Char, proper, are not at all satisfactory fish to rear. They are very delicate, and require much more care and attention than do any of the fish I have already described. From the very first period of their coming under the care of the amateur fish culturist, that is to say, from the ova, just before hatching out, till they are yearlings, the mortality among them will be much greater than in the case of any of the trout.

The two kinds of char, most commonly to be obtained by the amateur, are the Alpine and the Windermere char. The ova of these fish will be received shortly before they are ready to hatch out, as was the case with the trout ova. The amateur's difficulties will, however, begin almost at once, for in the act of hatching out considerable mortality among the char often occurs. Trout almost invariably emerge from the egg tail first. As soon as the tail is free the little fish begins to move it rapidly, using it as a propeller with which to swim about and thus soon works completely out of the egg. Occasionally, however, trout hatch out head first, and in these cases the young fish generally dies before it can set itself free from the coverings of the ovum. Buckland observed that the alevins of the char very frequently hatch out head first, and consequently that many of them die before they can work themselves free from the eggs. If it were possible to have some one constantly watching the ova at the time that they are hatching out, it would be possible to save a very large proportion of them, as they may be very effectually helped out of the egg with a feather or soft camel's-hair brush; but this is, of course, quite impracticable, unless there is some one constantly watching the ova, as the delay of even a few minutes will mean the death of the fish. This peculiarity in the hatching out of the char has also been observed by Mr. J. J. Armistead, and I have been able to verify it personally.

The mortality which occurs in the actual hatching out of the alevins does not, however, by any means end the trouble which the fish culturist has to encounter in the rearing of char. They require much more persuasion and care when they begin to feed and throughout the whole of the summer. The percentage of deaths is always greater than in the case of the trouts, not excluding the fontinalis, which is, as I have already explained, not really a trout but a char.

Though there must be some doubt as to its success, I should like to see a really serious attempt at introducing char into some deep and large ponds in the south of England. Char have been very successfully reared in shallow water, which was certainly not kept at a particularly low temperature, so I see no reason why this fish should not do in some of our more southern waters. One drawback to the chance of this attempt being made, however, is that the char cannot be considered as being a fish which gives very good sport, and I very much doubt whether any one is likely to try the experiment simply to find out whether they would or would not succeed in the south of England.



CHAPTER XII

SALMON AND SEA-TROUT

In many ways nature is apparently very wasteful, and in nothing is this more marked than in the case of the salmon. Probably not more than one egg in a thousand produces a fish which reaches the smolt stage, and a still smaller proportion grows to the spawning stage. This great mortality which occurs among the eggs and young fish when left to nature may be very considerably reduced by artificial means, so that a very fair proportion of the eggs deposited by the female fish will not only be hatched out successfully, but the little fish will reach the smolt stage safely and have a good chance of reaching the sea. How successful artificial intervention may be has been proved over and over again in the United States and in Canada. In the case of more than one river in Canada, the artificial propagation and protection of salmon has resulted in what is apparently the actual manufacture of a salmon river, yielding an annual haul of fish far beyond anything known in Europe, from a river which before yielded no salmon, or hardly any.

These operations, carried out by the State, were of course far beyond anything which could be undertaken by the amateur, but I am sure that if several riparian owners on a salmon river carried on artificial hatching and rearing operations for several seasons, a marked increase in the number of fish in the river would ensue. The objection of most people to this course is that it is unfortunately only too apparent that they are benefiting chiefly, not the rod fisherman, but the netsman at the mouth of the river.

The different artificial means used to help nature in producing a good head of salmon in a river vary chiefly in the amount of the help given by each. It will suffice to say that the best is that which provides for the protection and feeding of the young fish till it is ready to take its first journey to the sea. The reason of this is obvious, as every day passed in safety is a day gained, both in strength and in power of self-preservation.

Though it is possible to purchase a certain number of salmon ova, this is not at all a satisfactory way of obtaining them. To begin with, it is impossible to get them in sufficient numbers to carry out operations on a large enough scale. Salmon ova are also expensive; and it is no use working with less than half a million in several stations if the river is of any size. It is advisable that the ova should be obtained from the fish. This may be done either by collecting the ova deposited by the fish in the spawning beds or from the gravid females. The latter course necessitates the ripe female and male fish being caught and artificially spawned. As in nature, at best but a comparatively small percentage of the ova are impregnated, and by artificial spawning over ninety per cent. of them may be successfully hatched out, there can be but little doubt as to which is the better way. It is difficult to make sure of catching the fish just at the time they are ripe, so it is advisable to impound them in a fenced-off portion of the river, where they may be got at easily.

In the ripe female the ova flow out very readily, and but little pressure is necessary. Hard pressure on the abdomen should never be applied, as it is sure to injure the fish. A ripe female having been obtained, from which the ova flow readily, the female is held over a perfectly clean tin or earthenware dish—wet, but containing no water—and the ova are caused to flow into it by gently but firmly pressing the hand on the abdomen, and stroking it down towards the vent. Milt from a ripe male fish is then allowed to run over the ova in the dish, and is made to run well between them by tilting the dish about from side to side. The ova will now adhere together, and some water should be added. This water should be poured off and fresh added till the superfluous milt is washed away, when the ova should be left in the water till they separate, which will be in about twenty minutes or half an hour.

The fertilized ova thus obtained may either be laid down in artificially protected hatching beds, or may be transferred to a hatchery. The latter proceeding, of course, requires a hatching house specially built and arranged, and as this is outside the scope of the present work, I would refer my readers to larger works upon the subject, such as An Angler's Paradise, by J. J. Armistead. Of course, by using a hatchery a large number of the eggs will be saved, ninety per cent. of them should hatch out. This is, therefore, obviously the best way to proceed. A very much larger number of eggs will, however, be hatched out in properly-chosen artificial beds than would be the case if they were left to nature.

The necessary qualities of a good artificial bed are, a good supply of clean water which is not liable if there is a spate to deposit sediment on the eggs, protection from light, and protection from the many creatures which prey upon the ova. The hatching beds may be so arranged that the young fish may escape as soon as they like after hatching out, but it is best to watch and protect them for at any rate the first few weeks after they have begun to feed, and while continuing the feeding, to allow those of the fish that wish to escape.

The rearing of young salmon and sea-trout is practically the same as that of the common trout, except that they require more water. If kept in rearing ponds they grow more quickly than they do when left to find food for themselves. While young, the salmon is marked with transverse bars of a darker colour than the rest of the body. During the time it bears these marks it is known as a parr.[3] In about fifteen months it loses these marks and becomes quite silvery, being now known as a smolt. Shortly after assuming the smolt dress, the young salmon takes its departure to the sea. In some cases the young salmon do not appear to go down to the sea till over two years after being hatched out, but they should always be set at liberty in March, April, or May in the year following that in which they were hatched out, according to how far they have developed the smolt or silver appearance.

[3] All the trouts go through this stage, which is distinguished by "finger marks" upon the sides.

If spring water is obtainable, particularly if the water, as is usually the case, is of an even temperature throughout the year, the troubles of the fish culturist are considerably lessened. Without a building for the hatching troughs it is almost impossible in many places to guard against frost unless such a spring is available. Sediment may be avoided by putting frames covered with flannel at the inlets to the hatching beds, these will, if kept clean, prevent any sediment from coming into the ponds, and will allow plenty of water to flow in. If hatching trays are not used, the bottom of the artificial bed should be covered with clean gravel.

The time which elapses from the impregnation of the eggs to their hatching out varies according to the temperature of the water, a fairly average time is about ninety days. The ova should be watched during this time, and the dead ones removed. For a short time after they are impregnated they are fairly hardy, but from then till shortly before they hatch out the very slightest concussion will kill or seriously injure them.

The management of sea-trout ova is similar to that of salmon, and the ova are obtained in the same way. As in the case of the salmon it is best to rear the little fish artificially, till they are ready to go down to the sea; they will thus escape dangers likely to cause the loss of about eighty per cent. of their number.

The same methods and the same precautions as advised in the chapters on rearing trout should be adopted in the case of salmon and sea-trout as far as is possible, and if this is done a very large percentage of the ova should be successfully reared to the smolt stage.



CHAPTER XIII

COARSE FISH

Compared to what is known about the early part of the life history of the Salmonidae, our knowledge of coarse fish is small. Fortunately, however, such lengthy and complicated proceedings as are necessary to obtain a good stock of trout are not necessary to obtain a good stock of coarse fish. If even a few rudd, perch, dace, pike, or carp are put into water where they have a good supply of food to begin with, and which is suitable otherwise for their well-being, the amateur's chief trouble after a few years, if the water is not heavily fished, will be to keep down the stock of coarse fish in proportion to the supply of food.

I have seen many cases where rudd, perch, dace and carp have increased to an enormous extent from a few fish introduced into the water. Some four years ago we put a few small rudd into a mill-pond at home, thinking that the fry they produced would serve admirably as food to the trout which also inhabited the pond. In about twenty months the pond was full of small rudd, and last year we netted out many hundred, as the water was terribly over-stocked with them. The same thing has happened in almost every case which has come to my knowledge; that is, of course, where the waters have been stocked with food, and suitable to the fish introduced.

The way in which dace will increase when put into a suitable water is, if possible, even more remarkable than what happens in the case of the rudd. I will quote one instance, which proves this very conclusively. A few years ago there were no dace in the Sussex Ouse. Pike fishermen, however, used to bring live dace to use as baits. Some of these escaped, or were set free by the fishermen at the end of their day's fishing, and now the Sussex Ouse contains more dace for its size than any other river I have ever seen.

While rudd thrive best in a pond or lake into which a stream flows, dace require a river or stream to do well. They will, however, thrive and increase rapidly in a river where trout are not a success. A muddy bottom with occasional quickly running shallows, seem to constitute the best kind of water for dace. The largest, and by far the best conditioned dace I have seen, have come from the tidal parts of rivers, where the water is brackish at high water. Dace from such a water have also the advantage of being very good eating, as they have, as a rule, not got the unpleasant muddy taste usual in this fish.

Perch and pike will thrive both in rivers and in ponds or lakes which have a supply of water from a stream or from springs. They both increase in numbers very rapidly, and when protected, are more likely to require thinning down every few years, than artificial assistance from the amateur.

The king-carp is the best fish for the amateur who wishes to obtain good bottom fishing from an absolutely stagnant pond. This fish is much bolder and a more free feeder than the common carp. It increases so rapidly in numbers, and is a hard fighting and lively fish.

Most of the coarse fish deposit a much larger number of eggs than do any of the Salmonidae—that is to say, in proportion to their size. In stocking a water which contains no fish, the amateur may wish to hurry on the process of nature in the case of coarse fish; and, fortunately, this is fairly easily managed. In the case of perch, rudd, pike, and carp, but little change of water is required to hatch out the eggs. The eggs of these fish take but a short time to hatch; and if they are protected, and this protection is also given to the little fish for a few weeks, it will generally be found that an amply sufficient result is obtained. The eggs should be spread out carefully on wicker-work or the lids of baskets and kept in the light. A trickle of water which is sufficient to change the body of water in the pond in which the ova are put will, as a rule, be enough. The amateur must be careful that the pond in which he hatches the eggs does not contain any of the many enemies I have described in former chapters. If it is at all possible to protect the eggs and the little fish, it is best to hatch out the eggs in the pond which it is intended to stock, for it is exceedingly difficult to keep the newly-hatched fish in a rearing-pond on account of their very small size. It will be necessary to use muslin or flannel screens instead of perforated zinc. Care must be taken that there is not too great a flow of water, as this will cause the little fish to be drowned at the outlet screen.



APPENDIX

THE USE OF EARTH IN REARING PONDS

[From a correspondence upon the subject which appeared in Land and Water]

SIR,—In your last issue I have read with pleasure the eminently practical notes on fish culture by Mr. Charles Walker. He is perfectly right in all he says with reference to the useful and preventive results of the use of "common garden" earth, or vegetable mould in checking any fungoid development, Saprolegnia or other. It must, however, be admitted that the said addition is not an element of beauty in a box; therefore it should be avoided, or only used when necessity dictates. However, the fry, when thoroughly restored to health, may be transferred by muslin net to another box free from earth should it be necessary to count out certain numbers for the satisfaction of customers' orders. Again, the earth employed may, and in some waters does, give rise to other ill effects on the health of the "fry" or young fishes. Affection of the eye is not unheard of as the result of over-use of earth. Perhaps the best way to obviate any trouble of this nature would be to pound and dry the earth, and keep it in a canister or other closed vessel till required for use. Spores of fungi are nearly, if not quite, omnipresent; and their effects are so insidious that too many precautions cannot well be taken to avert the introduction of "trouble" in the hatchery. Indeed, were it not for the risks arising from attacks of fungi, pisciculture, as now understood and carried on, would be an unalloyed pleasure and unbounded success. We can practically hatch 995 out of 1,000 eggs, or thereabouts. It is the risks of rearing that stand in our road, and these, as time goes on, and experience increases, must diminish. There would appear, then, to be a good time coming for fish culture, and those who earnestly follow it.

Practice is the only safe guide, as circumstances, geological, physical, and meteorological so vary the conditions of works that no definite rule of procedure will avail. Earnest work and close observation, combined with ready resource, are the only safe guides to success. Troubles of some sort are sure to supervene; the man who succeeds is he who can anticipate, and so remedy them. To be always on the watch and notice the first indication is a very safe maxim, more easy to inculcate than to put in practice.

There can be no question but that the practical removal of difficulties in the path of fish culture is work of the highest value, well worthy the attention and acknowledgment of those in authority at Whitehall and elsewhere at home, as has been the case abroad.

C. C. C.

SIR,—Your correspondent "C. C. C." in Land and Water of last week disagrees with the constant and free use of earth, which I had advocated in my article on fish culture which appeared the preceding week. Naturally one must admit that earth at the bottom of a pond is not so great an element of beauty as is clean gravel, but the advantages are so many, that beauty must give way to usefulness. Besides this, "C. C. C." must know that it is almost impossible to keep the gravel clean enough to look pretty, when the water is inhabited by a large number of little fish which are being constantly fed. I cannot at all agree with his advice that "earth should be avoided, or only used when necessity dictates." I believe that one of the first principles of success in fish culture is always to prevent any disease or mishap, rather than to wait for, and then try to remedy it. Trout in their natural surroundings get a dose of earth every time that there is a spate. It is very evident that the earth contains some ingredients which are not only beneficial but almost a necessity to the fish.

I have never heard of earth as an actual cure for "fungus" and should hardly think that it is active enough. There is, however, no doubt that it is one of the best preventatives to "fungus," for if it is properly and freely used it stops all chance of any decomposing material being exposed to the action of the water, and laying the fish open to the chance of a great many evils.

If suitable earth is used once a week, and even oftener on occasions, it can do no harm, and will keep the fish safe from a great many risks besides doing them very material good. I do not of course mean that the usual weekly dose should be a large one, as this would fill up the pond before the end of the season, but that a small dose should be given generally, and a large dose occasionally. I am quite sure, too, that clean earth with some nice weeds growing in it, looks better than gravel which is dirty. Gravel shows the dirt so much, that it is almost impossible to keep it looking nice where there are many fish, and it also gives the water free access to any decomposing matter.

I have never come across a case of disease caused by the use of earth, and should like to hear the details of "C. C. C.'s" experiences with regard to this matter.

CHARLES WALKER.



INDEX

Advantages of rainbow trout, 72-5

Air bubble in yolk sac, 40

Alders round rearing ponds, 32 at water side, importance of, 19

Alevins, 39-41 diseases of, 40-1

Alpine char, 78

American brook trout, 15 rearing of, 75-6 spawning of, 76

Aquatic creatures, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 62-6

Aquatic plants suitable for deep water, 13 suitable for margins, 13

Aquatic vegetation, importance of, 7 development of, 9

Arrangement of rearing boxes, 34

Artificial spawning of salmon, 83-4

Asellus aquaticus, 65

Black spotted trout of the Rocky Mountains, 76-8

Blue swelling, 41

Breeding char, difficulties in, 78-80

Breeding. (See Rearing.)

Brown trout, suitable water for, 14

Bullrushes, 13

Byssus, 37-8

Caddis-worms, 61-3 in hatching trays, 38-9

Carp, suitable water for, 18

Char, 16, 78-80 Alpine, 78 difficulties in breeding, 78-80 hatching out of, 78-9 introduction of, to the south, 80 kinds of, 78 rearing, 79-80 suitable water for, 16 Windermere, 78

Charring wood, importance of, 33, 50

Chub, suitable water for, 18

Coarse fish, 88-92 ova of, 90-1

Colorado River trout, 77

Columbia River trout, 77

Conchifera, 12

Corixae, 10, 49, 63

Covers for rearing ponds, 31

Creatures, aquatic, serving as food for fish, 10-2, 61-6

Crowfoot, water, 13

Cure for fungus, 50

Cut-throat trout, 76-8

Cyclops quadricornis, 12, 48, 65-6

Cypridae, 65-6

Dace, 18, 89-90 suitable water for, 18

Daphnia pulex, 12, 48, 65

Dead alevins, removal of, 41

Dead ova, removal of, 37

Difference between beetles and Corixae, 11

Diseases of alevins, 40-1 ova, 37-9

Dytiscus marginalis, 11, 49, 58-60, 63

Earth in rearing boxes, 46, 93-6 doses of, in rearing pond, 54, 93-6

Effects of soft food on trout, 24

Ephemeridae, 12, 64-5 larvae of, 64-5 catching larvae of, 64

Feeding of the fry, 42-9

Feeding yearlings, 67

Food, importance of, in waters, 5, 7

Fresh-water shrimp, 10, 49, 65 snails, 10-2

Friends and enemies of the fish, 58-66

Fry, feeding of, 42-9 separating large from small, 45 turning out of rearing box, 51-2

Fungus, 38-9 cure for, 50

Gammarus pulex, 10, 49, 65

Gold-fish, suitable water for, 18

Grannom, introduction of, 12

Grass round rearing ponds, 32

Grayling, possible harm done by, to trout, 16 suitable water for, 17

Great water moss, 13

Hatchery, suitable spot for, 21-6

Hatching out char, 78-9 ova of coarse fish, 91-2

Hatching trays, arrangement of, 34 caddis-worms in, 38-9 construction of, 32 placing ova in, 34-6 removal of, 42-3 shrimps in, 36

Herons, 60-1

Hydrophilus piceus, 59-60

Important points in rearing young trout, 56-7

Inlet to rearing ponds, 29-30

King carp, suitable water for, 18

Kingfisher, 49, 53, 60

Lake Tahoe trout, 77

Lakewort, 13

Leaf screen to rearing ponds, 29

Lobelia, water, 13

May fly, introduction of, 12

Moss, great water, 13

Mussels, 12

Nautonecta glauca, 10, 64

Natural food, importance of, 24 natural food for fry, 48-9

Netting for rearing ponds, 31

Ova beds, artificial salmon, 85

Ova, care of, 36-9 dead, removal of, 37 hatching of, 39 of coarse fish, 90-1 of sea-trout, 87 placing in hatching trays, 34-6

Perch, 19, 90-1 suitable water for, 19

Pike, 18-9, 90-1

Planting weeds in ponds, 7 in streams, 8

Ponds for yearlings, 70-1

Rainbow trout, 14-5, 72, 75 advantage of, 72-5 freedom from fungus, 73-4 rearing of, 72-5 suitable water for, 14 spawning time of, 21

Rearing, important points in, 56-7

Rearing box, arrangement of, 34 construction of, 31 cover for, 38, 49

Rearing char, difficulties in, 79-80 fry of salmon, 85-7 fry of sea-trout, 85-7 rainbow trout, 72-5

Rearing ponds, alders round, 32; grass round, 32 construction of, 22, 27-9 covers for, 31 gravel in, 23 importance of allowing water to run through for some weeks, 21 inlet to, 29-30 netting for, 31 pipes to, 22, 27 removal of yearlings from, 70 separating fish in, 54-6 size of, 23-4 use of earth in, 54, 56, 93-6 vegetation round, 33, 55 willows round, 32, 55

Restocking, best time for, 24

Rio Grande trout, 77

Rudd, 17, 88-9, 91 suitable water for, 17

Salmo irideus, 14-5, 72-5 fario, 15 mykiss, 76-8

Salmon and sea-trout, 81-7

Salmon, artificial spawning of, 83-4 artificial ova beds, 85 mortality among ova and young fish, 81 rearing fry, 85-7 scale upon which rearing should be carried out, 83 success in artificial intervention in stock of, 81-2

Salt, as cure for fungus, 50 dose of, for yearlings, 69-70

Salvelinus fontinalis, 15. (See American brook trout.)

Saprolegnia, 38-9. (See Fungus.)

Sea-trout, ova of, 87 rearing fry of, 85-7

Sea-water as cure for fungus, 50

Separating yearlings, 68

Shrimp, fresh-water, 10, 49, 65

Shrimps in hatching trays, 36

Snails, fresh-water, 10-12

Soft food, effects of, on trout, 24

Spawning time of American brook trout, 76

Stocking waters with food, 7

Stonewort, water-, 13

Suitable fish and suitable water, 14

Trout, collecting wild ova of, 20 ova, management of, 20, 34-9

Turning fry out of rearing box, 51-2 out yearlings, 68-9

Varnishing wood, importance of, 33, 50

Vegetation, aquatic, importance of, 7 aquatic, development of, 9 importance of, at water side, 19 on banks of water, 9, 19 round rearing ponds, 32, 55

Water-boatman, 10, 64 beetles, 11, 58-60, 63 bugs, 63-4 celery, 13 cress, 13 crowfoot, 13 flea, 12, 48 lilies, 13 lobelia, 13 louse, 65 scorpion, 64 starwort, 13

Weeds, importance of, in waters, 7 planting in ponds, 7 in streams, 8

Willow round rearing ponds, 32, 55 at water side, 19

Windermere char, 78

Yearling trout, 56

Yearlings, feeding of, 67 removal of, from rearing pond, 70 separating, 68 turning out, 68-9



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