We next write out in a column these 28 sets of five figures, and proceed to tabulate the possible factors, or multipliers, into which they may be split. Roughly speaking, there would now appear to be about 2,000 possible cases to be tried, instead of the 30,240 mentioned above; but the process of elimination now begins, and if the reader has a quick eye and a clear head he can rapidly dispose of the large bulk of these cases, and there will be comparatively few test multiplications necessary. It would take far too much space to explain my own method in detail, but I will take the first set of figures in my table and show how easily it is done by the aid of little tricks and dodges that should occur to everybody as he goes along.

My first product group of five figures is 84,321. Here, as we have seen, the root of each factor must be 3 or a multiple of 3. As there is no 6 or 9, the only single multiplier is 3. Now, the remaining four figures can be arranged in 24 different ways, but there is no need to make 24 multiplications. We see at a glance that, in order to get a five-figure product, either the 8 or the 4 must be the first figure to the left. But unless the 2 is preceded on the right by the 8, it will produce when multiplied either a 6 or a 7, which must not occur. We are, therefore, reduced at once to the two cases, 3 x 4,128 and 3 x 4,281, both of which give correct solutions. Suppose next that we are trying the two-figure factor, 21. Here we see that if the number to be multiplied is under 500 the product will either have only four figures or begin with 10. Therefore we have only to examine the cases 21 x 843 and 21 x 834. But we know that the first figure will be repeated, and that the second figure will be twice the first figure added to the second. Consequently, as twice 3 added to 4 produces a nought in our product, the first case is at once rejected. It only remains to try the remaining case by multiplication, when we find it does not give a correct answer. If we are next trying the factor 12, we see at the start that neither the 8 nor the 3 can be in the units place, because they would produce a 6, and so on. A sharp eye and an alert judgment will enable us thus to run through our table in a much shorter time than would be expected. The process took me a little more than three hours.

I have not attempted to enumerate the solutions in the cases of six, seven, eight, and nine digits, but I have recorded nearly fifty examples with nine digits alone.

86.—QUEER MULTIPLICATION.

If we multiply 32547891 by 6, we get the product, 195287346. In both cases all the nine digits are used once and once only.

87.—THE NUMBER CHECKS PUZZLE.

Divide the ten checks into the following three groups: 7 1 5—4 6—3 2 8 9 0, and the first multiplied by the second produces the third.

88.—DIGITAL DIVISION.

It is convenient to consider the digits as arranged to form fractions of the respective values, one-half, one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, one-sixth, one-seventh, one-eighth, and one-ninth. I will first give the eight answers, as follows:—

6729/13458 = 1/2

5823/17469 = 1/3

3942/15768 = 1/4

2697/13485 = 1/5

2943/17658 = 1/6

2394/16758 = 1/7

3187/25496 = 1/8

6381/57429 = 1/9

The sum of the numerator digits and the denominator digits will, of course, always be 45, and the "digital root" is 9. Now, if we separate the nine digits into any two groups, the sum of the two digital roots will always be 9. In fact, the two digital roots must be either 9—9, 8—1, 7—2, 6—3, or 5—4. In the first case the actual sum is 18, but then the digital root of this number is itself 9. The solutions in the cases of one-third, one-fourth, one-sixth, one-seventh, and one-ninth must be of the form 9—9; that is to say, the digital roots of both numerator and denominator will be 9. In the cases of one-half and one-fifth, however, the digital roots are 6—3, but of course the higher root may occur either in the numerator or in the denominator; thus 2697/13485, 2769/13845, 2973/14865, 3729/18645, where, in the first two arrangements, the roots of the numerator and denominator are respectively 6—3, and in the last two 3—6. The most curious case of all is, perhaps, one-eighth, for here the digital roots may be of any one of the five forms given above.

The denominators of the fractions being regarded as the numerators multiplied by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 respectively, we must pay attention to the "carryings over." In order to get five figures in the product there will, of course, always be a carry-over after multiplying the last figure to the left, and in every case higher than 4 we must carry over at least three times. Consequently in cases from one-fifth to one-ninth we cannot produce different solutions by a mere change of position of pairs of figures, as, for example, we may with 5832/17496 and 5823/17469, where the 2/6 and 3/9 change places. It is true that the same figures may often be differently arranged, as shown in the two pairs of values for one-fifth that I have given in the last paragraph, but here it will be found there is a general readjustment of figures and not a simple changing of the positions of pairs. There are other little points that would occur to every solver—such as that the figure 5 cannot ever appear to the extreme right of the numerator, as this would result in our getting either a nought or a second 5 in the denominator. Similarly 1 cannot ever appear in the same position, nor 6 in the fraction one-sixth, nor an even figure in the fraction one-fifth, and so on. The preliminary consideration of such points as I have touched upon will not only prevent our wasting a lot of time in trying to produce impossible forms, but will lead us more or less directly to the desired solutions.

89.—ADDING THE DIGITS.

The smallest possible sum of money is L1, 8s. 93/4d., the digits of which add to 25.

90.—THE CENTURY PUZZLE.

The problem of expressing the number 100 as a mixed number or fraction, using all the nine digits once, and once only, has, like all these digital puzzles, a fascinating side to it. The merest tyro can by patient trial obtain correct results, and there is a singular pleasure in discovering and recording each new arrangement akin to the delight of the botanist in finding some long-sought plant. It is simply a matter of arranging those nine figures correctly, and yet with the thousands of possible combinations that confront us the task is not so easy as might at first appear, if we are to get a considerable number of results. Here are eleven answers, including the one I gave as a specimen:—

2148 1752 1428 1578 96 ——, 96 ——, 96 ——, 94 ——, 537 438 357 263

7524 5823 5742 3546 91 ——, 91 ——, 91 ——, 82 ——, 836 647 638 197

7524 5643 69258 81 ——, 81 ——, 3 ——-. 396 297 714

Now, as all the fractions necessarily represent whole numbers, it will be convenient to deal with them in the following form: 96 + 4, 94 + 6, 91 + 9, 82 + 18, 81 + 19, and 3 + 97.

With any whole number the digital roots of the fraction that brings it up to 100 will always be of one particular form. Thus, in the case of 96 + 4, one can say at once that if any answers are obtainable, then the roots of both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction will be 6. Examine the first three arrangements given above, and you will find that this is so. In the case of 94 + 6 the roots of the numerator and denominator will be respectively 3—2, in the case of 91 + 9 and of 82 + 18 they will be 9—8, in the case of 81 + 19 they will be 9—9, and in the case of 3 + 97 they will be 3—3. Every fraction that can be employed has, therefore, its particular digital root form, and you are only wasting your time in unconsciously attempting to break through this law.

Every reader will have perceived that certain whole numbers are evidently impossible. Thus, if there is a 5 in the whole number, there will also be a nought or a second 5 in the fraction, which are barred by the conditions. Then multiples of 10, such as 90 and 80, cannot of course occur, nor can the whole number conclude with a 9, like 89 and 79, because the fraction, equal to 11 or 21, will have 1 in the last place, and will therefore repeat a figure. Whole numbers that repeat a figure, such as 88 and 77, are also clearly useless. These cases, as I have said, are all obvious to every reader. But when I declare that such combinations as 98 + 2, 92 + 8, 86 + 14, 83 + 17, 74 + 26, etc., etc., are to be at once dismissed as impossible, the reason is not so evident, and I unfortunately cannot spare space to explain it.

But when all those combinations have been struck out that are known to be impossible, it does not follow that all the remaining "possible forms" will actually work. The elemental form may be right enough, but there are other and deeper considerations that creep in to defeat our attempts. For example, 98 + 2 is an impossible combination, because we are able to say at once that there is no possible form for the digital roots of the fraction equal to 2. But in the case of 97 + 3 there is a possible form for the digital roots of the fraction, namely, 6—5, and it is only on further investigation that we are able to determine that this form cannot in practice be obtained, owing to curious considerations. The working is greatly simplified by a process of elimination, based on such considerations as that certain multiplications produce a repetition of figures, and that the whole number cannot be from 12 to 23 inclusive, since in every such case sufficiently small denominators are not available for forming the fractional part.

91.—MORE MIXED FRACTIONS.

The point of the present puzzle lies in the fact that the numbers 15 and 18 are not capable of solution. There is no way of determining this without trial. Here are answers for the ten possible numbers:—

9+5472/1368 = 13; 9+6435/1287 = 14; 12+3576/894 = 16; 6+13258/947 = 20; 15+9432/786 = 27; 24+9756/813 = 36; 27+5148/396 = 40; 65+1892/473 = 69; 59+3614/278 = 72; 75+3648/192 = 94.

I have only found the one arrangement for each of the numbers 16, 20, and 27; but the other numbers are all capable of being solved in more than one way. As for 15 and 18, though these may be easily solved as a simple fraction, yet a "mixed fraction" assumes the presence of a whole number; and though my own idea for dodging the conditions is the following, where the fraction is both complex and mixed, it will be fairer to keep exactly to the form indicated:—

3952 —— 746 = 15; 3 —— 1

5742 —— 638 = 18. 9 —— 1

I have proved the possibility of solution for all numbers up to 100, except 1, 2, 3, 4, 15, and 18. The first three are easily shown to be impossible. I have also noticed that numbers whose digital root is 8—such as 26, 35, 44, 53, etc.—seem to lend themselves to the greatest number of answers. For the number 26 alone I have recorded no fewer than twenty-five different arrangements, and I have no doubt that there are many more.

92.—DIGITAL SQUARE NUMBERS.

So far as I know, there are no published tables of square numbers that go sufficiently high to be available for the purposes of this puzzle. The lowest square number containing all the nine digits once, and once only, is 139,854,276, the square of 11,826. The highest square number under the same conditions is, 923,187,456, the square of 30,384.

93.—THE MYSTIC ELEVEN.

Most people know that if the sum of the digits in the odd places of any number is the same as the sum of the digits in the even places, then the number is divisible by 11 without remainder. Thus in 896743012 the odd digits, 20468, add up 20, and the even digits, 1379, also add up 20. Therefore the number may be divided by 11. But few seem to know that if the difference between the sum of the odd and the even digits is 11, or a multiple of 11, the rule equally applies. This law enables us to find, with a very little trial, that the smallest number containing nine of the ten digits (calling nought a digit) that is divisible by 11 is 102,347,586, and the highest number possible, 987,652,413.

94.—THE DIGITAL CENTURY.

There is a very large number of different ways in which arithmetical signs may be placed between the nine digits, arranged in numerical order, so as to give an expression equal to 100. In fact, unless the reader investigated the matter very closely, he might not suspect that so many ways are possible. It was for this reason that I added the condition that not only must the fewest possible signs be used, but also the fewest possible strokes. In this way we limit the problem to a single solution, and arrive at the simplest and therefore (in this case) the best result.

Just as in the case of magic squares there are methods by which we may write down with the greatest ease a large number of solutions, but not all the solutions, so there are several ways in which we may quickly arrive at dozens of arrangements of the "Digital Century," without finding all the possible arrangements. There is, in fact, very little principle in the thing, and there is no certain way of demonstrating that we have got the best possible solution. All I can say is that the arrangement I shall give as the best is the best I have up to the present succeeded in discovering. I will give the reader a few interesting specimens, the first being the solution usually published, and the last the best solution that I know.

Signs. Strokes. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + (8 x 9) = 100 ( 9 18)

- (1 x 2) - 3 - 4 - 5 + (6 x 7) + (8 x 9) = 100 (12 20)

1 + (2 x 3) + (4 x 5) - 6 + 7 + (8 x 9) = 100 (11 21)

(1 + 2 - 3 - 4)(5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9) = 100 ( 9 12)

1 + (2 x 3) + 4 + 5 + 67 + 8 + 9 =100 (8 16)

(1 x 2) + 34 + 56 + 7 - 8 + 9 = 100 (7 13)

12 + 3 - 4 + 5 + 67 + 8 + 9 = 100 (6 11)

123 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 + 8 - 9 = 100 (6 7)

123 + 4 - 5 + 67 - 8 - 9 = 100 (4 6)

123 + 45 - 67 + 8 - 9 = 100 (4 6)

123 - 45 - 67 + 89 = 100 (3 4)

It will be noticed that in the above I have counted the bracket as one sign and two strokes. The last solution is singularly simple, and I do not think it will ever be beaten.

95.—THE FOUR SEVENS.

The way to write four sevens with simple arithmetical signs so that they represent 100 is as follows:—

7 7 — x — = 100. .7 .7

Of course the fraction, 7 over decimal 7, equals 7 divided by 7/10, which is the same as 70 divided by 7, or 10. Then 10 multiplied by 10 is 100, and there you are! It will be seen that this solution applies equally to any number whatever that you may substitute for 7.

96.—THE DICE NUMBERS.

The sum of all the numbers that can be formed with any given set of four different figures is always 6,666 multiplied by the sum of the four figures. Thus, 1, 2, 3, 4 add up 10, and ten times 6,666 is 66,660. Now, there are thirty-five different ways of selecting four figures from the seven on the dice—remembering the 6 and 9 trick. The figures of all these thirty-five groups add up to 600. Therefore 6,666 multiplied by 600 gives us 3,999,600 as the correct answer.

Let us discard the dice and deal with the problem generally, using the nine digits, but excluding nought. Now, if you were given simply the sum of the digits—that is, if the condition were that you could use any four figures so long as they summed to a given amount—then we have to remember that several combinations of four digits will, in many cases, make the same sum.

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 1 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 11 12

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 11 11 9 8 6 5 3 2 1 1

Here the top row of numbers gives all the possible sums of four different figures, and the bottom row the number of different ways in which each sum may be made. For example 13 may be made in three ways: 1237, 1246, and 1345. It will be found that the numbers in the bottom row add up to 126, which is the number of combinations of nine figures taken four at a time. From this table we may at once calculate the answer to such a question as this: What is the sum of all the numbers composed of our different digits (nought excluded) that add up to 14? Multiply 14 by the number beneath t in the table, 5, and multiply the result by 6,666, and you will have the answer. It follows that, to know the sum of all the numbers composed of four different digits, if you multiply all the pairs in the two rows and then add the results together, you will get 2,520, which, multiplied by 6,666, gives the answer 16,798,320.

The following general solution for any number of digits will doubtless interest readers. Let n represent number of digits, then 5 (10^n - 1) 8! divided by (9 - n)! equals the required sum. Note that 0! equals 1. This may be reduced to the following practical rule: Multiply together 4 x 7 x 6 x 5 ... to (n - 1) factors; now add (n + 1) ciphers to the right, and from this result subtract the same set of figures with a single cipher to the right. Thus for n = 4 (as in the case last mentioned), 4 x 7 x 6 = 168. Therefore 16,800,000 less 1,680 gives us 16,798,320 in another way.

97.—THE SPOT ON THE TABLE.

The ordinary schoolboy would correctly treat this as a quadratic equation. Here is the actual arithmetic. Double the product of the two distances from the walls. This gives us 144, which is the square of 12. The sum of the two distances is 17. If we add these two numbers, 12 and 17, together, and also subtract one from the other, we get the two answers that 29 or 5 was the radius, or half-diameter, of the table. Consequently, the full diameter was 58 in. or 10 in. But a table of the latter dimensions would be absurd, and not at all in accordance with the illustration. Therefore the table must have been 58 in. in diameter. In this case the spot was on the edge nearest to the corner of the room—to which the boy was pointing. If the other answer were admissible, the spot would be on the edge farthest from the corner of the room.

98.—ACADEMIC COURTESIES.

There must have been ten boys and twenty girls. The number of bows girl to girl was therefore 380, of boy to boy 90, of girl with boy 400, and of boys and girls to teacher 30, making together 900, as stated. It will be remembered that it was not said that the teacher himself returned the bows of any child.

99.—THE THIRTY-THREE PEARLS.

The value of the large central pearl must have been L3,000. The pearl at one end (from which they increased in value by L100) was L1,400; the pearl at the other end, L600.

100.—THE LABOURER'S PUZZLE.

The man said, "I am going twice as deep," not "as deep again." That is to say, he was still going twice as deep as he had gone already, so that when finished the hole would be three times its present depth. Then the answer is that at present the hole is 3 ft. 6 in. deep and the man 2 ft. 4 in. above ground. When completed the hole will be 10 ft. 6 in. deep, and therefore the man will then be 4 ft. 8 in. below the surface, or twice the distance that he is now above ground.

101.—THE TRUSSES OF HAY.

Add together the ten weights and divide by 4, and we get 289 lbs. as the weight of the five trusses together. If we call the five trusses in the order of weight A, B, C, D, and E, the lightest being A and the heaviest E, then the lightest, no lbs., must be the weight of A and B; and the next lightest, 112 lbs., must be the weight of A and C. Then the two heaviest, D and E, must weigh 121 lbs., and C and E must weigh 120 lbs. We thus know that A, B, D, and E weigh together 231 lbs., which, deducted from 289 lbs. (the weight of the five trusses), gives us the weight of C as 58 lbs. Now, by mere subtraction, we find the weight of each of the five trusses—54 lbs., 56 lbs., 58 lbs., 59 lbs., and 62 lbs. respectively.

102.—MR. GUBBINS IN A FOG.

The candles must have burnt for three hours and three-quarters. One candle had one-sixteenth of its total length left and the other four-sixteenths.

103.—PAINTING THE LAMP-POSTS.

Pat must have painted six more posts than Tim, no matter how many lamp-posts there were. For example, suppose twelve on each side; then Pat painted fifteen and Tim nine. If a hundred on each side, Pat painted one hundred and three, and Tim only ninety-seven

104.—CATCHING THE THIEF.

The constable took thirty steps. In the same time the thief would take forty-eight, which, added to his start of twenty-seven, carried him seventy-five steps. This distance would be exactly equal to thirty steps of the constable.

105.—THE PARISH COUNCIL ELECTION,

The voter can vote for one candidate in 23 ways, for two in 253 ways, for three in 1,771, for four in 8,855, for five in 33,649, for six in 100,947, for seven in 245,157, for eight in 490,314, and for nine candidates in 817,190 different ways. Add these together, and we get the total of 1,698,159 ways of voting.

106.—THE MUDDLETOWN ELECTION.

The numbers of votes polled respectively by the Liberal, the Conservative, the Independent, and the Socialist were 1,553, 1,535, 1,407, and 978 All that was necessary was to add the sum of the three majorities (739) to the total poll of 5,473 (making 6,212) and divide by 4, which gives us 1,553 as the poll of the Liberal. Then the polls of the other three candidates can, of course, be found by deducting the successive majorities from the last-mentioned number.

107.—THE SUFFRAGISTS' MEETING.

Eighteen were present at the meeting and eleven left. If twelve had gone, two-thirds would have retired. If only nine had gone, the meeting would have lost half its members.

108.—THE LEAP-YEAR LADIES.

The correct and only answer is that 11,616 ladies made proposals of marriage. Here are all the details, which the reader can check for himself with the original statements. Of 10,164 spinsters, 8,085 married bachelors, 627 married widowers, 1,221 were declined by bachelors, and 231 declined by widowers. Of the 1,452 widows, 1,155 married bachelors, and 297 married widowers. No widows were declined. The problem is not difficult, by algebra, when once we have succeeded in correctly stating it.

109.—THE GREAT SCRAMBLE.

The smallest number of sugar plums that will fulfil the conditions is 26,880. The five boys obtained respectively: Andrew, 2,863; Bob, 6,335; Charlie, 2,438; David, 10,294; Edgar, 4,950. There is a little trap concealed in the words near the end, "one-fifth of the same," that seems at first sight to upset the whole account of the affair. But a little thought will show that the words could only mean "one-fifth of five-eighths", the fraction last mentioned—that is, one-eighth of the three-quarters that Bob and Andrew had last acquired.

110.—THE ABBOT'S PUZZLE.

The only answer is that there were 5 men, 25 women, and 70 children. There were thus 100 persons in all, 5 times as many women as men, and as the men would together receive 15 bushels, the women 50 bushels, and the children 35 bushels, exactly 100 bushels would be distributed.

111.—REAPING THE CORN.

The whole field must have contained 46.626 square rods. The side of the central square, left by the farmer, is 4.8284 rods, so it contains 23.313 square rods. The area of the field was thus something more than a quarter of an acre and less than one-third; to be more precise, .2914 of an acre.

112.—A PUZZLING LEGACY.

As the share of Charles falls in through his death, we have merely to divide the whole hundred acres between Alfred and Benjamin in the proportion of one-third to one-fourth—that is in the proportion of four-twelfths to three-twelfths, which is the same as four to three. Therefore Alfred takes four-sevenths of the hundred acres and Benjamin three-sevenths.

113.—THE TORN NUMBER.

The other number that answers all the requirements of the puzzle is 9,801. If we divide this in the middle into two numbers and add them together we get 99, which, multiplied by itself, produces 9,801. It is true that 2,025 may be treated in the same way, only this number is excluded by the condition which requires that no two figures should be alike.

The general solution is curious. Call the number of figures in each half of the torn label n. Then, if we add 1 to each of the exponents of the prime factors (other than 3) of 10^n - 1 (1 being regarded as a factor with the constant exponent, 1), their product will be the number of solutions. Thus, for a label of six figures, n = 3. The factors of 10^n - 1 are 1 x 37 (not considering the 3 cubed), and the product of 2 x 2 = 4, the number of solutions. This always includes the special cases 98 - 01, 00 - 01, 998 - 01, 000 - 001, etc. The solutions are obtained as follows:—Factorize 10 cubed - 1 in all possible ways, always keeping the powers of 3 together, thus, 37 x 27, 999 x 1. Then solve the equation 37x = 27y + 1. Here x = 19 and y = 26. Therefore, 19 x 37 = 703, the square of which gives one label, 494,209. A complementary solution (through 27x = 37x + 1) can at once be found by 10^n - 703 = 297, the square of which gives 088,209 for second label. (These non-significant noughts to the left must be included, though they lead to peculiar cases like 00238 - 04641 = 4879 squared, where 0238 - 4641 would not work.) The special case 999 x 1 we can write at once 998,001, according to the law shown above, by adding nines on one half and noughts on the other, and its complementary will be 1 preceded by five noughts, or 000001. Thus we get the squares of 999 and 1. These are the four solutions.

114.—CURIOUS NUMBERS.

The three smallest numbers, in addition to 48, are 1,680, 57,120, and 1,940,448. It will be found that 1,681 and 841, 57,121 and 28,561, 1,940,449 and 970,225, are respectively the squares of 41 and 29, 239 and 169, 1,393 and 985.

115.—A PRINTER'S ERROR.

The answer is that 2^5 .9^2 is the same as 2592, and this is the only possible solution to the puzzle.

116.—THE CONVERTED MISER.

As we are not told in what year Mr. Jasper Bullyon made the generous distribution of his accumulated wealth, but are required to find the lowest possible amount of money, it is clear that we must look for a year of the most favourable form.

There are four cases to be considered—an ordinary year with fifty-two Sundays and with fifty-three Sundays, and a leap-year with fifty-two and fifty-three Sundays respectively. Here are the lowest possible amounts in each case:—

313 weekdays, 52 Sundays L112,055 312 weekdays, 53 Sundays 19,345 314 weekdays, 52 Sundays No solution possible. 313 weekdays, 53 Sundays L69,174

The lowest possible amount, and therefore the correct answer, is L19,345, distributed in an ordinary year that began on a Sunday. The last year of this kind was 1911. He would have paid L53 on every day of the year, or L62 on every weekday, with L1 left over, as required, in the latter event.

117.—A FENCE PROBLEM.

Though this puzzle presents no great difficulty to any one possessing a knowledge of algebra, it has perhaps rather interesting features.

Seeing, as one does in the illustration, just one corner of the proposed square, one is scarcely prepared for the fact that the field, in order to comply with the conditions, must contain exactly 501,760 acres, the fence requiring the same number of rails. Yet this is the correct answer, and the only answer, and if that gentleman in Iowa carries out his intention, his field will be twenty-eight miles long on each side, and a little larger than the county of Westmorland. I am not aware that any limit has ever been fixed to the size of a "field," though they do not run so large as this in Great Britain. Still, out in Iowa, where my correspondent resides, they do these things on a very big scale. I have, however, reason to believe that when he finds the sort of task he has set himself, he will decide to abandon it; for if that cow decides to roam to fresh woods and pastures new, the milkmaid may have to start out a week in advance in order to obtain the morning's milk.

Here is a little rule that will always apply where the length of the rail is half a pole. Multiply the number of rails in a hurdle by four, and the result is the exact number of miles in the side of a square field containing the same number of acres as there are rails in the complete fence. Thus, with a one-rail fence the field is four miles square; a two-rail fence gives eight miles square; a three-rail fence, twelve miles square; and so on, until we find that a seven-rail fence multiplied by four gives a field of twenty-eight miles square. In the case of our present problem, if the field be made smaller, then the number of rails will exceed the number of acres; while if the field be made larger, the number of rails will be less than the acres of the field.

118.—CIRCLING THE SQUARES.

Though this problem might strike the novice as being rather difficult, it is, as a matter of fact, quite easy, and is made still easier by inserting four out of the ten numbers.

First, it will be found that squares that are diametrically opposite have a common difference. For example, the difference between the square of 14 and the square of 2, in the diagram, is 192; and the difference between the square of 16 and the square of 8 is also 192. This must be so in every case. Then it should be remembered that the difference between squares of two consecutive numbers is always twice the smaller number plus 1, and that the difference between the squares of any two numbers can always be expressed as the difference of the numbers multiplied by their sum. Thus the square of 5 (25) less the square of 4 (16) equals (2 x 4) + 1, or 9; also, the square of 7 (49) less the square of 3 (9) equals (7 + 3) x (7 - 3), or 40.

Now, the number 192, referred to above, may be divided into five different pairs of even factors: 2 x 96, 4 x 48, 6 x 32, 8 x 24, and 12 x 16, and these divided by 2 give us, 1 x 48, 2 x 24, 3 x 16, 4 x 12, and 6 x 8. The difference and sum respectively of each of these pairs in turn produce 47, 49; 22, 26; 13, 19; 8, 16; and 2, 14. These are the required numbers, four of which are already placed. The six numbers that have to be added may be placed in just six different ways, one of which is as follows, reading round the circle clockwise: 16, 2, 49, 22, 19, 8, 14, 47, 26, 13.

I will just draw the reader's attention to one other little point. In all circles of this kind, the difference between diametrically opposite numbers increases by a certain ratio, the first numbers (with the exception of a circle of 6) being 4 and 6, and the others formed by doubling the next preceding but one. Thus, in the above case, the first difference is 2, and then the numbers increase by 4, 6, 8, and 12. Of course, an infinite number of solutions may be found if we admit fractions. The number of squares in a circle of this kind must, however, be of the form 4n + 6; that is, it must be a number composed of 6 plus a multiple of 4.

119.—RACKBRANE'S LITTLE LOSS.

The professor must have started the game with thirteen shillings, Mr. Potts with four shillings, and Mrs. Potts with seven shillings.

120.—THE FARMER AND HIS SHEEP.

The farmer had one sheep only! If he divided this sheep (which is best done by weight) into two parts, making one part two-thirds and the other part one-third, then the difference between these two numbers is the same as the difference between their squares—that is, one-third. Any two fractions will do if the denominator equals the sum of the two numerators.

121.—HEADS OR TAILS.

Crooks must have lost, and the longer he went on the more he would lose. In two tosses he would be left with three-quarters of his money, in four tosses with nine-sixteenths of his money, in six tosses with twenty-seven sixty-fourths of his money, and so on. The order of the wins and losses makes no difference, so long as their number is in the end equal.

122.—THE SEE-SAW PUZZLE.

The boy's weight must have been about 39.79 lbs. A brick weighed 3 lbs. Therefore 16 bricks weighed 48 lbs. and 11 bricks 33 lbs. Multiply 48 by 33 and take the square root.

123.—A LEGAL DIFFICULTY.

It was clearly the intention of the deceased to give the son twice as much as the mother, or the daughter half as much as the mother. Therefore the most equitable division would be that the mother should take two-sevenths, the son four-sevenths, and the daughter one-seventh.

124.—A QUESTION OF DEFINITION.

There is, of course, no difference in area between a mile square and a square mile. But there may be considerable difference in shape. A mile square can be no other shape than square; the expression describes a surface of a certain specific size and shape. A square mile may be of any shape; the expression names a unit of area, but does not prescribe any particular shape.

125.—THE MINERS' HOLIDAY.

Bill Harris must have spent thirteen shillings and sixpence, which would be three shillings more than the average for the seven men—half a guinea.

126.—SIMPLE MULTIPLICATION.

The number required is 3,529,411,764,705,882, which may be multiplied by 3 and divided by 2, by the simple expedient of removing the 3 from one end of the row to the other. If you want a longer number, you can increase this one to any extent by repeating the sixteen figures in the same order.

127.—SIMPLE DIVISION.

Subtract every number in turn from every other number, and we get 358 (twice), 716, 1,611, 1,253, and 895. Now, we see at a glance that, as 358 equals 2 x 179, the only number that can divide in every case without a remainder will be 179. On trial we find that this is such a divisor. Therefore, 179 is the divisor we want, which always leaves a remainder 164 in the case of the original numbers given.

128.—A PROBLEM IN SQUARES.

The sides of the three boards measure 31 in., 41 in., and 49 in. The common difference of area is exactly five square feet. Three numbers whose squares are in A.P., with a common difference of 7, are 113/120, 337/120, 463/120; and with a common difference of 13 are 80929/19380, 106921/19380, and 127729/19380. In the case of whole square numbers the common difference will always be divisible by 24, so it is obvious that our squares must be fractional. Readers should now try to solve the case where the common difference is 23. It is rather a hard nut.

129.—THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS.

Any number (not itself a square number) may be multiplied by a square that will give a product 1 less than another square. The given number must not itself be a square, because a square multiplied by a square produces a square, and no square plus 1 can be a square. My remarks throughout must be understood to apply to whole numbers, because fractional soldiers are not of much use in war.

Now, of all the numbers from 2 to 99 inclusive, 61 happens to be the most awkward one to work, and the lowest possible answer to our puzzle is that Harold's army consisted of 3,119,882,982,860,264,400 men. That is, there would be 51,145,622,669,840,400 men (the square of 226,153,980) in each of the sixty-one squares. Add one man (Harold), and they could then form one large square with 1,766,319,049 men on every side. The general problem, of which this is a particular case, is known as the "Pellian Equation"—apparently because Pell neither first propounded the question nor first solved it! It was issued as a challenge by Fermat to the English mathematicians of his day. It is readily solved by the use of continued fractions.

Next to 61, the most difficult number under 100 is 97, where 97 x 6,377,352 squared + 1 = a square.

The reason why I assumed that there must be something wrong with the figures in the chronicle is that we can confidently say that Harold's army did not contain over three trillion men! If this army (not to mention the Normans) had had the whole surface of the earth (sea included) on which to encamp, each man would have had slightly more than a quarter of a square inch of space in which to move about! Put another way: Allowing one square foot of standing-room per man, each small square would have required all the space allowed by a globe three times the diameter of the earth.

130.—THE SCULPTOR'S PROBLEM.

A little thought will make it clear that the answer must be fractional, and that in one case the numerator will be greater and in the other case less than the denominator. As a matter of fact, the height of the larger cube must be 8/7 ft., and of the smaller 3/7 ft., if we are to have the answer in the smallest possible figures. Here the lineal measurement is 11/7 ft.—that is, 1+4/7 ft. What are the cubic contents of the two cubes? First 8/7 x 3/7 x 8/7 = 512/343, and secondly 3/7 x 3/7 x 3/7 = 27/343. Add these together and the result is 539/343, which reduces to 11/7 or 1+4/7 ft. We thus see that the answers in cubic feet and lineal feet are precisely the same.

The germ of the idea is to be found in the works of Diophantus of Alexandria, who wrote about the beginning of the fourth century. These fractional numbers appear in triads, and are obtained from three generators, a, b, c, where a is the largest and c the smallest.

Then ab + c squared = denominator, and a squared - c squared, b squared - c squared, and a squared - b squared will be the three numerators. Thus, using the generators 3, 2, 1, we get 8/7, 3/7, 5/7 and we can pair the first and second, as in the above solution, or the first and third for a second solution. The denominator must always be a prime number of the form 6n + 1, or composed of such primes. Thus you can have 13, 19, etc., as denominators, but not 25, 55, 187, etc.

When the principle is understood there is no difficulty in writing down the dimensions of as many sets of cubes as the most exacting collector may require. If the reader would like one, for example, with plenty of nines, perhaps the following would satisfy him: 99999999/99990001 and 19999/99990001.

131.—THE SPANISH MISER.

There must have been 386 doubloons in one box, 8,450 in another, and 16,514 in the third, because 386 is the smallest number that can occur. If I had asked for the smallest aggregate number of coins, the answer would have been 482, 3,362, and 6,242. It will be found in either case that if the contents of any two of the three boxes be combined, they form a square number of coins. It is a curious coincidence (nothing more, for it will not always happen) that in the first solution the digits of the three numbers add to 17 in every case, and in the second solution to 14. It should be noted that the middle one of the three numbers will always be half a square.

132.—THE NINE TREASURE BOXES.

Here is the answer that fulfils the conditions:—

A = 4 B = 3,364 C = 6,724 D = 2,116 E = 5,476 F = 8,836 G = 9,409 H = 12,769 I = 16,129

Each of these is a square number, the roots, taken in alphabetical order, being 2, 58, 82, 46, 74, 94, 97, 113, and 127, while the required difference between A and B, B and C, D and E. etc., is in every case 3,360.

133.—THE FIVE BRIGANDS.

The sum of 200 doubloons might have been held by the five brigands in any one of 6,627 different ways. Alfonso may have held any number from 1 to 11. If he held 1 doubloon, there are 1,005 different ways of distributing the remainder; if he held 2, there are 985 ways; if 3, there are 977 ways; if 4, there are 903 ways; if 5 doubloons, 832 ways; if 6 doubloons, 704 ways; if 7 doubloons, 570 ways; if 8 doubloons, 388 ways; if 9 doubloons, 200 ways; if 10 doubloons, 60 ways; and if Alfonso held 11 doubloons, the remainder could be distributed in 3 different ways. More than 11 doubloons he could not possibly have had. It will scarcely be expected that I shall give all these 6,627 ways at length. What I propose to do is to enable the reader, if he should feel so disposed, to write out all the answers where Alfonso has one and the same amount. Let us take the cases where Alfonso has 6 doubloons, and see how we may obtain all the 704 different ways indicated above. Here are two tables that will serve as keys to all these answers:—

Table I. Table II. A = 6. A = 6. B = n. B = n. C = (63 - 5n) + m. C = 1 + m. D = (128 + 4n) - 4m. D = (376 - 16n) - 4m. E = 3 + 3m. E = (15n - 183) + 3m.

In the first table we may substitute for n any whole number from 1 to 12 inclusive, and m may be nought or any whole number from 1 to (31 + n) inclusive. In the second table n may have the value of any whole number from 13 to 23 inclusive, and m may be nought or any whole number from 1 to (93 - 4n) inclusive. The first table thus gives (32 + n) answers for every value of n; and the second table gives (94 - 4n) answers for every value of n. The former, therefore, produces 462 and the latter 242 answers, which together make 704, as already stated.

Let us take Table I., and say n = 5 and m = 2; also in Table II. take n = 13 and m = 0. Then we at once get these two answers:—

A = 6 A = 6 B = 5 B = 13 C = 40 C = 1 D = 140 D = 168 E = 9 E = 12 —- —- 200 doubloons 200 doubloons.

These will be found to work correctly. All the rest of the 704 answers, where Alfonso always holds six doubloons, may be obtained in this way from the two tables by substituting the different numbers for the letters m and n.

Put in another way, for every holding of Alfonso the number of answers is the sum of two arithmetical progressions, the common difference in one case being 1 and in the other -4. Thus in the case where Alfonso holds 6 doubloons one progression is 33 + 34 + 35 + 36 + ... + 43 + 44, and the other 42 + 38 + 34 + 30 + ... + 6 + 2. The sum of the first series is 462, and of the second 242—results which again agree with the figures already given. The problem may be said to consist in finding the first and last terms of these progressions. I should remark that where Alfonso holds 9, 10, or 11 there is only one progression, of the second form.

134.—THE BANKER'S PUZZLE.

In order that a number of sixpences may not be divisible into a number of equal piles, it is necessary that the number should be a prime. If the banker can bring about a prime number, he will win; and I will show how he can always do this, whatever the customer may put in the box, and that therefore the banker will win to a certainty. The banker must first deposit forty sixpences, and then, no matter how many the customer may add, he will desire the latter to transfer from the counter the square of the number next below what the customer put in. Thus, banker puts 40, customer, we will say, adds 6, then transfers from the counter 25 (the square of 5), which leaves 71 in all, a prime number. Try again. Banker puts 40, customer adds 12, then transfers 121 (the square of 11), as desired, which leaves 173, a prime number. The key to the puzzle is the curious fact that any number up to 39, if added to its square and the sum increased by 41, makes a prime number. This was first discovered by Euler, the great mathematician. It has been suggested that the banker might desire the customer to transfer sufficient to raise the contents of the box to a given number; but this would not only make the thing an absurdity, but breaks the rule that neither knows what the other puts in.

135.—THE STONEMASON'S PROBLEM.

The puzzle amounts to this. Find the smallest square number that may be expressed as the sum of more than three consecutive cubes, the cube 1 being barred. As more than three heaps were to be supplied, this condition shuts out the otherwise smallest answer, 23 cubed + 24 cubed + 25 cubed = 204 squared. But it admits the answer, 25 cubed + 26 cubed + 27 cubed + 28 cubed + 29 cubed = 315 squared. The correct answer, however, requires more heaps, but a smaller aggregate number of blocks. Here it is: 14 cubed + 15 cubed + ... up to 25 cubed inclusive, or twelve heaps in all, which, added together, make 97,344 blocks of stone that may be laid out to form a square 312 x 312. I will just remark that one key to the solution lies in what are called triangular numbers. (See pp. 13, 25, and 166.)

136.—THE SULTAN'S ARMY.

The smallest primes of the form 4n + 1 are 5, 13, 17, 29, and 37, and the smallest of the form 4n - 1 are 3, 7, 11, 19, and 23. Now, primes of the first form can always be expressed as the sum of two squares, and in only one way. Thus, 5 = 4 + 1; 13 = 9 + 4; 17 = 16 + 1; 29 = 25 + 4; 37 = 36 + 1. But primes of the second form can never be expressed as the sum of two squares in any way whatever.

In order that a number may be expressed as the sum of two squares in several different ways, it is necessary that it shall be a composite number containing a certain number of primes of our first form. Thus, 5 or 13 alone can only be so expressed in one way; but 65, (5 x 13), can be expressed in two ways, 1,105, (5 x 13 x 17), in four ways, 32,045, (5 x 13 x 17 x 29), in eight ways. We thus get double as many ways for every new factor of this form that we introduce. Note, however, that I say new factor, for the repetition of factors is subject to another law. We cannot express 25, (5 x 5), in two ways, but only in one; yet 125, (5 x 5 x 5), can be given in two ways, and so can 625, (5 x 5 x 5 x 5); while if we take in yet another 5 we can express the number as the sum of two squares in three different ways.

If a prime of the second form gets into your composite number, then that number cannot be the sum of two squares. Thus 15, (3 x 5), will not work, nor will 135, (3 x 3 x 3 x 5); but if we take in an even number of 3's it will work, because these 3's will themselves form a square number, but you will only get one solution. Thus, 45, (3 x 3 x 5, or 9 x 5) = 36 + 9. Similarly, the factor 2 may always occur, or any power of 2, such as 4, 8, 16, 32; but its introduction or omission will never affect the number of your solutions, except in such a case as 50, where it doubles a square and therefore gives you the two answers, 49 + 1 and 25 + 25.

Now, directly a number is decomposed into its prime factors, it is possible to tell at a glance whether or not it can be split into two squares; and if it can be, the process of discovery in how many ways is so simple that it can be done in the head without any effort. The number I gave was 130. I at once saw that this was 2 x 5 x 13, and consequently that, as 65 can be expressed in two ways (64 + 1 and 49 + 16), 130 can also be expressed in two ways, the factor 2 not affecting the question.

The smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two squares in twelve different ways is 160,225, and this is therefore the smallest army that would answer the Sultan's purpose. The number is composed of the factors 5 x 5 x 13 x 17 x 29, each of which is of the required form. If they were all different factors, there would be sixteen ways; but as one of the factors is repeated, there are just twelve ways. Here are the sides of the twelve pairs of squares: (400 and 15), (399 and 32), (393 and 76), (392 and 81), (384 and 113), (375 and 140), (360 and 175), (356 and 183), (337 and 216), (329 and 228), (311 and 252), (265 and 300). Square the two numbers in each pair, add them together, and their sum will in every case be 160,225.

137.—A STUDY IN THRIFT.

Mrs. Sandy McAllister will have to save a tremendous sum out of her housekeeping allowance if she is to win that sixth present that her canny husband promised her. And the allowance must be a very liberal one if it is to admit of such savings. The problem required that we should find five numbers higher than 36 the units of which may be displayed so as to form a square, a triangle, two triangles, and three triangles, using the complete number in every one of the four cases.

Every triangular number is such that if we multiply it by 8 and add 1 the result is an odd square number. For example, multiply 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 respectively by 8 and add 1, and we get 9, 25, 49, 81, 121, which are the squares of the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. Therefore in every case where 8x squared + 1 = a square number, x squared is also a triangular. This point is dealt with in our puzzle, "The Battle of Hastings." I will now merely show again how, when the first solution is found, the others may be discovered without any difficulty. First of all, here are the figures:—

8 x 1 squared + 1 = 3 squared 8 x 6 squared + 1 = 17 squared 8 x 35 squared + 1 = 99 squared 8 x 204 squared + 1 = 577 squared 8 x 1189 squared + 1 = 3363 squared 8 x 6930 squared + 1 = 19601 squared 8 x 40391 squared + 1 = 114243 squared

The successive pairs of numbers are found in this way:—

(1 x 3) + (3 x 1) = 6 (8 x 1) + (3 x 3) = 17 (1 x 17) + (3 x 6) = 35 (8 x 6) + (3 x 17) = 99 (1 x 99) + (3 x 35) = 204 (8 x 35) + (3 x 99) = 577

and so on. Look for the numbers in the table above, and the method will explain itself.

Thus we find that the numbers 36, 1225, 41616, 1413721, 48024900, and 1631432881 will form squares with sides of 6, 35, 204, 1189, 6930, and 40391; and they will also form single triangles with sides of 8, 49, 288, 1681, 9800, and 57121. These numbers may be obtained from the last column in the first table above in this way: simply divide the numbers by 2 and reject the remainder. Thus the integral halves of 17, 99, and 577 are 8, 49, and 288.

All the numbers we have found will form either two or three triangles at will. The following little diagram will show you graphically at a glance that every square number must necessarily be the sum of two triangulars, and that the side of one triangle will be the same as the side of the corresponding square, while the other will be just 1 less.



Thus a square may always be divided easily into two triangles, and the sum of two consecutive triangulars will always make a square. In numbers it is equally clear, for if we examine the first triangulars—1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28—we find that by adding all the consecutive pairs in turn we get the series of square numbers—9, 16, 25, 36, 49, etc.

The method of forming three triangles from our numbers is equally direct, and not at all a matter of trial. But I must content myself with giving actual figures, and just stating that every triangular higher than 6 will form three triangulars. I give the sides of the triangles, and readers will know from my remarks when stating the puzzle how to find from these sides the number of counters or coins in each, and so check the results if they so wish.

+ + -+ -+ -+ Number Side of Side of Sides of Two Sides of Three Square. Triangle. Triangles. Triangles. + + -+ -+ -+ -+ 36 6 8 6 + 5 5 + 5 + 3 1225 35 49 36 + 34 33 + 32 + 16 41616 204 288 204 + 203 192 + 192 + 95 1413721 1189 1681 1189 + 1188 1121 + 1120 + 560 48024900 6930 9800 6930 + 6929 6533 + 6533 + 3267 1631432881 40391 57121 40391 + 40390 38081 + 38080 + 19040 + + -+ -+ -+ -+

I should perhaps explain that the arrangements given in the last two columns are not the only ways of forming two and three triangles. There are others, but one set of figures will fully serve our purpose. We thus see that before Mrs. McAllister can claim her sixth L5 present she must save the respectable sum of L1,631,432,881.

138.—THE ARTILLERYMEN'S DILEMMA.

We were required to find the smallest number of cannon balls that we could lay on the ground to form a perfect square, and could pile into a square pyramid. I will try to make the matter clear to the merest novice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 1 4 10 20 35 56 84 1 5 14 30 55 91 140

Here in the first row we place in regular order the natural numbers. Each number in the second row represents the sum of the numbers in the row above, from the beginning to the number just over it. Thus 1, 2, 3, 4, added together, make 10. The third row is formed in exactly the same way as the second. In the fourth row every number is formed by adding together the number just above it and the preceding number. Thus 4 and 10 make 14, 20 and 35 make 55. Now, all the numbers in the second row are triangular numbers, which means that these numbers of cannon balls may be laid out on the ground so as to form equilateral triangles. The numbers in the third row will all form our triangular pyramids, while the numbers in the fourth row will all form square pyramids.

Thus the very process of forming the above numbers shows us that every square pyramid is the sum of two triangular pyramids, one of which has the same number of balls in the side at the base, and the other one ball fewer. If we continue the above table to twenty-four places, we shall reach the number 4,900 in the fourth row. As this number is the square of 70, we can lay out the balls in a square, and can form a square pyramid with them. This manner of writing out the series until we come to a square number does not appeal to the mathematical mind, but it serves to show how the answer to the particular puzzle may be easily arrived at by anybody. As a matter of fact, I confess my failure to discover any number other than 4,900 that fulfils the conditions, nor have I found any rigid proof that this is the only answer. The problem is a difficult one, and the second answer, if it exists (which I do not believe), certainly runs into big figures.

For the benefit of more advanced mathematicians I will add that the general expression for square pyramid numbers is (2n cubed + 3n squared + n)/6. For this expression to be also a square number (the special case of 1 excepted) it is necessary that n = p squared - 1 = 6t squared, where 2p squared - 1 = q squared (the "Pellian Equation"). In the case of our solution above, n = 24, p = 5, t = 2, q = 7.

139.—THE DUTCHMEN'S WIVES.

The money paid in every case was a square number of shillings, because they bought 1 at 1s., 2 at 2s., 3 at 3s., and so on. But every husband pays altogether 63s. more than his wife, so we have to find in how many ways 63 may be the difference between two square numbers. These are the three only possible ways: the square of 8 less the square of 1, the square of 12 less the square of 9, and the square of 32 less the square of 31. Here 1, 9, and 31 represent the number of pigs bought and the number of shillings per pig paid by each woman, and 8, 12, and 32 the same in the case of their respective husbands. From the further information given as to their purchases, we can now pair them off as follows: Cornelius and Gurtruen bought 8 and 1; Elas and Katruen bought 12 and 9; Hendrick and Anna bought 32 and 31. And these pairs represent correctly the three married couples.

The reader may here desire to know how we may determine the maximum number of ways in which a number may be expressed as the difference between two squares, and how we are to find the actual squares. Any integer except 1, 4, and twice any odd number, may be expressed as the difference of two integral squares in as many ways as it can be split up into pairs of factors, counting 1 as a factor. Suppose the number to be 5,940. The factors are 2 squared.3 cubed.5.11. Here the exponents are 2, 3, 1, 1. Always deduct 1 from the exponents of 2 and add 1 to all the other exponents; then we get 1, 4, 2, 2, and half the product of these four numbers will be the required number of ways in which 5,940 may be the difference of two squares—that is, 8. To find these eight squares, as it is an even number, we first divide by 4 and get 1485, the eight pairs of factors of which are 1 x 1485, 3 x 495, 5 x 297, 9 x 165, 11 x 135, 15 x 99, 27 x 55, and 33 x 45. The sum and difference of any one of these pairs will give the required numbers. Thus, the square of 1,486 less the square of 1,484 is 5,940, the square of 498 less the square of 492 is the same, and so on. In the case of 63 above, the number is odd; so we factorize at once, 1 x 63, 3 x 21, 7 x 9. Then we find that half the sum and difference will give us the numbers 32 and 31, 12 and 9, and 8 and 1, as shown in the solution to the puzzle.

The reverse problem, to find the factors of a number when you have expressed it as the difference of two squares, is obvious. For example, the sum and difference of any pair of numbers in the last sentence will give us the factors of 63. Every prime number (except 1 and 2) may be expressed as the difference of two squares in one way, and in one way only. If a number can be expressed as the difference of two squares in more than one way, it is composite; and having so expressed it, we may at once obtain the factors, as we have seen. Fermat showed in a letter to Mersenne or Frenicle, in 1643, how we may discover whether a number may be expressed as the difference of two squares in more than one way, or proved to be a prime. But the method, when dealing with large numbers, is necessarily tedious, though in practice it may be considerably shortened. In many cases it is the shortest method known for factorizing large numbers, and I have always held the opinion that Fermat used it in performing a certain feat in factorizing that is historical and wrapped in mystery.

140.—FIND ADA'S SURNAME.

The girls' names were Ada Smith, Annie Brown, Emily Jones, Mary Robinson, and Bessie Evans.

141.—SATURDAY MARKETING.

As every person's purchase was of the value of an exact number of shillings, and as the party possessed when they started out forty shilling coins altogether, there was no necessity for any lady to have any smaller change, or any evidence that they actually had such change. This being so, the only answer possible is that the women were named respectively Anne Jones, Mary Robinson, Jane Smith, and Kate Brown. It will now be found that there would be exactly eight shillings left, which may be divided equally among the eight persons in coin without any change being required.

142.—THE SILK PATCHWORK.



Our illustration will show how to cut the stitches of the patchwork so as to get the square F entire, and four equal pieces, G, H, I, K, that will form a perfect Greek cross. The reader will know how to assemble these four pieces from Fig. 13 in the article.



143.—TWO CROSSES FROM ONE.

It will be seen that one cross is cut out entire, as A in Fig. 1, while the four pieces marked B, C, D and E form the second cross, as in Fig. 2, which will be of exactly the same size as the other. I will leave the reader the pleasant task of discovering for himself the best way of finding the direction of the cuts. Note that the Swastika again appears.

The difficult question now presents itself: How are we to cut three Greek crosses from one in the fewest possible pieces? As a matter of fact, this problem may be solved in as few as thirteen pieces; but as I know many of my readers, advanced geometricians, will be glad to have something to work on of which they are not shown the solution, I leave the mystery for the present undisclosed.

144.—THE CROSS AND THE TRIANGLE.

The line A B in the following diagram represents the side of a square having the same area as the cross. I have shown elsewhere, as stated, how to make a square and equilateral triangle of equal area. I need not go, therefore, into the preliminary question of finding the dimensions of the triangle that is to equal our cross. We will assume that we have already found this, and the question then becomes, How are we to cut up one of these into pieces that will form the other?

First draw the line A B where A and B are midway between the extremities of the two side arms. Next make the lines D C and E F equal in length to half the side of the triangle. Now from E and F describe with the same radius the intersecting arcs at G and draw F G. Finally make I K equal to H C and L B equal to A D. If we now draw I L, it should be parallel to F G, and all the six pieces are marked out. These fit together and form a perfect equilateral triangle, as shown in the second diagram. Or we might have first found the direction of the line M N in our triangle, then placed the point O over the point E in the cross and turned round the triangle over the cross until the line M N was parallel to A B. The piece 5 can then be marked off and the other pieces in succession.



I have seen many attempts at a solution involving the assumption that the height of the triangle is exactly the same as the height of the cross. This is a fallacy: the cross will always be higher than the triangle of equal area.

145.—THE FOLDED CROSS.



First fold the cross along the dotted line A B in Fig. 1. You then have it in the form shown in Fig. 2. Next fold it along the dotted line C D (where D is, of course, the centre of the cross), and you get the form shown in Fig. 3. Now take your scissors and cut from G to F, and the four pieces, all of the same size and shape, will fit together and form a square, as shown in Fig. 4.



146.—AN EASY DISSECTION PUZZLE.



The solution to this puzzle is shown in the illustration. Divide the figure up into twelve equal triangles, and it is easy to discover the directions of the cuts, as indicated by the dark lines.

147.—AN EASY SQUARE PUZZLE.

[Illustration

- . / . / . / / / / . / / . / / . / / ./ / / / / / / / . / / . / / . / / . / / . / . / . / . -

]

The diagram explains itself, one of the five pieces having been cut in two to form a square.

148.—THE BUN PUZZLE.

[Illustration

. . . . _ . . . A . . C . / . ____/ . . . B . . . . . -

. . . . . . D E . . . . . .

_ . . . -+- . . . . . - - . G F

- - . . . . . - - . . . -

-+- . . - - . H

- - . . - -

]

The secret of the bun puzzle lies in the fact that, with the relative dimensions of the circles as given, the three diameters will form a right-angled triangle, as shown by A, B, C. It follows that the two smaller buns are exactly equal to the large bun. Therefore, if we give David and Edgar the two halves marked D and E, they will have their fair shares—one quarter of the confectionery each. Then if we place the small bun, H, on the top of the remaining one and trace its circumference in the manner shown, Fred's piece, F, will exactly equal Harry's small bun, H, with the addition of the piece marked G—half the rim of the other. Thus each boy gets an exactly equal share, and there are only five pieces necessary.

149.—THE CHOCOLATE SQUARES.



Square A is left entire; the two pieces marked B fit together and make a second square; the two pieces C make a third square; and the four pieces marked D will form the fourth square.

150.—DISSECTING A MITRE.

The diagram on the next page shows how to cut into five pieces to form a square. The dotted lines are intended to show how to find the points C and F—the only difficulty. A B is half B D, and A E is parallel to B H. With the point of the compasses at B describe the arc H E, and A E will be the distance of C from B. Then F G equals B C less A B.

This puzzle—with the added condition that it shall be cut into four parts of the same size and shape—I have not been able to trace to an earlier date than 1835. Strictly speaking, it is, in that form, impossible of solution; but I give the answer that is always presented, and that seems to satisfy most people.



We are asked to assume that the two portions containing the same letter—AA, BB, CC, DD—are joined by "a mere hair," and are, therefore, only one piece. To the geometrician this is absurd, and the four shares are not equal in area unless they consist of two pieces each. If you make them equal in area, they will not be exactly alike in shape.



151.—THE JOINER'S PROBLEM.



Nothing could be easier than the solution of this puzzle—when you know how to do it. And yet it is apt to perplex the novice a good deal if he wants to do it in the fewest possible pieces—three. All you have to do is to find the point A, midway between B and C, and then cut from A to D and from A to E. The three pieces then form a square in the manner shown. Of course, the proportions of the original figure must be correct; thus the triangle BEF is just a quarter of the square BCDF. Draw lines from B to D and from C to F and this will be clear.

152.—ANOTHER JOINER'S PROBLEM.



THE point was to find a general rule for forming a perfect square out of another square combined with a "right-angled isosceles triangle." The triangle to which geometricians give this high-sounding name is, of course, nothing more or less than half a square that has been divided from corner to corner.

The precise relative proportions of the square and triangle are of no consequence whatever. It is only necessary to cut the wood or material into five pieces.

Suppose our original square to be ACLF in the above diagram and our triangle to be the shaded portion CED. Now, we first find half the length of the long side of the triangle (CD) and measure off this length at AB. Then we place the triangle in its present position against the square and make two cuts—one from B to F, and the other from B to E. Strange as it may seem, that is all that is necessary! If we now remove the pieces G, H, and M to their new places, as shown in the diagram, we get the perfect square BEKF.

Take any two square pieces of paper, of different sizes but perfect squares, and cut the smaller one in half from corner to corner. Now proceed in the manner shown, and you will find that the two pieces may be combined to form a larger square by making these two simple cuts, and that no piece will be required to be turned over.

The remark that the triangle might be "a little larger or a good deal smaller in proportion" was intended to bar cases where area of triangle is greater than area of square. In such cases six pieces are necessary, and if triangle and square are of equal area there is an obvious solution in three pieces, by simply cutting the square in half diagonally.

153.—A CUTTING-OUT PUZZLE.



The illustration shows how to cut the four pieces and form with them a square. First find the side of the square (the mean proportional between the length and height of the rectangle), and the method is obvious. If our strip is exactly in the proportions 9 x 1, or 16 x 1, or 25 x 1, we can clearly cut it in 3, 4, or 5 rectangular pieces respectively to form a square. Excluding these special cases, the general law is that for a strip in length more than n squared times the breadth, and not more than (n+1) squared times the breadth, it may be cut in n+2 pieces to form a square, and there will be n-1 rectangular pieces like piece 4 in the diagram. Thus, for example, with a strip 24 x 1, the length is more than 16 and less than 25 times the breadth. Therefore it can be done in 6 pieces (n here being 4), 3 of which will be rectangular. In the case where n equals 1, the rectangle disappears and we get a solution in three pieces. Within these limits, of course, the sides need not be rational: the solution is purely geometrical.

154.—MRS. HOBSON'S HEARTHRUG.



As I gave full measurements of the mutilated rug, it was quite an easy matter to find the precise dimensions for the square. The two pieces cut off would, if placed together, make an oblong piece 12 x 6, giving an area of 72 (inches or yards, as we please), and as the original complete rug measured 36 x 27, it had an area of 972. If, therefore, we deduct the pieces that have been cut away, we find that our new rug will contain 972 less 72, or 900; and as 900 is the square of 30, we know that the new rug must measure 30 x 30 to be a perfect square. This is a great help towards the solution, because we may safely conclude that the two horizontal sides measuring 30 each may be left intact.

There is a very easy way of solving the puzzle in four pieces, and also a way in three pieces that can scarcely be called difficult, but the correct answer is in only two pieces.

It will be seen that if, after the cuts are made, we insert the teeth of the piece B one tooth lower down, the two portions will fit together and form a square.

155.—THE PENTAGON AND SQUARE.

A regular pentagon may be cut into as few as six pieces that will fit together without any turning over and form a square, as I shall show below. Hitherto the best answer has been in seven pieces—the solution produced some years ago by a foreign mathematician, Paul Busschop. We first form a parallelogram, and from that the square. The process will be seen in the diagram on the next page.

The pentagon is ABCDE. By the cut AC and the cut FM (F being the middle point between A and C, and M being the same distance from A as F) we get two pieces that may be placed in position at GHEA and form the parallelogram GHDC. We then find the mean proportional between the length HD and the height of the parallelogram. This distance we mark off from C at K, then draw CK, and from G drop the line GL, perpendicular to KC. The rest is easy and rather obvious. It will be seen that the six pieces will form either the pentagon or the square.

I have received what purported to be a solution in five pieces, but the method was based on the rather subtle fallacy that half the diagonal plus half the side of a pentagon equals the side of a square of the same area. I say subtle, because it is an extremely close approximation that will deceive the eye, and is quite difficult to prove inexact. I am not aware that attention has before been drawn to this curious approximation.



Another correspondent made the side of his square 11/4 of the side of the pentagon. As a matter of fact, the ratio is irrational. I calculate that if the side of the pentagon is 1—inch, foot, or anything else—the side of the square of equal area is 1.3117 nearly, or say roughly 1+3/10. So we can only hope to solve the puzzle by geometrical methods.

156.—THE DISSECTED TRIANGLE.

Diagram A is our original triangle. We will say it measures 5 inches (or 5 feet) on each side. If we take off a slice at the bottom of any equilateral triangle by a cut parallel with the base, the portion that remains will always be an equilateral triangle; so we first cut off piece 1 and get a triangle 3 inches on every side. The manner of finding directions of the other cuts in A is obvious from the diagram.

Now, if we want two triangles, 1 will be one of them, and 2, 3, 4, and 5 will fit together, as in B, to form the other. If we want three equilateral triangles, 1 will be one, 4 and 5 will form the second, as in C, and 2 and 3 will form the third, as in D. In B and C the piece 5 is turned over; but there can be no objection to this, as it is not forbidden, and is in no way opposed to the nature of the puzzle.



157.—THE TABLE-TOP AND STOOLS.



One object that I had in view when presenting this little puzzle was to point out the uncertainty of the meaning conveyed by the word "oval." Though originally derived from the Latin word ovum, an egg, yet what we understand as the egg-shape (with one end smaller than the other) is only one of many forms of the oval; while some eggs are spherical in shape, and a sphere or circle is most certainly not an oval. If we speak of an ellipse—a conical ellipse—we are on safer ground, but here we must be careful of error. I recollect a Liverpool town councillor, many years ago, whose ignorance of the poultry-yard led him to substitute the word "hen" for "fowl," remarking, "We must remember, gentlemen, that although every cock is a hen, every hen is not a cock!" Similarly, we must always note that although every ellipse is an oval, every oval is not an ellipse. It is correct to say that an oval is an oblong curvilinear figure, having two unequal diameters, and bounded by a curve line returning into itself; and this includes the ellipse, but all other figures which in any way approach towards the form of an oval without necessarily having the properties above described are included in the term "oval." Thus the following solution that I give to our puzzle involves the pointed "oval," known among architects as the "vesica piscis."



The dotted lines in the table are given for greater clearness, the cuts being made along the other lines. It will be seen that the eight pieces form two stools of exactly the same size and shape with similar hand-holes. These holes are a trifle longer than those in the schoolmaster's stools, but they are much narrower and of considerably smaller area. Of course 5 and 6 can be cut out in one piece—also 7 and 8—making only six pieces in all. But I wished to keep the same number as in the original story.

When I first gave the above puzzle in a London newspaper, in competition, no correct solution was received, but an ingenious and neatly executed attempt by a man lying in a London infirmary was accompanied by the following note: "Having no compasses here, I was compelled to improvise a pair with the aid of a small penknife, a bit of firewood from a bundle, a piece of tin from a toy engine, a tin tack, and two portions of a hairpin, for points. They are a fairly serviceable pair of compasses, and I shall keep them as a memento of your puzzle."

158.—THE GREAT MONAD.

The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters. If you have a circle 2 in. in diameter and another 4 in. in diameter, then one circle will be four times as great in area as the other, because the square of 4 is four times as great as the square of 2. Now, if we refer to Diagram 1, we see how two equal squares may be cut into four pieces that will form one larger square; from which it is self-evident that any square has just half the area of the square of its diagonal. In Diagram 2 I have introduced a square as it often occurs in ancient drawings of the Monad; which was my reason for believing that the symbol had mathematical meanings, since it will be found to demonstrate the fact that the area of the outer ring or annulus is exactly equal to the area of the inner circle. Compare Diagram 2 with Diagram 1, and you will see that as the square of the diameter CD is double the square of the diameter of the inner circle, or CE, therefore the area of the larger circle is double the area of the smaller one, and consequently the area of the annulus is exactly equal to that of the inner circle. This answers our first question.



In Diagram 3 I show the simple solution to the second question. It is obviously correct, and may be proved by the cutting and superposition of parts. The dotted lines will also serve to make it evident. The third question is solved by the cut CD in Diagram 2, but it remains to be proved that the piece F is really one-half of the Yin or the Yan. This we will do in Diagram 4. The circle K has one-quarter the area of the circle containing Yin and Yan, because its diameter is just one-half the length. Also L in Diagram 3 is, we know, one-quarter the area. It is therefore evident that G is exactly equal to H, and therefore half G is equal to half H. So that what F loses from L it gains from K, and F must be half of Yin or Yan.

159.—THE SQUARE OF VENEER.

[Illustration:

- - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - -==== - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - : - : - : - - : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : B : : C - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - -========== : : : : : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - : - : - : - - : : : : - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : ================ - - - - - : : : : : D : : : - - - - - - - -==========

]

Any square number may be expressed as the sum of two squares in an infinite number of different ways. The solution of the present puzzle forms a simple demonstration of this rule. It is a condition that we give actual dimensions.

In this puzzle I ignore the known dimensions of our square and work on the assumption that it is 13n by 13n. The value of n we can afterwards determine. Divide the square as shown (where the dotted lines indicate the original markings) into 169 squares. As 169 is the sum of the two squares 144 and 25, we will proceed to divide the veneer into two squares, measuring respectively 12 x 12 and 5 x 5; and as we know that two squares may be formed from one square by dissection in four pieces, we seek a solution in this number. The dark lines in the diagram show where the cuts are to be made. The square 5 x 5 is cut out whole, and the larger square is formed from the remaining three pieces, B, C, and D, which the reader can easily fit together.

Now, n is clearly 5/13 of an inch. Consequently our larger square must be 60/13 in. x 60/13 in., and our smaller square 25/13 in. x 25/13 in. The square of 60/13 added to the square of 25/13 is 25. The square is thus divided into as few as four pieces that form two squares of known dimensions, and all the sixteen nails are avoided.

Here is a general formula for finding two squares whose sum shall equal a given square, say a squared. In the case of the solution of our puzzle p = 3, q = 2, and a = 5.

2pqa / a squared( p squared + q squared) squared - (2pqa) squared ————- = x; —————————————- = y p squared + q squared p squared + q squared

Here x squared + y squared = a squared.

160.—THE TWO HORSESHOES.

The puzzle was to cut the two shoes (including the hoof contained within the outlines) into four pieces, two pieces each, that would fit together and form a perfect circle. It was also stipulated that all four pieces should be different in shape. As a matter of fact, it is a puzzle based on the principle contained in that curious Chinese symbol the Monad. (See No. 158.)



The above diagrams give the correct solution to the problem. It will be noticed that 1 and 2 are cut into the required four pieces, all different in shape, that fit together and form the perfect circle shown in Diagram 3. It will further be observed that the two pieces A and B of one shoe and the two pieces C and D of the other form two exactly similar halves of the circle—the Yin and the Yan of the great Monad. It will be seen that the shape of the horseshoe is more easily determined from the circle than the dimensions of the circle from the horseshoe, though the latter presents no difficulty when you know that the curve of the long side of the shoe is part of the circumference of your circle. The difference between B and D is instructive, and the idea is useful in all such cases where it is a condition that the pieces must be different in shape. In forming D we simply add on a symmetrical piece, a curvilinear square, to the piece B. Therefore, in giving either B or D a quarter turn before placing in the new position, a precisely similar effect must be produced.

161.—THE BETSY ROSS PUZZLE.

Fold the circular piece of paper in half along the dotted line shown in Fig. 1, and divide the upper half into five equal parts as indicated. Now fold the paper along the lines, and it will have the appearance shown in Fig. 2. If you want a star like Fig. 3, cut from A to B; if you wish one like Fig. 4, cut from A to C. Thus, the nearer you cut to the point at the bottom the longer will be the points of the star, and the farther off from the point that you cut the shorter will be the points of the star.



162.—THE CARDBOARD CHAIN.

The reader will probably feel rewarded for any care and patience that he may bestow on cutting out the cardboard chain. We will suppose that he has a piece of cardboard measuring 8 in. by 21/2 in., though the dimensions are of no importance. Yet if you want a long chain you must, of course, take a long strip of cardboard. First rule pencil lines B B and C C, half an inch from the edges, and also the short perpendicular lines half an inch apart. (See next page.) Rule lines on the other side in just the same way, and in order that they shall coincide it is well to prick through the card with a needle the points where the short lines end. Now take your penknife and split the card from A A down to B B, and from D D up to C C. Then cut right through the card along all the short perpendicular lines, and half through the card along the short portions of B B and C C that are not dotted. Next turn the card over and cut half through along the short lines on B B and C C at the places that are immediately beneath the dotted lines on the upper side. With a little careful separation of the parts with the penknife, the cardboard may now be divided into two interlacing ladder-like portions, as shown in Fig. 2; and if you cut away all the shaded parts you will get the chain, cut solidly out of the cardboard, without any join, as shown in the illustrations on page 40.

It is an interesting variant of the puzzle to cut out two keys on a ring—in the same manner without join.



164.—THE POTATO PUZZLE.

As many as twenty-two pieces may be obtained by the six cuts. The illustration shows a pretty symmetrical solution. The rule in such cases is that every cut shall intersect every other cut and no two intersections coincide; that is to say, every line passes through every other line, but more than two lines do not cross at the same point anywhere. There are other ways of making the cuts, but this rule must always be observed if we are to get the full number of pieces.

The general formula is that with n cuts we can always produce (n(n + 1) + 1)/2 . One of the problems proposed by the late Sam Loyd was to produce the maximum number of pieces by n straight cuts through a solid cheese. Of course, again, the pieces cut off may not be moved or piled. Here we have to deal with the intersection of planes (instead of lines), and the general formula is that with n cuts we may produce ((n - 1)n(n + 1))/6 + n + 1 pieces. It is extremely difficult to "see" the direction and effects of the successive cuts for more than a few of the lowest values of n.

165.—THE SEVEN PIGS.

The illustration shows the direction for placing the three fences so as to enclose every pig in a separate sty. The greatest number of spaces that can be enclosed with three straight lines in a square is seven, as shown in the last puzzle. Bearing this fact in mind, the puzzle must be solved by trial.



166.—THE LANDOWNER'S FENCES.

Four fences only are necessary, as follows:—



167.—THE WIZARD'S CATS.

The illustration requires no explanation. It shows clearly how the three circles may be drawn so that every cat has a separate enclosure, and cannot approach another cat without crossing a line.



168.—THE CHRISTMAS PUDDING.

The illustration shows how the pudding may be cut into two parts of exactly the same size and shape. The lines must necessarily pass through the points A, B, C, D, and E. But, subject to this condition, they may be varied in an infinite number of ways. For example, at a point midway between A and the edge, the line may be completed in an unlimited number of ways (straight or crooked), provided it be exactly reflected from E to the opposite edge. And similar variations may be introduced at other places.



169.—A TANGRAM PARADOX.

The diagrams will show how the figures are constructed—each with the seven Tangrams. It will be noticed that in both cases the head, hat, and arm are precisely alike, and the width at the base of the body the same. But this body contains four pieces in the first case, and in the second design only three. The first is larger than the second by exactly that narrow strip indicated by the dotted line between A and B. This strip is therefore exactly equal in area to the piece forming the foot in the other design, though when thus distributed along the side of the body the increased dimension is not easily apparent to the eye.



170.—THE CUSHION COVERS.



The two pieces of brocade marked A will fit together and form one perfect square cushion top, and the two pieces marked B will form the other.

171.—THE BANNER PUZZLE.

The illustration explains itself. Divide the bunting into 25 squares (because this number is the sum of two other squares—16 and 9), and then cut along the thick lines. The two pieces marked A form one square, and the two pieces marked B form the other.



172.—MRS. SMILEY'S CHRISTMAS PRESENT.



The first step is to find six different square numbers that sum to 196. For example, 1 + 4 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 81 = 196; 1 + 4 + 9 + 25 + 36 + 121 = 196; 1 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 64 + 81 = 196. The rest calls for individual judgment and ingenuity, and no definite rules can be given for procedure. The annexed diagrams will show solutions for the first two cases stated. Of course the three pieces marked A and those marked B will fit together and form a square in each case. The assembling of the parts may be slightly varied, and the reader may be interested in finding a solution for the third set of squares I have given.

173.—MRS. PERKINS'S QUILT.

The following diagram shows how the quilt should be constructed.



There is, I believe, practically only one solution to this puzzle. The fewest separate squares must be eleven. The portions must be of the sizes given, the three largest pieces must be arranged as shown, and the remaining group of eight squares may be "reflected," but cannot be differently arranged.

174.—THE SQUARES OF BROCADE.



So far as I have been able to discover, there is only one possible solution to fulfil the conditions. The pieces fit together as in Diagram 1, Diagrams 2 and 3 showing how the two original squares are to be cut. It will be seen that the pieces A and C have each twenty chequers, and are therefore of equal area. Diagram 4 (built up with the dissected square No. 5) solves the puzzle, except for the small condition contained in the words, "I cut the two squares in the manner desired." In this case the smaller square is preserved intact. Still I give it as an illustration of a feature of the puzzle. It is impossible in a problem of this kind to give a quarter-turn to any of the pieces if the pattern is to properly match, but (as in the case of F, in Diagram 4) we may give a symmetrical piece a half-turn—that is, turn it upside down. Whether or not a piece may be given a quarter-turn, a half-turn, or no turn at all in these chequered problems, depends on the character of the design, on the material employed, and also on the form of the piece itself.



175.—ANOTHER PATCHWORK PUZZLE.

The lady need only unpick the stitches along the dark lines in the larger portion of patchwork, when the four pieces will fit together and form a square, as shown in our illustration.



176.—LINOLEUM CUTTING.

There is only one solution that will enable us to retain the larger of the two pieces with as little as possible cut from it. Fig. 1 in the following diagram shows how the smaller piece is to be cut, and Fig. 2 how we should dissect the larger piece, while in Fig. 3 we have the new square 10 x 10 formed by the four pieces with all the chequers properly matched. It will be seen that the piece D contains fifty-two chequers, and this is the largest piece that it is possible to preserve under the conditions.



177.—ANOTHER LINOLEUM PUZZLE.

Cut along the thick lines, and the four pieces will fit together and form a perfect square in the manner shown in the smaller diagram.



178.—THE CARDBOARD BOX.

The areas of the top and side multiplied together and divided by the area of the end give the square of the length. Similarly, the product of top and end divided by side gives the square of the breadth; and the product of side and end divided by the top gives the square of the depth. But we only need one of these operations. Let us take the first. Thus, 120 x 96 divided by 80 equals 144, the square of 12. Therefore the length is 12 inches, from which we can, of course, at once get the breadth and depth—10 in. and 8 in. respectively.

179.—STEALING THE BELL-ROPES.

Whenever we have one side (a) of a right-angled triangle, and know the difference between the second side and the hypotenuse (which difference we will call b), then the length of the hypotenuse will be

a squared b —- + -. 2b 2

In the case of our puzzle this will be

48 x 48 ———- + 11/2 in. = 32 ft. 11/2 in., 6

which is the length of the rope.

180— THE FOUR SONS.



The diagram shows the most equitable division of the land possible, "so that each son shall receive land of exactly the same area and exactly similar in shape," and so that each shall have access to the well in the centre without trespass on another's land. The conditions do not require that each son's land shall be in one piece, but it is necessary that the two portions assigned to an individual should be kept apart, or two adjoining portions might be held to be one piece, in which case the condition as to shape would have to be broken. At present there is only one shape for each piece of land—half a square divided diagonally. And A, B, C, and D can each reach their land from the outside, and have each equal access to the well in the centre.

181.—THE THREE RAILWAY STATIONS.

The three stations form a triangle, with sides 13, 14, and 15 miles. Make the 14 side the base; then the height of the triangle is 12 and the area 84. Multiply the three sides together and divide by four times the area. The result is eight miles and one-eighth, the distance required.

182.—THE GARDEN PUZZLE.

Half the sum of the four sides is 144. From this deduct in turn the four sides, and we get 64, 99, 44, and 81. Multiply these together, and we have as the result the square of 4,752. Therefore the garden contained 4,752 square yards. Of course the tree being equidistant from the four corners shows that the garden is a quadrilateral that may be inscribed in a circle.

183.—DRAWING A SPIRAL.

Make a fold in the paper, as shown by the dotted line in the illustration. Then, taking any two points, as A and B, describe semicircles on the line alternately from the centres B and A, being careful to make the ends join, and the thing is done. Of course this is not a true spiral, but the puzzle was to produce the particular spiral that was shown, and that was drawn in this simple manner.



184.—HOW TO DRAW AN OVAL.

If you place your sheet of paper round the surface of a cylindrical bottle or canister, the oval can be drawn with one sweep of the compasses.

185.—ST. GEORGE'S BANNER.

As the flag measures 4 ft. by 3 ft., the length of the diagonal (from corner to corner) is 5 ft. All you need do is to deduct half the length of this diagonal (21/2 ft.) from a quarter of the distance all round the edge of the flag (31/2 ft.)—a quarter of 14 ft. The difference (1 ft.) is the required width of the arm of the red cross. The area of the cross will then be the same as that of the white ground.

186.—THE CLOTHES LINE PUZZLE.

Multiply together, and also add together, the heights of the two poles and divide one result by the other. That is, if the two heights are a and b respectively, then ab/(a + b) will give the height of the intersection. In the particular case of our puzzle, the intersection was therefore 2 ft. 11 in. from the ground. The distance that the poles are apart does not affect the answer. The reader who may have imagined that this was an accidental omission will perhaps be interested in discovering the reason why the distance between the poles may be ignored.

187.—THE MILKMAID PUZZLE.



Draw a straight line, as shown in the diagram, from the milking-stool perpendicular to the near bank of the river, and continue it to the point A, which is the same distance from that bank as the stool. If you now draw the straight line from A to the door of the dairy, it will cut the river at B. Then the shortest route will be from the stool to B and thence to the door. Obviously the shortest distance from A to the door is the straight line, and as the distance from the stool to any point of the river is the same as from A to that point, the correctness of the solution will probably appeal to every reader without any acquaintance with geometry.

188.—THE BALL PROBLEM.

If a round ball is placed on the level ground, six similar balls may be placed round it (all on the ground), so that they shall all touch the central ball.

As for the second question, the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference we call pi; and though we cannot express this ratio in exact numbers, we can get sufficiently near to it for all practical purposes. However, in this case it is not necessary to know the value of pi at all. Because, to find the area of the surface of a sphere we multiply the square of the diameter by pi; to find the volume of a sphere we multiply the cube of the diameter by one-sixth of pi. Therefore we may ignore pi, and have merely to seek a number whose square shall equal one-sixth of its cube. This number is obviously 6. Therefore the ball was 6 ft. in diameter, for the area of its surface will be 36 times pi in square feet, and its volume also 36 times pi in cubic feet.