; these are called el kuddeed, which are hung on a line, exposed to the air till dry; they then cut them into pieces, two inches long; these are put into (buckul) an earthen pot; they then pour the smin into the buckul till it is covered. This meat and butter, besides being palatable, is comprised in a small compass, and feeds many. When this butter has been thus prepared and kept twelve or fifteen years, it is called budra, and is supposed to contain penetrating active medicinal qualities. I have seen some thirty years old.

Antithesis, a favourite Figure with the Arabs.

Mahmoud, sultan of Ghezna in the beginning of the eleventh century, 350 though the son of a slave, was very powerful. He sent to the khalif Alkader, requesting a title suited to his exalted dignity. The latter hesitated; but fearing the power of the sultan, sent him at the expiration of a year the ambiguous title, Uly, i.e. a prince, a friend, a slave. Mahmoud penetrated the khalif's meaning, and sent him immediately 100,000 pieces of gold, with a wish to know whether a letter had not been omitted. Alkader received the treasure, and took the hint, instantly dispatching letters patent in full form, creating him Uaely which signifies, without equivocation, a sovereign independent prince.

Arabian Modes of Writing.

The Arabs have various modes of writing, the principal of which is that used by the Koreish, the most learned of all the Western tribes, and is denominated the Niskhi, or upright character: if this is understood, the others may be easily comprehended. This is the character in which the Koran was originally written. In the seventh century, the Arabs adopted the invention of Moramer ben Morra, a native of Babylonian Irak, which was afterwards improved by the Kufik. The Kufik and the Niskhi are synonymous. Richardson, in his Arabic Grammar, p. 4. say, "The Mauritannick character, which is used by the Moors of Marocco and Barbary, descendants of 351 the Arabians, differs in many respects considerably from the other modes of writing." But this is incorrect; for the Mauritannick alphabet, excepting in the order of the letters, is precisely the same with the Oriental, as now written and spoken, with the exception only of the letters Fa and Kaf, and the formation even of these characters are alike. The punctuation only, differs in the West, that is, west of the Egyptian Nile. The Western punctuation of Fa, is one point below the letter, and the punctuation of the letter Kaf is one point above. In the East, the former letter has one point above, the latter has two. This is the only difference between the Eastern and the Western alphabets. Richardson, (see his Grammar, page 5,) also says, that "the purest Arabic is spoken at Grand Cairo," but this is not correct: the language of Grand Cairo and of Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Marocco are much alike, but none of them are the pure Koraisch or Korannick Arabic, which is only spoken at Mekka, and among some of the tribes of Bedouins in the West. The language of the Woled Abbusebah, of the Howara, and of the Mograffra is the pure Arabic. Finally, in a note in Richardson's Grammar, page 18, it is said, "Some of our European writers, and amongst others Voltaire, substitute Koran for Alcoran, but perhaps improperly, as D'Herbelot and other learned Orientalists, write uniformly l'Alcoran, il Alcorano, the Alcoran." We have been too apt to copy the orthography of Oriental names from the French, whose pronunciation of the Roman or European 352 characters differs from ours. There cannot be a doubt that D'Herbelot is incorrect. The word Koran (for there is no c in the Arabic language) is derived from the verb Kora, to read; koran, reading: Al is the article; but, in this instance, D'Herbelot uses this article twice, which is certainly erroneous, for l' is the French article in the word in question, and al is the Arabic article; whereas one article only should precede a noun. L'Alcoran and the Alcoran are therefore equally incorrect; for the word in French should be Le Coran; in English, the Koran; therefore Voltaire was correct. I have thought it expedient to make these observations, because standing in Richardson's Grammar on the authority of learned orientalists, they are calculated to mislead the Arabic student.

Decay of Science and the Arts among the Arabs.

The literary fire of the Arabs and Persians has been extinguished upwards of 300 years; but before that period, the encouragement to learning in the East was unprecedented, and has never been equalled by any European nation either before or since that period. Kadder Khan, king of Turquestan, was the greatest support to science. When he appeared abroad, he was preceded by 700 horsemen, with silver battle-axes, and was followed by an equal number bearing maces of gold. He supported with magnificent appointment a literary academy 353 in his palace, consisting of 100 men of the highest reputation. Amak, called Abu Naeib El Bokari, who was the chief poet, exclusive of a great pension and a vast number of slaves, had, in attendance wherever he went, thirty horses of state richly caparisoned, and a retinue in proportion. The king before-mentioned used to preside at their exercises of genius, on which occasions, by the side of his throne were always placed four large basons filled with gold and silver, which he distributed liberally to those who excelled.

Lebid suspended over the gate at Mecca a sublime poem; Muhamed placed near it the opening of the second chapter of the Koran, which was conceived to be something divine, and it gained the prize of the Ocadh assembly.

The remains of this custom of suspending over gates Arabic poems, is perceived at this day among the western Moors. The gates or entrances to Mogodor, Fas, Mequinas, Marocco, &c. have writing over them, which is a kind of Arabic short-hand, that none but the learned understand; these writings, however, are not moveable, being engraven on a square table on the stone itself.

Extraordinary Abstinence experienced in the Sahara.

The Arabs or inhabitants of the Sahara, can support the most extraordinary abstinence. Occasions occur, wherein they will travel 354 several days without food. After suffering a privation of a day or two, they tie their (hazam) belt round their loins, every morning tighter than the preceding day, thereby preventing, in some measure, that action of the bowels which promotes appetite. A Saharawan will thus go five or six days without food of any kind, in which case, when he reaches a habitation, or a (wah) cultivated spot in the Desert, he will drink about half-a-pint of camel's milk; this remains on the stomach but a short time: he then takes another draught, which, with some, remains and gives nourishment, but with others it is also rejected by the stomach; a third draught is then taken, which restores the exhausted traveller! I have been assured, that instances have been known in Sahara, wherein a man has been without food of any kind for seven days, and has afterwards been restored by the foregoing regimen!

355

LANGUAGES OF AFRICA.

Various Dialects of the Arabic Language.—Difference between the Berebber and Shelluh Languages.—Specimen of the Mandinga.—Comparison of the Shelluh Language with that of the Canary Islands, and Similitude of Customs.



Yareb, the son of Kohtan[204], is said to have been the first who spoke Arabic, and the Muhamedans contend that it is the most eloquent language spoken in any part of the globe, and that it is the one which will be used at the day of judgment. To write a long dissertation on this copious and energetic language, would be only to repeat what many learned men have said before; a few observations, however, may not be superfluous to the generality of readers. The Arabic language is spoken by a greater proportion of the inhabitants of the known world than any other: a person having a practical knowledge of it, may travel from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea to the Cape of Good Hope, and notwithstanding that in such a journey he must pass through many kingdoms and empires of blacks, speaking distinct languages, yet he would find 356 men in all those countries versed in Muhamedan learning, and therefore acquainted with the Arabic; again, he might cross the widest part of the African continent from west to east, and would every where meet with persons acquainted with it, more particularly if he should follow the course of the great river called the Neel El Abeed, on the banks of which, from Jinnie and Timbuctoo, to the confines of lower Egypt, are innumerable cities and towns of Arabs and Moors, all speaking the Arabic. Again, were a traveller to proceed from Marocco to the farthest shore of Asia, opposite the islands of Japan, he would find the Arabic generally spoken or understood wherever he came. In Turkey, in Syria, in Arabia, in Persia, and in India, it is understood by all men of education; and any one possessing a knowledge of the Korannick Arabic, might, in a very short time, make himself master of all its various dialects.

[Footnote 204: This Kohtan is the Joktan, son of Eber, brother to Phaleg, mentioned in Genesis. Chapter x, verse 25.]

The letters of this language[205] are formed in four distinct ways, according to their situation at the beginning, middle, or end of words, as well as when standing alone; the greatest difficulty, however, to be overcome, is the acquiring a just pronunciation, (without which no living language can be essentially useful;) and to attain which, the learner should be able to express the difference of power and sound between what may be denominated the 357 synonymous letters, such as [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] with [A] and [A] and [A] with [A].

[Footnote 205: The Oriental punctuation is here adopted.]

[Footnote A: Arabic character; cannot be displayed in this file format.]

Besides these, there are other letters, whose power is extremely difficult to be acquired by an European, because no language in Europe possesses sounds similar to the Arabic letters [Arabic:], nor has any language, except, perhaps, the English, a letter with the power of the Arabian [A]. Those who travel into Asia or Africa scarcely ever become sufficiently masters of the Arabic to speak it fluently, which radical defect proceeds altogether from their not learning, while studying it, the peculiar distinction of the synonymous letters. No European, perhaps, ever knew more of the theory of this language than the late Sir William Jones, but still he could not converse with an Arabian; a circumstance of which he was not conscious until he went to India. This great man, however, had he been told that his knowledge of this popular eastern language was so far deficient, that he was ignorant of the separate powers of its synonymous letters, and consequently inadequate to converse intelligibly with a native Arab, he would certainly have considered it an aspersion, and have disputed altogether that such was the fact. Considering how much we are indebted to the Arabians 358 for the preservation of many of the works of the ancients, which would otherwise have never, perhaps, been known to us, it is really surprising, that their language should be so little known in Europe. It is certainly very difficult and abstruse, (to learners particularly,) but this difficulty is rendered insurmountable by the European professors knowing it only as a dead language, and teaching it without due attention to the pronunciation of the before mentioned synonymous letters, a defect which is not likely to be remedied, and which will always subject the speaker to incessant errors.

To shew the Arabic student the difference between the Oriental and Occidental order of the letters of the alphabet, I shall here give them opposite each other.

Oriental. Occidental

1 Alif [A] — 1 Alif [A]

2 ba. [A] — 2 ba [A]

3 ta [A] — 3 ta. [A]

4 thsa [A] — 4 tha [A]

5 jim [A] — 5 jim [A]

6 hha [A] — 6 hha [A]

7 kha [A] — 7 kha [A]

8 dal [A] — 8 dal [A]

9 dsal [A] — 9 dth'al [A]

10 ra [A] — 10 ra [A]

11 za [A] — 11 zain [A] 359 12 sin [A] — 12 ta [A]

13 shin [A] — 13 da [A]

14 sad [A] — 14 kef [A]

15 dad [A] — 15 lam [A]

16 ta [A] — 16 mim [A]

17 da [A] — 17 nune [A]

18 ain [A] — 18 sad [A]

19 gain [A] — 19 dad [A]

20 fa [A] — 20 ain [A]

21 kaf [A] — 21 g'rain [A]

22 kef [A] — 22 fa [A]

23 lem [A] — 23 kaf [A]

24 mim [A] — 24 sin [A]

25 nun [A] — 25 shin [A]

26 waw [A] — 26 hha [A]

27 he [A] — 27 wow [A]

28 ya [A] — 28 ia [A]

29 lam-alif: ligature lam + alif = [A]

Besides this difference of the arrangement of the two alphabets, the Arabic student will observe that there is also a difference in the punctuation of two of the letters: thus—

Oriental. Occidental.

fa [A] fa [A]

kaf [A] kaf [A]

[Footnote A: Arabic characters; cannot be displayed in this file format.]

360 Among the Western Arabs, the ancient Arabic figures are used, viz. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9: they often write 100 thus, 1..—200, 2..

To explain the force of the synonymous letters on paper would be impossible; the reader, however, may form some idea of the indispensable necessity of knowing the distinction by the few words here selected, which to one unaccustomed to hear the Arabic language spoken, would appear similar and undistinguishable.

ENGLISH. ARABIC, ARABIC.

Rendered as near to European pronunciation as the English Alphabet will admit.

A horse Aoud [Arabic:]

Wood Awad [Arabic:]

To repeat Aoud [Arabic:]

Fish Hout [Arabic:]

A gun Mokhalla [Arabic:]

A foolish woman Mokeela [Arabic:]

A frying pan Makeela [Arabic:]

A lion Seban [Arabic:]

Morning Seban [Arabic:]

Seventh Seban [Arabic:] 361 Hatred Hassed [Arabic:]

Harvest Hassed [Arabic:]

Learning (Alem, or El Alem) [Arabic:]

A flag El Alem [Arabic:]

Granulated paste Kuscasoe [Arabic:]

The dish it is made in Kuscas [Arabic:]

Heart Kul'b [Arabic:]

Dog Kil'b [Arabic:]

Mould Kal'b [Arabic:]

Captain Rice [Arabic:]

Feathers Rish [Arabic:]

Mud G'ris [Arabic:]

Smell Shim [Arabic:]

Poison Sim[206] [Arabic:] 362 Absent G'raib [Arabic:]

Butter-milk Raib [Arabic:]

White Bead [Arabic:]

A black El Abd [Arabic:]

Eggs Baid [Arabic:]

Afar off Baid [Arabic:]

A pig Helloof [Arabic:]

An oath Hellef [Arabic:]

Feed for horses Alf [Arabic:]

A thousand Elf [Arabic:]

[Footnote 206: The African Jews find it very difficult in speaking, to distinguish between shim and sim, for they cannot pronounce the sh, [Arabic] but sound it like s [Arabic]; the very few who have studied the art of reading the language, have, however, conquered this difficulty.]

It is difficult for any one who has not accurately studied the Arabic language, to imagine the many errors which an European commits in speaking it, when self taught, or when taught in Europe. This deficiency originates in the inaccuracy of the application of the guttural and synonymous letters.

The ain [Arabic] and the [Arabic] grain cannot be 363 accurately pronounced by Europeans, who have not studied the language grammatically when young. The aspirated h, and the hard s, in the word for morning (sebah), are so much like their synonymes, that few Europeans can discern the difference; the one is consequently often mistaken for the other; and I have known a beautiful sentence absolutely perverted through an inaccuracy of this kind. In the words rendered Hatred and Harvest, the two synonymes of [Arabic:] and [Arabic:] or s hard and s soft, are indiscriminately used by Europeans in their Arabic conversations, a circumstance sufficient to do away the force and meaning of many a sentence.

The poetry as well as prose of the Arabians is well known, and has been so often discussed by learned men, that it would be irrelevant here to expatiate on the subject; but as the following description of the noblest passion of the human breast cannot but be interesting to the generality of readers, and, without any exception, to the fair sex, I will transcribe it.

"Love [Arabic:] beginneth in contemplation, passeth to meditation; hence proceeds desire; then the spark bursts forth into a flame, the head swims, the body wastes, and the soul turns giddy. If we look on the bright side of love, we must acknowledge that it has at least one advantage; it annihilates pride and immoderate self-love; 364 true love, whose aim is the happiness and equality of the beloved object, being incompatible with those feelings.

"Lust is so different from true love [Arabic], and so far from a perfection, that it is always a species of punishment sent by God, because man has abandoned the path of his pure love."

In their epistolary writing, the Arabs have generally a regular and particular style, beginning and ending all their letters with the name of God, symbolically, because God is the beginning and end of all things. The following short specimen will illustrate this:

Translation of a letter written in the Korannick Arabic by Seedy Soliman ben Muhammed ben Ismael, Sultan of Marocco, to his Bashaw of Suse, &c. &c.

"Praise be to the only God! for there is neither power, nor strength, without the great and eternal God."

L.S.

Containing the Emperor's name and titles, as Soliman ben Muhamed ben Abdallah, &c, &c.

"Our servant, Alkaid Abdelmelk ben Behie Mulud, God assist, and peace be with thee, and the mercy and grace of God be upon thee!"

"We command thee forthwith to procure and send to our exalted presence every Englishman that has been wrecked on the coast of Wedinoon, and to forward them hither without delay, and diligently 365 to succour and attend to them, and may the eye of God be upon thee!" [207]

[Footnote 207: When they write to any other but Muhamedans, they never salute them with the words, "Peace be with thee," but substitute—"Peace be to those who follow the path of the true God," Salem ala min itaba el Uda.]

"26th of the (lunar), month Saffer, year of the Hejra 1221. (May, 1806.)"

The accuracy of punctuation in the Arabic language is a matter that ought to be strictly attended to.

The foregoing observations will serve to prove the insufficiency of a knowledge of this language, as professed or studied in Great Britain when unaccompanied with a practical knowledge. These observations may apply equally to the Persian language.[208]

[Footnote 208: "One of the objects I had in view in coming to Europe, was to instruct young Englishmen in the Persian language. I however met with so little encouragement from persons in authority, that I entirely relinquished the plan. I instructed, however, (as I could not refuse the recommendations that were brought to me,) an amiable young man, Mr. S———n, and thanks be to God, my efforts were crowned with success! and that he, having escaped the instructions of self-taught masters, has acquired such a knowledge of the principles of that language, and so correct an idea of its idiom and pronunciation, that I have no doubt, after a few years' residence in India, he will attain to such a degree of excellence, as has not yet been acquired by any other Englishman." Vide Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan, vol. i. p. 200.]

If the present ardour for discovery in Africa be persevered in, the learned world may expect, in the course of a few years, to receive 366 histories and other works of Greek and Roman authors, which were translated into the Arabic language, when Arabian literature was in its zenith, and have ever since been confined to some private libraries in the cities of the interior of Africa, and in Arabia.

Having said thus much with regard to the Arabic of the western Arabs, which, with little variation, is spoken throughout all the finest districts of North Africa, I shall proceed to say a few words respecting the other languages spoken north of Sahara: these are the Berebber and its dialects, viz. the Zayan and Girwan, and Ait Amor; the Shelluh of Suse and South Atlas, all which, though latterly supposed by some learned men to be the same, differ in many respects; any one possessing a knowledge of the Berebber language might, with little difficulty, make himself understood by the Zayan of Atlas, the Girwan, or the Ait Amor; but the Shelluh is a different language, and each so different from the Arabic, that there is not the smallest resemblance, as the following specimen will demonstrate:

BEREBBER. SHELLUH. ARABIC. ENGLISH. Tumtoot Tayelt Ishira A girl Ajurode Ayel Ishire A boy Askan Tarousa Hajar A thing Aram Algrom Jimmel Camel Tamtute Tamraut Murrah A woman Ishiar Issemg'h L'Abd A slave Aouli Izimer Kibsh A sheep Taddert Tikimie Dar House 367 Ikshuden Asroen Lawad Wood Eekeel Akfai Hellib Milk Tifihie Uksume El Ham Meat Buelkiel Amuran Helloof A hog Abreede Agares Trek A road Bishee Fikihie Ara Give me Adude Asht Agi Come Alkam Aftooh Cire Go Kaym Gaeuze Jils Sit down Imile Imeek Serire Little

Specimen of the Difference between the Arabic and Shelluh Languages.

SHELLUH. ARABIC. ENGLISH. Is sin Tamazirkt Wash katarf Do you understand Shelluh Shelluh? Uree sin Man arf huh I do not understand it. Matshrult Kif enta How are you? Is tekeete Wash gite min Are you come from Marokshe Marockshe Marocco? Egan ras Miliah Good Maigan Ala'sh Wherefore? Misimmink As'mek What is your name? Mensh kat dirk Shall andik How much have you got? Tasardunt Borella A mule Romi Romi An European Takannarit Nasarani A Christian 368 Romi Kaffer An infidel Misem Bebans Ashkune mula Who is the owner? Is'tkit Tegriwelt Washjite min Are you come from Tegriwelt Cape Ossem? Auweete Imkelli Jib Liftor Bring the dinner Efoulkie Meziana Handsome Ayeese El aoud A horse Tikelline El Baid Eggs Amuran Helloof Hog Tayuh Tatta Camelion Tasamumiat Adda Green lizard Tenawine Sfune Ships.

Marmol says, the Shelluhs and Berebbers write and speak one language, called Killem Abimalick[209]; but the foregoing specimen, the accuracy of which may be depended on, clearly proves this assertion to be erroneous, as well as that of many moderns who have formed their opinion, in all probability, on the above authority. Now, although the Shelluh and Berebber languages are so totally dissimilar, that there is not one word in the foregoing vocabulary which resembles its corresponding word in the other language, yet, 369 from the prejudice which Marmol's authority has established, it will still be difficult, perhaps, to persuade the learned that such an author could be mistaken on such a subject. My account therefore must remain for a future age to determine upon, when the languages of Africa shall be better known than they are at present; for it is not a few travellers occasionally sent out on a limited plan, that can ascertain facts, the attainment of which requires a long residence, and familiar intercourse with the natives. Marmol had also misled the world, in saying that they write a different language; the fact is, that when they write any thing of consequence, it is in the Arabic; but any trifling subject is written in the Berebber words, though in the Arabic character. If they had any peculiar character in the time of Marmol, they have none now; for I have conversed with hundreds of them, as well as with the Shelluhs, and have had them staying at my house for a considerable time together, but never could learn from any, that a character different from the Arabic had ever been in use among them.

[Footnote 209: Killem Abimalick signifies the Language of Abimalick; this is evidently an error of Marmol, the Shelluh language is denominated Amazirk; the Berebber Language is denominated Killem Brebber.]

In addition to these languages, there is another spoken at the Oasis of Ammon, or Siwah, called in Arabic [Arabic:] El Wah El Grarbie, which appears to be a mixture of Berebber and Shelluh, as will appear from the list of Siwahan words given by Mr. 370 Horneman[210], in his Journal, page 19, part of which I have here transcribed, to show the similitude between those two languages, whereby it will appear that the language of Siwah and that of the Shelluhs of South Atlas, are one and the same language.

ENGLISH. SIWAHAN. SHELLUH. Sun Itfuckt Atfuct. Head Achfe Akfie Camel Lgum Arume Sheep Jelibb Jelibb Cow Tfunest Tafunest Mountain Iddrarn Iddra[211] Have you a horse? Goreck Ackmar Is derk Achmar?[212] Milk Achi Akfie Bread Tagor Tagora[213] Dates Tena Tenia (sing.)Tena (plural.)

South of the Desert we find other languages spoken by the blacks; and are told by Arabs, who have frequently performed the journey from Jinnie to Cairo, and the Red Sea, that thirty-three different 371 Negro languages are met with in the course of that route, but that the Arabic is spoken by the intelligent part of the people, and the Muhamedan religion is known and followed by many; their writings are uniformly in Arabic.

[Footnote 210: In reading Mr. William Marsden's observations on the language of Siwah, at the end of Horneman's Journal, in page 190, I perceive that the short vocabulary inserted corresponds with a vocabulary of the Shelluh language, which I presented to that gentleman some years past.] [Footnote 211: Plural Iddrarn.]

[Footnote 212: Or, Is derk ayeese?]

[Footnote 213: This is applied to bread when baked in a pan, or over the embers of charcoal, or other fire; but when baked in an oven it is called Agarom (g guttural.)]

It may not be improper in this place, seeing the many errors and mutilated translations which appear from time to time, of Arabic, Turkish and Persian papers, to give a list of the Muhamedan moons or lunar months, used by all those nations, which begin with the first appearance of the new moon, that is, the day following, or sometimes two days after the change, and continue till they see the next new moon; these have been mutilated to such a degree in all our English translations, that I shall give them, in the original Arabic character, and as they ought to be spelt and pronounced in the English character, as a clue whereby to calculate the correspondence between our year and theirs. They divide the year into 12 months, which contain 29 or 30 days, according as they see the new moon; the first day of the month Muharam is termed [arabic] Ras Elame, i.e. the beginning of the year.

As we are more used to the Asiatic mode of punctuation, that will be observed in these words.

Muharam [Arabic] Asaffer [Arabic] 372 Arabia Elule [Arabic] Arabea Atthenie [Arabic] Jumad Elule [Arabic] Jumad Athenie [Arabic] Rajeb [Arabic] Shaban [Arabic] Ramadan [Arabic] Shual [Arabic] Du'elkada [Arabic] Du Elhajah [Arabic]

The first of Muharram, year of the Hejra 1221, answers to the 19th March of the Christian aera, 1806.

Among the various languages spoken south of the Sahara, we have already observed that there are thirty-three different ones between the Western Ocean and the Red Sea, following the shores of the Nile El Abeed, or Niger: among all these nations and empires, a man practically acquainted with the Arabic, may always make himself understood, and indeed, it is the language most requisite to be known for every traveller in these extensive regions.

The Mandinga is spoken from the banks of the Senegal, where that river takes a northerly course from the Jibel Kuthera to the 373 kingdom of Bambarra; the Wangareen tongue is a different one; and the Housonians speak a language differing again from that.

Specimen of the difference between the Arabic and Mandinga language; the words of the latter extracted from the vocabularies of Seedi Muhamed ben Amer Sudani.

ENGLISH. MANDINGA. ARABIC.

One Kalen Wahud Two Fula Thanine Three Seba Thalata Four Nani Arba Five Lulu Kumsa Six Uruh Setta Seven Urn'klu Sebba Eight Saeae Timinia Nine Kanuntee Taseud Ten Dan Ashra Eleven Dan kalen Ahud ash Twelve Dan fula Atenashe Thirteen Dan seba Teltashe Nineteen Dankanartee Tasatasli Twenty Mulu Ashreen Thirty Mulu nintau Thalateen Forty Mulu fula Arbae'in Fifty Mulu fula neentan Kumseen Sixty Mulu sebaa Setteen Seventy Mulu sebaa nintan Sebae'in. 374 Eighty Mulu nani T'aramana'een Ninety Mulu nani neentaan Tasa'een One hundred Kemi Mia One thousand Uli Elf

This Neen Hadda That Waleem Hadduk Great Bawa Kabeer Little Nadeen Sereer Handsome Nimawa Zin Ugly Nuta Uksheen (k guttur.) White Kie Bead Black Feen Khal Red Williamma Hummer How do you do? Nimbana mcuntania Kif-enta Well Kantee Ala-khere Not well Moon kanti Murrede What do you want Ala feta matume Ash-bright Sit down Siduma Jils Get up Ounilee Node Sour Akkumula Hamd Sweet Timiata Helluh True Aituliala Hack False Funiala Kadube Good Abatee Miliah Bad Minbatee Kubiah A witch Bua Sahar A lion Jatta Sebaa 375 An elephant Samma El fel A hyaena Salua Dubbah A wild boar Siwa El kunjer A water horse Mali Aoud d'Elma A horse Suhuwa Aoud A camel Kumaniun Jimmel A dog Wallee Killeb Hel el Killeb Hel Wallee Hel El Killeb or the dog-faced race.

A gazel Tankeen Gazel (g guttural) A cat Niankune El mish A goat Baa El maize A sheep Kurenale Kibsh A bull Nisakia Toor A serpent Saa Hensh A camelion Mineer Tatta An ape Ku'nee Dzatute A fowl or chicken Susee Djez A duck Beruee El Weese A fish Hihu El hout Butter Tulu Zibda Milk Nunn El hellib Bread Mengu El khubs (k guttur.) Corn Nieu Zra Wine Tangee Kummer (k guttur.) Honey Alee Asel Sugar Tobabualee Sukar Salt Kuee Mil'h Ambergris Anber Anber 376 Brass Tass Tass Silver Kudee Nukra Gold-dust Teber Tiber Pewter Tass ki Kusdeer A bow Kula El kos An arrow Binia Zerag A knife Muru Jenui A spoon Kulia Mogerfa A bed El arun El ferrashe A lamp El kundeel El kundeel A house Su Ed dar A room Bune El beet A light-hole Jinnee Reehaha or window A door Daa Beb A town Kinda Midina Smoke Sezee Tkan (k guttural) Heat Kandia Skanna (k guttural) Cold Nini Berd Sea Bedu baha Bahar River Bedu Wed A rock Berri Jerf Sand Kinnikanni Rummel The earth Binku Dunia Mountain Kuanku Jibbel Island Juchuei Dzeera Rain Sanjukalaeen Shta God Allah Allah Father Fa Ba Mother Ba Ma Hell Jahennum Jehennume 377 A man Kia Rajil A woman Musa Murrah A sister Bum musa Kat (k guttural) A brother Bum kia Ka The devil Buhau Iblis A white man Tebabu Rajil biad A singer Jalikea Runai (r guttural) A singing woman Jalimusa Runaiah (r guttural) A slave June Abeed A servant Bettela Mutalem

Having now given some account of the languages of Africa, we shall proceed to animadvert on the similitude of language and customs between the Shelluhs of Atlas and the original inhabitants of the Canary Islands. The words between inverted commas, are quotations from Glasse's History of the Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands.

"The inhabitants of Lancerotta and Fuertaventura are social and cheerful;" like the Shelluhs of Atlas; "they are fond of singing and dancing; their music is vocal, accompanied with a clapping of hands, and beating with their feet;" the Shelluhs resemble them in all these respects; "Their houses are built of stone, without cement; the entrance is narrow, so that but one person can enter at a time."

378 The houses of the Shelluhs are sometimes built without cement, but always with stone; the doors and entrances are low and small, so that one person only can enter.

"In their temples they offered to their God milk and butter."

Among the Shelluhs milk and butter are given as presents to princes and great men; the milk being an emblem of good will and candour.

"When they were sick (which seldom happened) they cured themselves with the herbs which grew in the country; and when they had acute pains, they scarified the part affected with sharp stones, and burned it with fire, and then anointed it with goat's butter. Earthen vessels of this goat's butter were found interred in the ground, having been put there by the women, who were the makers, and took that method of preparing it for medicine."

The custom of the Shelluhs on such occasions is exactly similar; the butter which they use is old, and is buried under ground many years in (bukul) earthen pots, and is called budra: it is a general medicine, and is said to possess a remarkably penetrating quality.

"They grind their barley in a hand-mill, made of two stones, being similar to those used in some remote parts of Europe".

In Suse, among the Shelluhs, they grind their corn in the same way, and barley is the principal food.

"Their breeches are short, leaving the knees bare;" so are those worn by the Shelluhs. 379 "Their common food was barley meal roasted and mixed with goat's milk and butter, and this dish they call Asamotan."

This is the common food of the Shelluhs of Atlas, and they call it by a similar name, Azamitta.

The opinion of the author of the History and Conquest of the Canary Islands, is, that the inhabitants came originally from Mauritania, and this he founds on the resemblance of names of places in Africa and in the islands: "for," says he, "Telde[214], which is the name of the oldest habitation in Canaria, Orotaba, and Tegesta, are all names which we find given to places in Mauritania and in Mount Atlas. It is to be supposed that Canaria, Fuertaventura, and Lancerotta, were peopled by the Alarbes[215], who are the nation most esteemed in Barbary; for the natives of those islands named milk Aho, and barley Temecin, which are the names that are given to those things in the language of the Alarbes of Barbary." He adds, that—

"Among the books of a library that was in the cathedral of St. Anna in Canaria, there was found one so disfigured, that it wanted both the beginning and the end: it treated of the Romans, and gave an 380 account, that when Africa was a Roman province, the natives of Mauritania rebelled and killed their presidents and governors, upon which the senate, resolving to punish and make a severe example of the rebels, sent a powerful army into Mauritania, which vanquished and reduced them again to obedience. Soon after the ringleaders of the rebellion were put to death, and the tongues of the common people, together with those of their wives and children, were cut out, and then they were all put aboard vessels with some grain and cattle, and transported to the Canary islands." [216]

[Footnote 214: Telde or Tildie is a place in the Atlas mountains, three miles east of Agadeer; the castle is in ruins.]

[Footnote 215: The Alarbes, this is the name that the inhabitants of Lower Suse and Sahara have, El Arab or Arabs.]

[Footnote 216: One Thomas Nicols, who lived seven years in the Canary Islands, and wrote a history of them, says, that the best account he could get of the origin of the natives, was, that they were exiles from Africa, banished thence by the Romans, who cut out their tongues for blaspheming their gods.]

The following vocabulary will show the similarity of language between the natives of Canaria and the Shelluhs (inhabitants of the Atlas mountains south of Marocco).

LANCEROTTA AND SHELLUH OR ENGLISH. FUERTAVENTURA DIALECT. LYBIAN TONGUE.

Temasin Tumzeen Barley Tezzezes Tezezreat Sticks Taginaste Taginast A palm-tree Tahuyan Tahuyat A blanket, covering, or petticoat. Ahemon Amen Water 381 Faycag Faquair Priest or lawyer Acoran M'koorn God Almogaren Talmogaren Temples Tamoyanteen Tigameen Houses Tawacen Tamouren Hogs Archormase Akermuse Green figs Azamotan Azamittan Barley meal fried in oil Tigot Tigot Heaven Tigotan Tigotan The Heavens Thener Athraar A mountain Adeyhaman Douwaman A hollow valley Ahico Tahayk A hayk, or coarse garment Kabeheira Kabeera A head man or a powerful Ahoren —— Barley meal roasted Ara —— A goat Ana —— A sheep Tagarer —— A place of justice

Benehoare, the name of the natives of Palma.

Beni Hoarie, a tribe of Arabs in Suse between Agadeer and Terodant.[217]

[Footnote 217: For further particulars, see Glasse's History of the Canary Islands, 4to. page 174.]

382

TITLES OF THE EMPEROR OF MAROCCO, STYLE OF ADDRESSING HIM, AND SPECIMENS OF EPISTOLARY CORRESPONDENCE.

* * * * *

THE TITLES OF THE EMPEROR ARE

Servant of God.

Commander, Captain, or Leader of the (Mumeneen) Faithful [i.e. in Muhamed], upheld by the Grace of God.

Prince of Hassenee. Ever supported by God.

Sultan of Fas, of Maroksh [Marocco], of Suse, and of Draha, and of Tafilelt and Tuat, together with all the kabyles [tribes] of the West, and of the Berebbers of Atlas, &c.

The Sultan calls his soldiers (ketteffee) "my shoulders or support, or strength;" his subjects he calls his sons (woledee), and himself the father of his people.

N.B. The Hejra, or Muhamedan aera began A.D. 622. The Muhamedan years are lunar, 33 of which are about 32 solar years.

383

THE STYLE USED BY MUSELMEN, IN ADDRESSING THE EMPEROR, IS AS FOLLOWS:

"Sultan of exalted dignity, whom God preserve. May the Almighty protect that royal purity, and bestow happiness, increase of wealth, and prosperity on the nation of believers [i.e. in Muhamed], whose welfare and power is attributed entirely to the favour and benevolence of the Exalted God."

The Sultan is head of the ecclesiastical, military, and civil law, and is universally considered by his subjects God's Vicegerent, or Lieutenant on Earth. All letters written to his Imperial Majesty, are begun with the praise of God, and with the acknowledgment, (in opposition to idolatry,) that there is neither beginning nor power but what proceeds from God, the eternal God, (La hule u la kua ela billa, Allah el adeem.)

384

SPECIMENS OF MUHAMEDAN EPISTOLARY CORRESPONDENCE.

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The following Letters are literal translations from the original Arabic, and, although not of great importance, yet it is some satisfaction to the enquiring mind, to observe the various modes of address, and to note the style of Epistolary Correspondence practised by the Muhamedans, which is so different from that which is used among European and other nations.

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LETTER I.

From Muley Ismael, Emperor of Marocco, to Captain Kirke at Tangier; Ambassador from King Charles the Second, dated 7th Du Elkadah, in the 1093d Year of the Hejra, (corresponding to the 27th October, A. D, 1682.)

Praise be to God, the most High alone! and the blessing of God be upon those who are for his prophet.

From the shereef[218], the servant of God, who putteth his trust in 385 God, the commander of the faithful, who is courageous in the way of the omniscient God.

[Footnote 218: Shereef is a general term in the Arabic for a prince, king, or emperor, signifying royal blood.]

L.S.

Ismael Son of a shereef; God illumine and preserve him.

God assist his commanders, and give victory to his forces and armies, Amen! To the captain of Tangier, Kirke, peace be to those who follow the right way[219]; this by way of preface. Your letter came to the lofty place of our residence, and we understand what your discourse contained. As for the asking a cessation of arms by sea; know, that it was not treated of between us till this present time. Neither did we make truce with you concerning any thing but Tangier alone. When you came to our illustrious house, we treated with you about that matter for four years, and if you had sojourned there yourself, no Muselman would ever have gone into that town hostilely against you, but merely as a peaceable merchant.