Sec.40. Iunctos: how can anything be a compound of one thing? The notion that iunctos could mean aptos (R. and P. 366) is untenable. I entirely agree with Madv. (first Excursus to his D.F.) that we have here an anacoluthon. Cic. meant to say iunctos e quadam impulsione et ex assensu animorum, but having to explain [Greek: phantasia] was obliged to break off and resume at sed ad haec. The explanation of a Greek term causes a very similar anacoluthon in De Off. I. 153. Schuppe, De Anacoluthis Ciceronianis p. 9, agrees with Madv. For the expression cf. D.F. II. 44 e duplici genere voluptatis coniunctus Ernesti em. cunctos, Dav. punctos, ingeniose ille quidem says Halm, pessime I should say. [Greek: Phantasian]: a full and clear account of Stoic theories of sensation is given by Zeller, ch. V., R. and P. 365 sq. Nos appellemus licet: the same turn of expression occurs D.F. III. 21, IV. 74. Hoc verbum quidem hoc quidem probably ought to be read, see 18. Adsensionem = [Greek: synkatathesin]. In nobis positam: the usual expression for freedom of the will, cf. II. 37, De Fato, 42, 43 (a very important passage). The actual sensation is involuntary ([Greek: akousion] Sext. Emp. Adv. Math. VIII. 397). Tironum causa I note that the Stoics sometimes speak of the assent of the mind as involuntary, while the [Greek: kataleptike phantasia] compels assent (see II. 38). This is, however, only true of the healthy reason, the unhealthy may refuse assent.

Sec.41. Visis non omnibus: while Epicurus defended the truth of all sensations, Zeno abandoned the weak positions to the sceptic and retired to the inner citadel of the [Greek: kataleptike phantasia]. Declarationem: [Greek: enargeian], a term alike Stoic, Epicurean, and Academic, see n. on II. 17. Earum rerum: only this class of sensations gives correct information of the things lying behind. Ipsum per se: i.e. its whole truth lies in its own [Greek: enargeia], which requires no corroboration from without. Comprehendibile: this form has better MSS. authority than the vulg comprehensibile. Goerenz's note on these words is worth reading as a philological curiosity Nos vero, inquit: Halm with Manut. writes inquam. Why change? Atticus answers as in 14, 25, 33. [Greek: Katalepton]: strictly the thing which emits the visum is said to be [Greek: katalepton], but, as we shall see in the Lucullus, the sensation and the thing from which it proceeds are often confused. Comprehensionem: this word properly denotes the process of perception in the abstract, not the individual perception. The Greeks, however, themselves use [Greek: katalepsis] for [Greek: kataleptike phantasia] very often. Quae manu prehenderentur: see II. 145. Nova enim dicebat: an admission not often made by Cic., who usually contends, with Antiochus, that Zeno merely renamed old doctrines (cf. 43). Sensum: so Stob., I. 41, 25 applies the term [Greek: aisthesis] to the [Greek: phantasia]. Scientiam: the word [Greek: episteme] is used in two ways by the Stoics, (1) to denote a number of coordinated or systematised perceptions ([Greek: katalepseis] or [Greek: kataleptikai phantasiai]) sometimes also called [Greek: techne] (cf. Sext. Pyrrh. Hyp. III. 188 [Greek: technen de einai systema ek katalepseon syngegymnasmenon]); (2) to denote a single perception, which use is copied by Cic. and may be seen in several passages quoted by Zeller 80. Ut convelli ratione non posset: here is a trace of later Stoicism. To Zeno all [Greek: kataleptikai phantasiai] were [Greek: asphaleis, ametaptotoi hypo logou]. Later Stoics, however, allowed that some of them were not impervious to logical tests; see Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 253, qu. Zeller 88. Thus every [Greek: kataleptike phantasia], instead of carrying with it its own evidence, had to pass through the fire of sceptical criticism before it could be believed. This was, as Zeller remarks, equivalent to giving up all that was valuable in the Stoic theory. Inscientiam: ex qua exsisteret: I know nothing like this in the Stoic texts; [Greek: amathia] is very seldom talked of there. Opinio: [Greek: doxa], see Zeller and cf. Ac. II. 52, T.D. II. 52, IV. 15, 26.

Sec.42. Inter scientiam: so Sextus Adv. Math. VII. 151 speaks of [Greek: epistemen kai doxan kai ten en methopiai touton katalepsin]. Soli: Halm, I know not why, suspects this and Christ gives solum ei. Non quod omnia: the meaning is that the reason must generalize on separate sensations and combine them before we can know thoroughly any one thing. This will appear if the whole sentence be read uno haustu; Zeller p. 78 seems to take the same view, but I have not come across anything exactly like this in the Greek. Quasi: this points out normam as a trans. of some Gk. word, [Greek: kriterion] perhaps, or [Greek: gnomon] or [Greek: kanon]. Notiones rerum: Stoic [Greek: ennoiai]; Zeller 81—84, R. and P. 367, 368. Quodque natura: the omission of eam is strange; Faber supplies it. Imprimerentur: the terms [Greek: enapesphragismene, enapomemagmene, entetypomene] occur constantly, but generally in relation to [Greek: phantasiai], not to [Greek: ennoiai]. Non principia solum: there seems to be a ref. to those [Greek: archai tes apodeixeos] of Arist. which, induced from experience and incapable of proof, are the bases of all proof. (See Grote's Essay on the Origin of Knowledge, first printed in Bain's Mental and Moral Science, now re-published in Grote's Aristotle.) Zeno's [Greek: ennoiai] were all this and more. Reperiuntur: two things vex the edd. (1) the change from oratio obliqua to recta, which however has repeatedly taken place during Varro's exposition, and for which see M.D.F. I. 30, III. 49; (2) the phrase reperire viam, which seems to me sound enough. Dav., Halm give aperirentur. There is no MSS. variant. Aliena: cf. alienatos D.F. III. 18. A virtute sapientiaque removebat: cf. sapiens numquam fallitur in iudicando D.F. III. 59. The firma adsensia is opposed to imbecilla 41. For the adsensio of the sapiens see Zeller 87. More information on the subject-matter of this section will be found in my notes on the first part of the Lucullus. In his constitit: cf. II. 134.

Sec.Sec.43—END. Cicero's historical justification of the New Academy. Summary. Arcesilas' philosophy was due to no mere passion for victory in argument, but to the obscurity of phenomena, which had led the ancients to despair of knowledge (44). He even abandoned the one tenet held by Socrates to be certain; and maintained that since arguments of equal strength could be urged in favour of the truth or falsehood of phenomena, the proper course to take was to suspend judgment entirely (45). His views were really in harmony with those of Plato, and were carried on by Carneades (46).

Sec.43. Breviter: MSS. et breviter; see 37. Tunc: rare before a consonant; see Munro on Lucr. I. 130. Verum esse [autem] arbitror: in deference to Halm I bracket autem, but I still think the MSS. reading defensible, if verum be taken as the neut. adj. and not as meaning but. Translate: "Yet I think the truth to be ... that it is to be thought," etc. The edd. seem to have thought that esse was needed to go with putandam. This is a total mistake; cf. ait ... putandam, without esse II. 15, aiebas removendum II. 74; a hundred other passages might be quoted from Cic.

Sec.44. Non pertinacia aut studio vincendi: for these words see n. on II. 14. The sincerity of Arcesilas is defended also in II. 76. Obscuritate: a side-blow at declaratio 41. Confessionem ignorationis: see 16. Socrates was far from being a sceptic, as Cic. supposes; see note on II. 74. Et iam ante Socratem: MSS. veluti amantes Socratem; Democritus (460—357 B.C.) was really very little older than Socrates (468—399) who died nearly sixty years before him. Omnis paene veteres: the statement is audaciously inexact, and is criticised II. 14. None of these were sceptics; for Democritus see my note on II. 73, for Empedocles on II. 74, for Anaxagoras on II. 72. Nihil cognosci, nihil penipi, nihil sciri: the verbs are all equivalent; cf. D.F. III. 15 equidem soleo etiam quod uno Graeci ... idem pluribus verbis exponere. Angustos sensus: Cic. is thinking of the famous lines of Empedocles [Greek: steinopoi men gar palamai k.t.l.] R. and P. 107. Brevia curricula vitae: cf. Empedocles' [Greek: pauron de zoes abiou meros]. Is there an allusion in curricula to Lucretius' lampada vitai tradunt, etc.? In profundo: Dem. [Greek: en bytho], cf. II. 32. The common trans. "well" is weak, "abyss" would suit better. Institutis: [Greek: nomo] of Democritus, see R. and P. 50. Goerenz's note here is an extraordinary display of ignorance. Deinceps omnia: [Greek: panta ephexes] there is no need to read denique for deinceps as Bentl., Halm. Circumfusa tenebris: an allusion to the [Greek: skotie gnosis] of Democr., see II. 73. Dixerunt: Halm brackets this because of dixerunt above, parts of the verb dicere are however often thus repeated by Cic.

Sec.45. Ne illud quidem: cf. 16. Latere censebat Goer. omitted censebat though in most MSS. Orelli and Klotz followed as usual. For the sense II. 122. Cohibereque: Gk. [Greek: epechein], which we shall have to explain in the Lucullus. Temeritatem ... turpius: for these expressions, see II. 66, note. Praecurrere: as was the case with the dogmatists. Paria momenta: this is undiluted scepticism, and excludes even the possibility of the probabile which Carneades put forward. For the doctrine cf. II. 124, for the expression Euseb. Praep. Evan. XIV. c. 4 (from Numenius) of Arcesilas, [Greek: einai gar panta akatalepta kai tous eis ekatera logous isokrateis allelois], Sextus Adv. Math. IX. 207 [Greek: isostheneis logoi]; in the latter writer the word [Greek: isostheneia] very frequently occurs in the same sense, e g Pyrrhon. Hyp. I. 8 (add N.D. I. 10, rationis momenta)

Sec.46. Platonem: to his works both dogmatists and sceptics appealed, Sextus Pyrrhon. Hyp. I. 221 [Greek: ton Platona oin hoi men dogmatikon ephasan einai, hoi de apo etikon, hoi de kata men ti aporetikon, kata de ti dogmatikon]. Stobaeus II. 6, 4 neatly slips out of the difficulty; [Greek: Platon polyphonos on, ouch hos tines oiontai polydoxos]. Exposuisti: Durand's necessary em., approved by Krische, Halm, etc. for MSS. exposui. Zenone: see Introd. p. 5.

* * * * *

NOTES ON THE FRAGMENTS.

BOOK I.

1. Mnesarchus: see II. 69, De Or. I. 45, and Dict. Biogr. 'Antipater'; cf. II. 143, De Off. III. 50. Evidently this fragment belongs to that historical justification of the New Academy with which I suppose Cicero to have concluded the first book.

2. The word concinere occurs D.F. IV. 60, N.D. I. 16, in both which places it is used of the Stoics, who are said re concinere, verbis discrepare with the other schools. This opinion of Antiochus Cic. had already mentioned 43, and probably repeated in this fragment. Krische remarks that Augustine, Cont. Acad. II. 14, 15, seems to have imitated that part of Cicero's exposition to which this fragment belongs. If so Cic. must have condemned the unwarrantable verbal innovations of Zeno in order to excuse the extreme scepticism of Arcesilas (Krische, p. 58).

BOOK II.

3. This fragm. clearly forms part of those anticipatory sceptical arguments which Cic. in the first edition had included in his answer to Hortensius, see Introd. p. 55. The argument probably ran thus: What seems so level as the sea? Yet it is easy to prove that it is really not level.

4. On this I have nothing to remark.

5. There is nothing distinctive about this which might enable us to determine its connection with the dialogue. Probably Zeno is the person who serius adamavit honores.

6. The changing aspects of the same thing are pointed to here as invalidating the evidence of the senses.

7. This passage has the same aim as the last and closely resembles Lucullus 105.

8. The fact that the eye and hand need such guides shows how untrustworthy the senses are. A similar argument occurs in Luc. 86. Perpendiculum is a plumb line, norma a mason's square, the word being probably a corruption of the Greek [Greek: gnomon] (Curt. Grundz p. 169, ed. 3), regula, a rule.

9. The different colours which the same persons show in different conditions, when young and when old, when sick and when healthy, when sober and when drunken, are brought forward to prove how little of permanence there is even in the least fleeting of the objects of sense.

10. Urinari is to dive; for the derivation see Curt. Grundz p. 326. A diver would be in exactly the position of the fish noticed in Luc. 81, which are unable to see that which lies immediately above them and so illustrate the narrow limits of the power of vision.

11. Evidently an attempt to prove the sense of smell untrustworthy. Different people pass different judgments on one and the same odour. The student will observe that the above extracts formed part of an argument intended to show the deceptive character of the senses. To these should probably be added fragm. 32. Fr. 19 shows that the impossibility of distinguishing eggs one from another, which had been brought forward in the Catulus, was allowed to stand in the second edition, other difficulties of the kind, such as those connected with the bent oar, the pigeon's neck, the twins, the impressions of seals (Luc. 19, 54), would also appear in both editions. The result of these assaults on the senses must have been summed up in the phrase cuncta dubitanda esse which Augustine quotes from the Academica Posteriora (see fragm. 36).

BOOK III.

12. This forms part of Varro's answer to Cicero, which corresponded in substance to Lucullus' speech in the Academica Priora The drift of this extract was most likely this: just as there is a limit beyond which the battle against criminals cannot be maintained, so after a certain point we must cease to fight against perverse sceptics and let them take their own way. See another view in Krische, p. 62.

13. Krische believes that this fragment formed part of an attempt to show that the senses were trustworthy, in the course of which the clearness with which the fishes were seen leaping from the water was brought up as evidence. (In Luc. 81, on the other hand, Cic. drew an argument hostile to the senses from the consideration of the fish.) The explanation seems to me very improbable. The words bear such a striking resemblance to those in Luc. 125 (ut nos nunc simus ad Baulos Puteolosque videmus, sic innumerabilis paribus in locis esse isdem de rebus disputantis) that I am inclined to think that the reference in Nonius ought to be to Book IV. and not Book III., and that Cic., when he changed the scene from Bauli to the Lucrine lake, also changed Puteolosque into pisciculosque exultantes for the sufficient reason that Puteoli was not visible from Varro's villa on the Lucrine.

14. The passion for knowledge in the human heart was doubtless used by Varro as an argument in favour of assuming absolute knowledge to be attainable. The same line is taken in Luc. 31, D.F. III. 17, and elsewhere.

15. It is so much easier to find parallels to this in Cicero's speech than in that of Lucullus in the Academica Priora that I think the reference in Nonius must be wrong. The talk about freedom suits a sceptic better than a dogmatist (see Luc. 105, 120, and Cic.'s words in 8 of the same). If my conjecture is right this fragment belongs to Book IV. Krische gives a different opinion, but very hesitatingly, p. 63.

16. This may well have formed part of Varro's explanation of the [Greek: katalepsis], temeritas being as much deprecated by the Antiocheans and Stoics as by the Academics cf. I. 42.

17. I conjecture malleo (a hammer) for the corrupt malcho, and think that in the second ed. some comparison from building operations to illustrate the fixity of knowledge gained through the [Greek: katalepseis] was added to a passage which would correspond in substance with 27 of the Lucullus. I note in Vitruvius, quoted by Forc. s.v. malleolus, a similar expression (naves malleolis confixae) and in Pliny Nat. Hist. XXXIV. 14 navis fixa malleo. Adfixa therefore in this passage must have agreed with some lost noun either in the neut. plur. or fem. sing.

18. This and fragm. 19 evidently hang very closely together. As Krische notes, the Stoic [Greek: enargeia] had evidently been translated earlier in the book by perspicuitas as in Luc. 17.

19. See on Luc. 57.

BOOK IV.

Further information on all these passages will be found in my notes on the parallel passages of the Lucullus.

21. Viam evidently a mistake for the umbram of Luc. 70.

23. The best MS. of Nonius points to flavum for ravum (Luc. 105). Most likely an alteration was made in the second edition, as Krische supposes, p. 64.

28. Corpusculis: Luc. 121 has corporibus. Krische's opinion that this latter word was in the second edition changed into the former may be supported from I. 6, which he does not notice. The conj. is confirmed by Aug. Contr. Ac. III. 23.

29. Magnis obscurata: in Luc. 122 it is crassis occultata, so that we have another alteration, see Krische, p. 64.

30. Only slight differences appear in the MSS. of the Luc. 123, viz. contraria, for in c., ad vestigia for contra v.

31. Luc. 137 has dixi for dictus. As Cic. does not often leave out est with the passive verb, Nonius has probably quoted wrongly. It will be noted that the fragments of Book III. correspond to the first half of the Luc., those of Book IV. to the second half. Cic. therefore divided the Luc. into two portions at or about 63.

UNCERTAIN BOOKS.

32. I have already said that this most likely belonged to the preliminary assault on the senses made by Cic. in the second book.

33. In the Introd. p. 55 I have given my opinion that the substance of Catulus' speech which unfolded the doctrine of the probabile was incorporated with Cicero's speech in the second book of this edition. To that part this fragment must probably be referred.

34. This important fragment clearly belongs to Book II., and is a jocular application of the Carneadean probabile, as may be seen from the words probabiliter posse confici.

35. Krische assigns this to the end of Varro's speech in the third Book. With this opinion I find it quite impossible to agree. A passage in the Lucullus (60) proves to demonstration that in the first edition this allusion to the esoteric teaching of the Academy could only have occurred either in the speech of Catulus or in that of Cicero. As no reason whatever appears to account for its transference to Varro I prefer to regard it as belonging to Cic.'s exposition of the positive side of Academic doctrine in the second book. Cic. repeatedly insists that the Academic school must not be supposed to have no truths to maintain, see Luc. 119, also 66 and N.D. I. 12. Also Aug. Contra. Ac. II. 29.

36. It is difficult to see where this passage could have been included if not in that prooemium to the third book which is mentioned Ad. Att. XVI. 6, 4. I may here add that Krische seems to me wrong in holding that the whole four books formed one discussion, finished within the limits of a single day. Why interrupt the discussion by the insertion of a prologue of so general a nature as to be taken from a stock which Cic. kept on hand ready made? (Cf. Ad Att. as above.)

* * * * *

Besides the actual fragments of the second edition, many indications of its contents are preserved in the work of Augustine entitled Contra Academicos, which, though written in support of dogmatic opinions, imitated throughout the second edition of the Academica of Cic. No writings of the Classical period had so great an influence on the culture and opinions of Augustine as the Academica and the lost Hortensius. I give, partly from Krische, the scattered indications of the contents of the former which are to be gathered from the bishop's works. In Aug. Contr. Ac. II. 14, 15, we have what appears to be a summary of the lost part of Book I. to the following effect. The New Academy must not be regarded as having revolted against the Old, all that it did was to discuss that new doctrine of [Greek: katalepsis] advanced by Zeno. The doctrine of [Greek: akatalepsia] though present to the minds of the ancients had never taken distinct shape, because it had met with no opposition. The Old Academy was rather enriched than attacked by the New. Antiochus, in adopting Stoicism under the name of the Old Academy, made it appear that there was a strife between it and the New. With Antiochus the historical exposition of Cic. must have ended. From this portion of the first book, Aug. derived his opinion (Contra. Ac. II. 1) that New Academicism was excusable from the necessities of the age in which it appeared. Indications of Book II. in Aug. are scarce, but to it I refer Contra. Ac. I. 7 placuit Ciceroni nostro beatum esse qui verum investigat etiam si ad eius inventionem non valeat pervenire, also ibid. III. 10 illis (Academicis) placuit esse posse hominem sapientem, et tamen in hominem scientiam cadere non posse. These I refer to Cicero's development of the probabile in Book II., although I ought to say that Krische, p. 65, maintains that the substance of Catulus' exposition in the Ac. Priora transferred to Book IV. of the Ac. Posteriora. As this would leave very meagre material for Book II., nothing indeed excepting the provisional proof of the deceptiveness of the senses, I cannot accede to his arrangement; mine, I may remark, involves a much smaller departure from the first edition. Allusions in Aug. to the attack on the senses by Cic. in Book II. are difficult to fix, as they apply equally well to the later attack in Book IV. As to Books III. and IV., I do not think it necessary here to prove from Aug. the points of agreement between them and the Lucullus, which will find a better place in my notes on the latter, but merely give the divergences which appear from other sources. These are the translation of [Greek: sophismata] by cavillationes in Luc. 75 (Seneca Ep. III.), and the insertion in 118 of essentia as a translation of [Greek: ousia].

BOOK II.

ENTITLED LUCULLUS.

Sec.Sec.1—12. Summary. Lucullus, though an able and cultivated man, was absent from Rome on public service too long during his earlier years to attain to glory in the forum (1). He unexpectedly proved a great general. This was due to his untiring study and his marvellous memory (2). He had to wait long for the reward of his merits as a commander and civil administrator, and was allowed no triumph till just before my consulship. What I owed to him in those troublous times I cannot now tell (3). He was not merely a general; he was also a philosopher, having learned much from Antiochus and read much for himself (4). Those enemies of Greek culture who think a Roman noble ought not to know philosophy, must be referred to the examples of Cato and Africanus (5). Others think that famous men should not be introduced into dialogues of the kind. Are they then, when they meet, to be silent or to talk about trifles? I, in applying myself to philosophy, have neglected no public duty, nor do I think the fame of illustrious citizens diminished, but enriched, by a reputation for philosophical knowledge (6). Those who hold that the interlocutors in these dialogues had no such knowledge show that they can make their envy reach beyond the grave. Some critics do not approve the particular philosophy which I follow—the Academic. This is natural, but they must know that Academicism puts no stop to inquiry (7). My school is free from the fetters of dogma; other schools are enslaved to authority (8). The dogmatists say they bow to the authority of the wise man. How can they find out the wise man without hearing all opinions? This subject was discussed by myself, Catulus, Lucullus, and Hortensius, the day after the discussion reported in the Catulus (9). Catulus called on Lucullus to defend the doctrines of Antiochus. This Lucullus believed himself able to do, although the doctrines had suffered in the discussion of the day before (10). He spoke thus: At Alexandria I heard discussions between Heraclitus Tyrius the pupil of Clitomachus and Philo, and Antiochus. At that very time the books mentioned by Catulus yesterday came into the hands of Antiochus, who was so angry that he wrote a book against his old teacher (11 and 12). I will now give the substance of the disputes between Heraclitus and Antiochus, omitting the remarks made by the latter against Philo (12).

Sec.1. Luculli: see Introd. p. 58, and Dict. Biog. Digna homini nobili: a good deal of learning would have been considered unworthy of a man like Lucullus, see Introd. p. 30. Percepta: "gained," "won;" cf. percipere fruges, "to reap," Cat. Mai. 24. Caruit: "was cut off from;" carere comes from a root skar meaning to divide, see Corss. I. 403. For the three nouns with a singular verb see Madv. Gram. 213 A, who confines the usage to nouns denoting things and impersonal ideas. If the common reading dissensit in De Or. III. 68 is right, the restriction does not hold. Admodum: "to a degree." Fratre: this brother was adopted by a M. Terentius Varro, and was a man of distinction also; see Dict. Biog. Magna cum gloria: a ref. to Dict. Biog. will show that the whole affair was discreditable to the father; to our notions, the sons would have gained greater glory by letting it drop. Quaestor: to Sulla, who employed him chiefly in the civil administration of Asia. Continuo: without any interval. Legis praemio: this seems to mean "by the favour of a special law," passed of course by Sulla, who had restored the old lex annalis in all its rigour, and yet excepted his own officers from its operation. Prooemio, which has been proposed, would not be Latin, see De Leg. II. 16. Consulatum: he seems to have been absent during the years 84—74, in the East. Superiorum: scarcely that of Sulla.

Sec.2. Laus: "merit," as often, so praemium, Virg. Aen. XII. 437, means a deed worthy of reward. Non admodum exspectabatur: Cic. forgets that Luc. had served with distinction in the Social War and the first Mithridatic war. In Asia pace: three good MSS. have Asiae; Baiter ejects Asia; Guilelmus read in Asia in pace (which Davies conjectures, though he prints Asiae). Consumere followed by an ablative without in is excessively rare in Cic. Madv. D.F. V. 53 denies the use altogether. In addition, however, to our passage, I note hoc loco consumitur in T.D. IV. 23, where Baiter's two texts (1861 and 1863) give no variants. Pace here perhaps ought to be taken adverbially, like tranqullo. Indocilem: this is simply passive, = "untaught," as in Prop. I. 2, 12, Ov. Fast. III. 119 (the last qu. by Dav.). Forc. s.v. is wrong in making it active. Factus: = perfectus; cf. Hor. Sat. I. 5, 33 homo factus ad unguem, Cic. De Or. III. 184, In Verr. IV. 126. So effectus in silver Latin. Rebus gestis: military history, so often. Divinam quandam memoriam: the same phrase in De Or. II. 360. Rerum, verborum: same distinction in De Or. II. 359. Oblivisci se malle: the same story is told D.F. II. 104, De Or. II. 299. The ancient art of memory was begun by Simonides (who is the person denoted here by cuidam) and completed by Metrodorus of Scepsis, for whom see De Or. II. 360. Consignamus: cf. consignatae in animis notiones in T.D. I. 57. litteris must be an ablative of the instrument. Mandare monum.: cf. I. 3. Insculptas: rare in the metaphorical use, cf. N.D. I. 45.

Sec.3. Genere: "department" cf. I. 3. Navalibus pugnis: [Greek: naumachiais]. Instrumento et adparatu: [Greek: kataskeue kai paraskeue]. Rex: Mithridates. Quos legisset: = de quibus l.; cf. the use of the passive verb so common in Ovid, e.g. Trist. IV. 4, 14. I take of course rex to be nom. to legisset, the suggestion of a friend that Lucullus is nom. and that quos legisset = quorum commentarios legisset I think improbable. Hodie: Drakenborch on Livy V. 27 wants to read hodieque, which however, is not Ciceronian. In passages like De Or. I. 103 and Verr. V. 64, the que connects clauses and does not modify hodie. On this subject see Madv. Opuscula I. 390. Etsi: M.D.F. V. 68, shows that in Cic. a parenthetic clause with etsi always has a common verb with its principal clause; a rule not observed by the silver writers. The same holds of quamquam, see n. on I. 5. Calumnia: properly a fraudulent use of litigation, [Greek: sykophantia]. The chief enemy was the infamous Memmius who prosecuted him. In urbem: until his triumph Luc. would remain outside the city. Profuisset: this ought properly to be profuerit, but the conditional dicerem changes it. Potius ... quam ... communicem: n. on 23.

Sec.4. Sunt ... celebrata: cf. I. 11, 17 for the collocation of the words. Externa ... interiora: cf. De Div. II. 124 sed haec quoque in promptu, nunc interiora videamus. Pro quaestore: for this Faber wrote quaestor, arguing that as Luc. was Sulla's quaestor and Sulla sent him to Egypt, he could not be pro quaestor. But surely after the first year he would be pro quaestor. Dav. reads quaestor here and 11, saying "veterem lectionem iugulavit Faber". Ea memoria ... quam: Bentl., Halm, Baiter give qua, Halm refers to Bentl. on Hor. Sat. I. 6, 15. A passage like ours is D.F. I. 29, ista sis aequitate, quam ostendis, where one MS. has qua. Read Madvig's lucid note there. De quibus audiebat: Madv. Em. 121 makes this equivalent to de eis rebus de quibus, the necessity of which explanation, though approved by Halm, I fail to see. The form of expression is very common in Cic., and the relative always refers to an actually expressed antecedent, cf. e.g. Cat. Mai. 83. I take quibus as simply = libris.

Sec.5. Ac: strong, as often, = [Greek: kai men]. Personarum: public characters, [Greek: prosopon poleos] (Ad. Fam. XV. 17, 2), so personas 6. Multi ... plures: cf. Introd. p. 30. Reliqui: many MSS. insert qui by dittographia, as I think, though Halm, as well as Bait., retains it. On the retention or omission of this qui will depend the choice of putant or putent below. Earum rerum disputationem: for disp. followed by genitive see n. on I. 33. Non ita decoram: for this feeling see Introd. p. 30. For non ita cf. the Lowland Scottish "no just sae". Historiae loquantur: hist. means in Cic. rather "memoirs" than "history," which is better expressed by res gestae. Note that the verb loqui not dicere is used, and cf. n. on 101. Legatione: to the kings in Egypt and the East in alliance with Rome. The censorship was in 199 B.C. About the embassy see Dict. Biogr. art. 'Panactius'. Auctorem: one would think this simple and sound enough, Bentl. however read fautorem, Dav. auditorem.

Sec.6. Illigari: "entangled" as though in something bad. For this use Forc. qu. Liv. XXXIII. 21, Tac. Ann. XIII. 40. Aut ludicros sermones: = aut clar. vir. serm. ludic. esse oporteat. Rerum leviorum: a similar argument in D.F. I. 12. Quodam in libro: the Hortensius. Gradu: so the word "degree" was once used, e.g. "a squire of low degree" in the ballad. De opera publica detrahamus: the dative often follows this verb, as in D.F. III. 7 nihil operae reipublicae detrahens, a passage often wrongly taken. Operae is the dat. after the verb, not the gen. after nihil, reip. the gen. after operae, like opera publica here, not the dat. after detrahens. Nisi forensem: the early oratorical works may fairly be said to have this character; scarcely, however, the De Republica or the De Leg. both of which fall within the period spoken of. Ut plurimis prosimus: cf. Introd. p. 29. Non modo non minui, sed: notice non modo ... sed thrice over in two sentences.

Sec.7. Sunt ... qui negent: and truly, see Introd. p. 38. In Cat. Mai. Sec.3 Cic. actually apologises for making Cato more learned than he really was. Mortuis: Catulus died in 60, Lucullus about 57, Hortensius 50. Contra omnis dicere quae videntur: MSS. mostly insert qui between dicere and quae, one of the best however has dicere quae aliis as a correction, while another has the marginal reading qui scire sibi videntur. The omission of qui, which I conjectured, but now see occurs in a MS. (Pal. 2) referred to by Halm, gives admirable sense. Verum invenire: cf. 60. Contentione: = [Greek: philoneikia] as usual. In ... rebus obscuritas: cf. I. 44 rerum obscuritate. Infirmitas: cf. I. 44 imbecillos animos. Antiquissimi et doctissimi: on the other hand recentissima quaeque sunt correcta et emendata maxime I. 13. Diffisi: one of the best MSS. has diffissi, which reminds one of the spelling divisssiones, asserted to be Ciceronian in Quint. Inst. Or. I. 7, 20. In utramque partem: [Greek: ep' amphotera], cf. I. 45. Exprimant: "embody," cf. n. on I. 19.

Sec.8. Probabilia: [Greek: pithana], for which see 33. Sequi: "act upon," cf. 99-101. Liberiores et solutiores: these two words frequently occur together in Cic. and illustrate his love for petty variations; see 105, also T.D. V. 43, De Div. I. 4, De Rep. IV. 4, N.D. I. 56, Orat. 64. Integra: "untrammelled," cf. the phrase "non mihi integrum est"—"I have committed my self." Et quasi: MSS. have et quibus et quasi. Cogimur: for this Academic freedom see Introd. p. 18. Amico cuidam: Orelli after Lamb. cuipiam; for the difference see Madv. Gram. 493 b, c.

Sec.9. Ut potuerint, potuerunt: thus Lamb. corrected the MSS. reading which was simply ut potuerunt, "granting that they had the ability, they gained it by hearing all things, now as a matter of fact they did decide on a single hearing," etc. Iudicaverunt autem: so Lamb. for MSS. aut. Muretus, by what Dav. calls an "arguta hariolatio," read an for aut and put a note of interrogation at contulerunt. C.F. Hermann (Schneidewin's Philologus VII. 466) introduces by conj. a sad confusion into the text, but no other good critic since Madvig's remarks in Em. 125 has impugned Lambinus' reading. Goerenz indeed, followed by the faithful Schutz, kept the MSS. reading with the insertion of aut between sed and ut at the beginning; of this Madv. says "non solum Latina non est, sed sanae menti repugnat." For the proceeding which Cic. deprecates, cf. N.D. I. 10, De Leg. I. 36. Quam adamaverunt: "which they have learned to love;" the ad has the same force as [Greek: pro] in [Greek: promanthanein], which means "to learn on and on, to learn by degrees" (cf. [Greek: proumathon stergein kakois]), not, as the lexica absurdly say, "to learn beforehand, i.e. to learn thoroughly." Constantissime: "most consistently". Quae est ad Baulos: cf. Introd. p. 57. In spatio: this xystus was a colonnade with one side open to the sea, called [Greek: xystos] from its polished floor and pillars. Consedimus: n. on I. 14.

Sec.10. Servatam oportuit: a construction very characteristic of Terence, found, but rarely, in Cic. and Livy. In promptu ... reconditiora: cf. in promptu ... interiora in De Div. II. 124, also Ac. I. 4. Quae dico: Goer. is exceedingly troubled by the pres. tense and wishes to read dixero. But the substitution of the pres. for the future is common enough in all languages cf. Iuv. IV. 130 with Mayor's copious note. Si non fuerint: so all Halm's best MSS. Two, however, of Davies' have si vera etc. In support of the text, see I. 9 (sunt ista) and note. Labefactata: this is only found as an alteration in the best MSS. and in Ed. Rom. (1471); the others have labefacta. Orelli's statement (note to his separate text of the Academica 1827) that Cic. commonly uses the perfect labefeci and the part, labefactus is quite wrong. The former is indeed the vulg. reading in Pro Sestio 101, the latter in De Haruspicum Responsis 60, but the last of these two passages is doubtful. Cic. as a rule prefers long forms like sustentatus, which occurs with labefactatus in Cat. Mai. 20. For the perfect labefactavit cf. I. 33. Agam igitur: Cic. rather overdoes the attempt to force on his readers a belief in the learning of Lucullus.

Sec.11. Pro quaestore: cf. 4. Essem: MSS. issem, whence Goer. conj. Alexandriam issem. Heraclitus Tyrius: scarcely known except from this passage. Clitomachum: for this philosopher see Zeller 532. Quae nunc prope dimissa revocatur: sc. a Cicerone. Philo's only notable pupils had combined to form the so called "Old Academy," and when Cic. wrote the Academica the New Academic dialectic had been without a representative for many years. Cf. Introd. p. 21. Libri duo: cf. I. 13. Heri for this indication of the contents of the lost Catulus, see Introd. p. 50. Implorans: "appealing to," the true meaning being "to appeal to with tears," see Corss. I. 361. Philonis: sc. esse. Scriptum agnoscebat: i.e. it was an actual work of Ph. Tetrilius: some MSS. are said to have Tetrinius, and the name Tertinius is found on Inscr. One good MS. has Tretilius, which may be a mistake for Tertilius, a name formed like Pompilius, Quintilius, Sextilius. Qy, should Petrilius, a derivative from the word for four, be read? Petrilius and Pompilius would then agree like Petronius and Pomponius, Petreius and Pompeius. For the formation of these names see Corss. I. 116. Rogus: an ill omened and unknown name. Rocus, as Ursinus pointed out, occurs on denarii of the gens Creperia. De Philone ... ab eo ipso: note the change of prep. "from Philo's lips," "from his copy." De and ex are common in Cic. after audire, while ab is rather rarer. See M.D.F. I. 39, and for describere ab aliquo cf. a te in Ad Att. XIII. 22, 3.

Sec.12. Dicta Philoni: for this see Introd. p. 50. It cannot mean what Goer. makes it mean, "coram Philone." I think it probable that Philoni is a marginal explanation foisted on the text. As to the statements of Catulus the elder, they are made clear by 18. Academicos: i.e. novos, who are here treated as the true Academics, though Antiochus himself claimed the title. Aristo: see Introd. p. 11. Aristone: Diog. VII. 164 mentions an Aristo of Alexandria, a Peripatetic, who may be the same. Dio seems unknown. Negat: see n. on 18. Lenior: some MSS. levior, as is usual with these two words. In 11 one of the earliest editions has leviter for leniter.

Sec.Sec.13—18. Summary. Cicero seems to me to have acted like a seditious tribune, in appealing to famous old philosophers as supporters of scepticism (13), Those very philosophers, with the exception of Empedocles, seem to me, if anything, too dogmatic (14). Even if they were often in doubt, do you suppose that no advance has been made during so many centuries by the investigations of so many men of ability? Arcesilas was a rebel against a good philosophy, just as Ti. Gracchus was a rebel against a good government (15). Has nothing really been learned since the time of Arcesilas? His opinions have had scanty, though brilliant support (16). Now many dogmatists think that no argument ought to be held with a sceptic, since argument can add nothing to the innate clearness of true sensations (17). Most however do allow of discussion with sceptics. Philo in his innovations was induced to state falsehoods, and incurred all the evils he wished to avoid, his rejection of Zeno's definition of the [Greek: kataleptike phantasia] really led him back to that utter scepticism from which he was fleeing. We then must either maintain Zeno's definition or give in to the sceptics (18).

Sec.13. Rursus exorsus est: cf. exorsus in 10. Popularis: [Greek: demotikous]. Ii a: so Dav. for MSS. iam. Tum ad hos: so MSS., Dav. aut hos. The omission of the verb venire is very common in Cic.'s letters. C. Flaminium: the general at lake Trasimene. Aliquot annis: one good MS. has annos, cf. T.D. I. 4, where all the best MSS. have annos. The ablative is always used to express point of time, and indeed it may be doubted whether the best writers ever use any accusative in that sense, though they do occasionally use the ablative to express duration (cf. Prop. I. 6, 7 and Madv. Gram. 235, 2). L. Cassium: this is L. Cassius Longinus Ravilla, a man of good family, who carried a ballot bill (De Leg. III. 35), he was the author of the cui bono principle and so severe a judge as to be called scopulus reorum. Pompeium: apparently the man who made the disgraceful treaty with Numantia repudiated by home in 139 B.C. P. Africanum: i.e. the younger, who supported the ballot bill of Cassius, but seems to have done nothing else for the democrats. Fratres: Lamb. viros, but cf. Brut. 98. P. Scaevolam: the pontifex, consul in the year Tib. Gracchus was killed, when he refused to use violence against the tribunes. The only connection these brothers had with the schemes of Gracchus seems to be that they were consulted by him as lawyers, about the legal effect the bills would have. Ut videmus ... ut suspicantur: Halm with Gruter brackets these words on the ground that the statement about Marius implies that the demagogues lie about all but him. Those words need not imply so much, and if they did, Cic. may be allowed the inconsistency.

Sec.14. Similiter: it is noticeable that five MSS. of Halm have simile. Xenophanem: so Victorius for the MSS. Xenoplatonem. Ed. Rom. (1471) has Cenonem, which would point to Zenonem, but Cic. does not often name Zeno of Elea. Saturninus: of the question why he was an enemy of Lucullus, Goer. says frustra quaeritur. Saturninus was the persistent enemy of Metellus Numidicus, who was the uncle of Lucullus by marriage. Arcesilae calumnia: this was a common charge, cf. Academicorum calumnia in N.D. II. 20 and calumnia in 18 and 65 of this book. So August. Contra Acad. II. 1 speaks of Academicorum vel calumnia vel pertinacia vel pericacia. Democriti verecundia: Cic. always has a kind of tenderness for Democritus, as Madv. on D.F. I. 20 remarks, cf. De Div. II. 30 where Democr. is made an exception to the general arrogantia of the physici. Empedocles quidem ... videatur: cf. 74. The exordium of his poem is meant, though there is nothing in it so strong as the words of the text, see R. and P. 108. Quale sit: the emphasis is on sit, the sceptic regards only phenomenal, not essential existence. Quasi modo nascentes: Ciacconus thought this spurious, cf. however T.D. II. 5 ut oratorum laus ... senescat ... , philosophia nascatur.

Sec.15. haesitaverunt: Goer. cf. De Or. I. 40. Constitutam: so in 14. Delitisceret: this is the right spelling, not delitesceret, which one good MS. has here, see Corssen II. 285. Negavissent: "had denied, as they said." Tollendus est: a statement which is criticised in 74. Nominibus differentis ... dissenserunt: genuine Antiochean opinions, see the Academica Posteriora 17, 43. De se ipse: very frequent in Cic. (cf. Madv. Gram. 487 b). Diceret: this is omitted by the MSS., but one has agnosceret on the margin; see n. on 88. Fannius: in his "Annals." The same statement is quoted in De Or. II. 270, Brutus 299. Brutus had written an epitome of this work of Fannius (Ad Att. XII. 5, 3).

Sec.16. Veteribus: Bentley's em. of MSS. vetera: C.F. Hermann (Schneid Philol. VII. 457), thinking the departure from the MSS. too great, keeps vetera and changes incognita into incondita, comparing De Or. I. 197, III. 173. A glance, however, at the exx. in Forc. will show that the word always means merely "disordered, confused" in Cic. The difference here is not one between order and no order, but between knowledge and no knowledge, so that incognita is far better. I am not at all certain that the MSS. reading needs alteration. If kept the sense would be: "but let us suppose, for sake of argument, that the doctrines of the ancients were not knowledge, but mere opinion." The conj. of Kayser veri nota for vetera (cf. 76) and investigatum below, is fanciful and improbable. Quod investigata sunt: "in that an investigation was made." Herm. again disturbs the text which since Madv. Em. 127 supported it (quoting T.D. V. 15, Liv. XXXV. 16) had been settled. Holding that illa in the former sentence cannot be the subj. of the verb, he rashly ejects nihilne est igitur actum as a dittographia (!) from 15 nihilne explicatum, and reads quot for quod with Bentl. For the meaning cf. T.D. III. 69 and Arist. on the progress of philosophy as there quoted. Arcesilas Zenoni ... obtrectans: see n. on I. 34. These charges were brought by each school against the other. In Plutarch Adv. Colotem p. 1121 F, want of novelty is charged against Arcesilas, and the charge is at once joyfully accepted by Plut. The scepticism of Arcesilas was often excused by the provocation Zeno gave, see Aug. Contra Acad. II. 14, 15 and notes on fragm. 2 and 35 of the Academica Posteriora. Immutatione verborum: n. on I. 33. This phrase has also technical meanings; it translates the Greek [Greek: tropoi] (Brut. 69) and [Greek: allegoria] in De Or. II. 261, where an ex. is given. Definitiones: n. on 18. Tenebras obducere: such expressions abound in Cic. where the New Academy is mentioned, cf. 30 (lucem eripere), N.D. I. 6 (noctem obfundere) Aug. Contra Ac. III. 14 (quasdam nebulas obfundere), also the joke of Aug. II. 29 tenebrae quae patronae Academicorum solent esse. Non admodum probata: cf. the passage of Polybius qu. by Zeller 533. Lacyde: the most important passages in ancient authorities concerning him are quoted by Zeller 506. It is important to note that Arcesilas left no writings so that Lacydes became the source of information about his teacher's doctrines. Tenuit: cf. the use of obtinere in De Or. I. 45. In Aeschine: so Dav. for the confused MSS. reading. For this philosopher see Zeller 533. As two MSS. have hac nonne Christ conj. Hagnone which Halm, as well as Baiter takes; Zeller 533 seems to adopt this and at once confuses the supposed philosopher with one Agnon just mentioned in Quint. II. 17, 15. There is not the slightest reason for this, Agnon and Hagnon being known, if known at all, from these two passages only.

Sec.17. Patrocinium: for the word cf. N.D. I. 6. Non defuit: such patronage was wanting in the time of Arcesilas (16). Faciendum omnino non putabant: "Epictetus (Arrian, Diss. I. 27, 15) quietly suppresses a sceptic by saying [Greek: ouk ago scholen pros tauta]" (Zeller 85, n.). In another passage (Arrian, I. 5) Epict. says it is no more use arguing with a sceptic than with a corpse. Ullam rationem disputare: the same constr. occurs in 74 and Pro Caecina 15, Verr. Act. I. 24. Antipatrum: cf. fragm. 1 of Book I. Verbum e verbo: so 31, D.F. III. 15, T.D. III. 7, not verbum de verbo, which Goer. asserts to be the usual form. Comprehensio: cf. I. 41. Ut Graeci: for the ellipse of the verb cf. I. 44 ut Democritus. Evidentiam: other translations proposed by Cic. were illustratio (Quint. VI. 2, 32) and perspicientia (De Off. I. 15). Fabricemur: cf. 87, 119, 121. Me appellabat: Cic. was the great advocate for the Latinisation of Greek terms (D.F. III. 15). Sed tamen: this often resumes the interrupted narrative, see Madv. Gram. 480. Ipsa evidentia: note that the verb evidere is not Latin.

Sec.18. Sustinere: cf. 70. Pertinaciam: the exact meaning of this may be seen from D.F. II. 107, III. 1. It denotes the character which cannot recognise a defeat in argument and refuses to see the force of an opponent's reasoning. For the application of the term to the Academics, cf. n. on 14, 66, also I. 44 and D.F. V. 94, N.D. I. 13, in the last of which passages the Academy is called procax. Mentitur: cf. 12. Ita negaret: this ita corresponds to si below,—a common sequence of particles in Cic., cf. 19. [Greek: Akatalepton]: the conj. of Turnebus [Greek: katalepton] is unnecessary, on account of the negative contained in negaret. Visum: cf. I. 40. Trivimus: cf. I. 27. Visum igitur: the Greek of this definition will be found in Zeller 86. The words impressum effictumque are equivalent to [Greek: enapesphragismene kai enapomemagmene] in the Gk. It must not be forgotten that the Stoics held a sensation to be a real alteration ([Greek: heteroiosis]) of the material substance of the soul through the action of some external thing, which impresses its image on the soul as a seal does on wax, cf. Zeller 76 and 77 with footnotes. Ex eo unde esset ... unde non esset: this translation corresponds closely to the definition given by Sextus in four out of the six passages referred to by Zeller (in Adv. Math. VIII. 86 Pyrrh. Hypotyp. III. 242, the definition is clipt), and in Diog. Laert. VII. 50 (in 46 he gives a clipt form like that of Sextus in the two passages just referred to). It is worth remarking (as Petrus Valentia did, p. 290 of Orelli's reprint of his Academica) that Cic. omits to represent the words [Greek: kat' auto to hyparchon]. Sextus Adv. Math. VII. 249 considers them essential to the definition and instances Orestes who looking at Electra, mistook her for an Erinys. The [Greek: phantasia] therefore which he had although [Greek: apo hyparchontos] (proceeding from an actually existent thing) was not [Greek: kata to hyparchon], i.e. did not truly represent that existent thing. Aug. Cont. Acad. II. 11 quotes Cicero's definition and condenses it thus; his signis verum posse comprehendi quae signa non potest habere quod falsum est. Iudicium: [Greek: kriterion], a test to distinguish between the unknown and the known. Eo, quo minime volt: several things are clear, (1) that Philo headed a reaction towards dogmatism, (2) that he based the possibility of knowledge on a ground quite different from the [Greek: kataleptike phantasia], which he pronounced impossible, (3) that he distorted the views of Carneades to suit his own. As to (1) all ancient testimony is clear, cf. 11, Sextus Pyrr. Hyp. I. 235, who tells us that while the Carneadeans believed all things to be [Greek: akatalepta], Philo held them to be [Greek: katalepta], and Numenius in Euseb. Praep. Ev. XIV. 8, p. 739, who treats him throughout his notice as a renegade. (2) is evident from the Academica and from Sextus as quoted above. The foundation for knowledge which he substituted is more difficult to comprehend. Sextus indeed tells us that he held things to be in their own nature [Greek: katalepta (hoson de epi te physei ton pragmaton auton katal.)]. But Arcesilas and Carneades would not have attempted to disprove this; they never tried to show that things in themselves were incognisable, but that human faculties do not avail to give information about them. Unless therefore Philo deluded himself with words, there was nothing new to him about such a doctrine. The Stoics by their [Greek: kataleptike phantasia] professed to be able to get at the thing in itself, in its real being, if then Philo did away with the [Greek: katal. phant.] and substituted no other mode of curing the defects alleged by Arcesilas and Carneades to reside in sense, he was fairly open to the retort of Antiochus given in the text. Numenius treats his polemic against the [Greek: katal. phant.] as a mere feint intended to cover his retreat towards dogmatism. A glimpse of his position is afforded in 112 of this book, where we may suppose Cic. to be expressing the views of Philo, and not those of Clitomachus as he usually does. It would seem from that passage that he defined the cognisable to be "quod impressum esset e vero" ([Greek: phantasia apo hyparchontos enapomemagmene]), refusing to add "quo modo imprimi non posset a falso ([Greek: hoia ouk an genoito apo me hyparchontos]), cf. my n. on the passage. Thus defined, he most likely tried to show that the cognisable was equivalent to the [Greek: delon] or [Greek: pithanon] of Carneades, hence he eagerly pressed the doubtful statement of the latter that the wise man would "opine," that is, would pronounce definite judgments on phenomena. (See 78 of this book.) The scarcity of references to Philo in ancient authorities does not allow of a more exact view of his doctrine. Modern inquiry has been able to add little or nothing to the elucidation given in 1596 by Petrus Valentia in his book entitled Academica (pp. 313—316 of the reprint by Orelli). With regard to (3), it it not difficult to see wherein Philo's "lie" consisted. He denied the popular view of Arcesilas and Carneades, that they were apostles of doubt, to be correct (12). I may add that from the mention of Philo's ethical works at the outset of Stobaeus' Ethica, he would appear to have afterwards left dialectic and devoted himself to ethics. What is important for us is, that Cic. never seems to have made himself the defender of the new Philonian dialectic. By him the dialectic of Carneades is treated as genuinely Academic. Revolvitur: cf. De Div. II. 13, also 148 of this book. Eam definitionem: it is noteworthy that the whole war between the sceptics and the dogmatists was waged over the definition of the single sensation. Knowledge, it was thought, was a homogeneous compound of these sense atoms, if I may so call them, on all hands it was allowed that all knowledge ultimately rests on sense; therefore its possibility depends on the truth of the individual perception of sense.

Sec.Sec.19—29. Summary. If the senses are healthy and unimpaired, they give perfectly true information about external things. Not that I maintain the truth of every sensation, Epicurus must see to that. Things which impede the action of the senses must always be removed, in practice we always do remove them where we can (19). What power the cultivated senses of painters and musicians have! How keen is the sense of touch! (20). After the perceptions of sense come the equally clear perceptions of the mind, which are in a certain way perceptions of sense, since they come through sense, these rise in complexity till we arrive at definitions and ideas (21). If these ideas may possibly be false, logic memory, and all kinds of arts are at once rendered impossible (22). That true perception is possible, is seen from moral action. Who would act, if the things on which he takes action might prove to be false? (23) How can wisdom be wisdom if she has nothing certain to guide her? There must he some ground on which action can proceed (24). Credence must be given to the thing which impels us to action, otherwise action is impossible (25). The doctrines of the New Academy would put an end to all processes of reasoning. The fleeting and uncertain can never be discovered. Rational proof requires that something, once veiled, should be brought to light (26). Syllogisms are rendered useless, philosophy too cannot exist unless her dogmas have a sure basis (27). Hence the Academics have been urged to allow their dogma that perception is impossible, to be a certain perception of their minds. This, Carneades said, would be inconsistent, since the very dogma excludes the supposition that there can be any true perception (28). Antiochus declared that the Academics could not be held to be philosophers if they had not even confidence in their one dogma (29).

Sec.19. Sensibus: it is important to observe that the word sensus like [Greek: aisthesis] means two things, (1) one of the five senses, (2) an individual act of sensation. Deus: for the supposed god cf. T.D. II. 67. Non videam: this strong statement is ridiculed in 80. De remo inflexo et de collo columbae: cf. 79, 82. The [Greek: kope enalos keklasmene] and [Greek: peristeras trachelos] are frequently mentioned, along with numerous other instances of the deceptiveness of sense, by Sext. Emp., e.g. Pyrrhon. Hypot. I. 119-121, Adv. Math. VII. 244, 414. Cicero, in his speech of the day before, had probably added other examples, cf. Aug. Cont. Ac. III. 27. Epicurus hoc viderit: see 79, 80. Epic. held all sensation, per se, to be infallible. The chief authorities for this are given in R. and P. 343, 344, Zeller 403, footnote. Lumen mutari: cf. Brut. 261. Intervalla ... diducimus: for this cf. Sext. Pyrrh. I. 118 [Greek: pemptos esti logos] (i.e. the 5th sceptic [Greek: tropos] for showing sense to be untrustworthy) [Greek: ho para tas theseis] (situs) [Greek: kai ta diastemata] (intervalla) [Greek: kai tous topous]. Multaque facimus usque eo: Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 258 [Greek: panta poiei mechris an tranen kai plektiken spase phantasian]. Sui iudicii: see for the gen. M.D.F. II. 27; there is an extraordinary instance in Plaut. Persa V. 2, 8, quoted by Goer. Sui cuiusque: for this use of suus quisque as a single word see M.D.F. V. 46.

Sec.20. Ut oculi ... cantibus: Halm after Dav. treats this as a gloss: on the other hand I think it appropriate and almost necessary. Quis est quin cernat: read Madvig's strong remarks on Goerenz's note here (D.F. II. 27). Umbris ... eminentia: Pliny (see Forc.) often uses umbra and lumen, to denote background and foreground, so in Gk. [Greek: skia] and [Greek: skiasma] are opposed to [Greek: lampra]; cf. also [Greek: skiagraphein], adumbrare, and Aesch. Agam. 1328. Cic. often applies metaphorically to oratory the two words here used, e.g. De Or. III. 101, and after him Quintilian, e.g. II. 17, 21. Inflatu: cf. 86 (where an answer is given) and [Greek: anabole]. Antiopam: of Pacuvius. Andromacham: of Ennius, often quoted by Cic., as De Div. I. 23. Interiorem: see R. and P. 165 and Zeller's Socrates and the Socratic Schools, 296. Quia sentiatur: [Greek: aisthesis] being their only [Greek: kriterion]. Madv. (without necessity, as a study of the passages referred to in R. and P. and Zeller will show) conj. cui adsentiatur, comparing 39, 58; cf. also 76. Inter eum ... et inter: for the repetition of inter cf. T.D. IV. 32 and Madv. Gram. 470. Nihil interesse: if the doctrine of the Academics were true, a man might really be in pain when he fancied himself in pleasure, and vice versa; thus the distinction between pleasure and pain would be obscured. Sentiet ... insaniat: For the sequence cf. D.F. I. 62 and Wesenberg's fine note on T.D. V. 102.

Sec.21. Illud est album: these are [Greek: axiomata], judgments of the mind, in which alone truth and falsehood reside; see Zeller 107 sq. There is a passage in Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 344, 345 which closely resembles ours; it is too long to quote entire: [Greek: aisthesesi men oun monais labein talethes] (which resides only in the [Greek: axioma]) [Greek: ou dynatai anthropos. ... physei gar eisin alogoi ... dei de eis phantasian achthenai tou toioutou pragmatos "touto leukon esti kai touto glyky estin." toi de toioutoi pragmati ouketi tes aistheseos ergon estin epiballein ... syneseos te dei kai mnemes]. Ille deinceps: deinceps is really out of place; cf. 24 quomodo primum for pr. quom. Ille equus est: Cic. seems to consider that the [Greek: axioma], which affirms the existence of an abstract quality, is prior to that which affirms the existence of a concrete individual. I can quote no parallel to this from the Greek texts. Expletam comprehensionem: full knowledge. Here we rise to a definition. This one often appears in Sextus: e.g. Adv. Math. VII. [Greek: anthropos esti zoon logikon thneton, nou kai epistemes dektikon]. The Stoic [Greek: horoi], and this among them, are amusingly ridiculed, Pyrrh. Hyp. II. 208—211. Notitiae: this Cic. uses as a translation both of [Greek: prolepsis] and [Greek: ennoia], for which see Zeller 79, 89. In I. 40 notiones rerum is given. Sine quibus: [Greek: dia gar ton ennoion ta pragmata lambanetai] Diog. VII. 42.

Sec.22. Igitur: for the anacoluthia cf. Madv. Gram. 480. Consentaneum: so Sextus constantly uses [Greek: akolouthon]. Repugnaret: cf. I. 19 and n. Memoriae certe: n. on 106. Continet: cf. contineant in 40. Quae potest esse: Cic. nearly always writes putat esse, potest esse and the like, not esse putat etc., which form is especially rare at the end of a clause. Memoria falsorum: this difficulty is discussed in Plato Sophist. 238—239. Ex multis animi perceptionibus: the same definition of an art occurs in N.D. II. 148, D.F. III. 18 (see Madv.), Quint, II. 17, 41, Sext. Pyrrh. Hyp. III. 188 [Greek: technen einai systema ek katalepseon syngegymnasmenon] ib. III. 250. Quam: for the change from plural to singular (perceptio in universum) cf. n. on I. 38, Madv. D.F. II. 61, Em. 139. Qui distingues: Sext. Adv. Math. VIII. 280 [Greek: ou dioisei tes atechnias he techne]. Sextus often comments on similar complaints of the Stoics. Aliud eiusmodi genus sit: this distinction is as old as Plato and Arist., and is of constant occurrence in the late philosophy. Cf. Sext. Adv. Math. XI. 197 who adds a third class of [Greek: technai] called [Greek: apotelesmatikai] to the usual [Greek: theoretikai] and [Greek: praktikai], also Quint. II. 18, 1 and 2, where [Greek: poietike] corresponds to the [Greek: apot.] of Sext. Continget: "will be the natural consequence." The notion that the verb contingit denotes necessarily good fortune is quite unfounded; see Tischer on T.D. III. 4. Tractabit: [Greek: mellei metacheirizesthai].

Sec.23. Cognitio: like Germ. lehre, the branch of learning which concerns the virtues. Goer. is quite wrong in taking it to be a trans. of [Greek: katalepsis] here. In quibus: the antecedent is not virtutum, as Petrus Valentia (p. 292 ed. Orelli) supposes and gets into difficulty thereby, but multa. This is shown by etiam; not merely the virtues but also all [Greek: episteme] depends on [Greek: katalepseis]; cf. I. 40, 41, with notes, Zeller 88, R. and P. 367. Stabilem: [Greek: bebaion kai ametaptotou]. Artem vivendi: "tralaticium hoc apud omnes philosophos" M.D.F. I. 42. Sextus constantly talks about [Greek: he oneiropoloumene peri ton bion techne] (Pyrrh. Hyp. III. 250) the existence of which he disproves to his own satisfaction (Adv. Math. XI. 168 sq). Ille vir bonus: in all ancient systems, even the Epicurean, the happiness of the sapiens must be proof against the rack; cf. esp. D.F. III. 29, 75, T.D. V. 73, Zeller 450, and the similar description of the [Greek: sophos] in Plato's Gorgias. Potius quam aut: Lamb. ut; but I think C.F. Hermann is right in asserting after Wopkens that Cic. never inserts ut after potius quam with the subj. Tischer on T.D. II. 52 affirms that ut is frequently found, but gives no exx. For the meaning cf. De Off. I. 86, Aug. Cont. Ac. II. 12 who says the sapiens of the Academy must be desertor officiorum omnium. Comprehensi ... constituti: cf. the famous abiit, evasit, excessit, crupit. Iis rebus: note the assumption that the sensation corresponds to the thing which causes it. Adsensus sit ... possint: nearly all edd. before Halm read possunt, but the subj. expresses the possibility as present to the mind of the supposed vir bonus. Cf. Madv. Gram. 368.

Sec.24. Primum: out of place, see on 21. Agere: the dogmatist always held that the sceptic must, if consistent, be [Greek: anenergetos en bioi] (Sext. Pyrrh. Hyp. I. 23). Extremum: similar attempts to translate [Greek: telos] are made in D.F. I. 11, 29, V. 17. Cum quid agere: cf. I. 23 for the phrase Naturae accommodatum. a purely Stoic expression, [Greek: homoiomenon te physei]; cf. 38 and D.F. V. 17, also III. 16, Zeller 227, footnote, R. and P. 390. Impellimur: [Greek: kinoumetha], Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 391, as often.

Sec.25. Oportet videri: "ought to be seen." For this use cf. 39, 81 and 122 of this book. Videri at the end of this section has the weak sense, "to seem." Lucretius often passes rapidly from the one use to the other; cf. I. 262 with I. 270, and Munro's n., also M.D.F. II. 52, Em. Liv. p. 42. Non poterit: as the Academics allege. Naturae ... alienum: Cic. uses this adjective with the dat, and also with the ablative preceded by ab; I doubt whether the phrase maiestate alienum (without the preposition) can be right in De Div. II. 102, where the best texts still keep it. Non occurrit ... aget: occurrit is probably the perfect. Cf. n. on 127.

Sec.26. Quid quod si: Goer., outrageously reads quid quod si, si. Tollitur: the verb tollere occurs as frequently in this sense as [Greek: anairein] does in Sextus. Lux lumenque: Bentl. dux The expression dux vitae is of course frequent (cf. N.D. I. 40, T.D. V. 5 and Lucretius), but there is no need to alter. Lux is properly natural light, lumen artificial, cf. Ad Att. XVI. 13, 1. lumina dimiseramus, nec satis lucebat, D.F. III. 45 solis luce ... lumen lucernae. There is the same difference between [Greek: phos] and [Greek: phengos], the latter is used for the former ([Greek: phengos heliou]) just as lumen is for lux (si te secundo lumine his offendere—Ad Att. VII. 26, 1) but not often vice versa. Trans. "the luminary and the lamp of life," and cf. Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 269 where the [Greek: phantasia] is called [Greek: phengos]. Finis: so in the beginning of the Nicom. Eth. Aristot. assumes that the actual existence of human exertion is a sufficient proof that there is a [Greek: telos]. Aperta: a reminiscence of the frequently recurring Greek terms [Greek: ekkalyptein, ekkalyptikos] etc., cf. Sextus passim, and D.F. I. 30. Initium ... exitus = [Greek: arche ... telos]. Tenetur: MSS. tenet, the nom. to which Guietus thought to be ratio above. [Greek: Apodeixis]: cf. the definition very often given by Sext. e.g. Pyrrh. Hyp. II. 143 [Greek: logos di' homologoumenon lemmaton] (premisses) [Greek: kata synagogen epiphoran] (conclusion) [Greek: ekkalypton adelon], also Diog. VII. 45, [Greek: logon dia ton mallon katalambanomenon to hetton katalambanomenon perainonta] (if the reading be right).

Sec.27. Notio: another trans. of [Greek: ennoia]. Conclusisse: although the Greeks used [Greek: symperasma] instead of [Greek: epiphora] sometimes for the conclusion of the syllogism, they did not use the verb [Greek: symperainein] which has been supposed to correspond to concludere. It is more likely to be a trans. of [Greek: synagein], and conclusum argumentum of [Greek: synaktikos logos], which terms are of frequent occurrence. Rationibus progredi: to a similar question Sextus answers, [Greek: ouk estin anankaion tas ekeinon] (the dogmatists) [Greek: dogmatologias probainein, plasmatodeis hyparchousas] (Adv. Math. VIII. 367). Sapientiae ... futurum est: for the dat. with facio and fio see Madv. Gram. 241, obs. 5, Opusc. I. 370, D.F. II. 79, and cf. 96 of this book. Lex veri rectique: cf. 29; the constitutio veri and the determination of what is rectum in morals are the two main tasks of philosophy. Sapientique satis non sit: so Manut. for the sapientisque sit of the MSS. Halm after Dav. reads sapientis, neque satis sit, which I think is wrong, for if the ellipse be supplied the construction will run neque dubitari potest quin satis sit, which gives the exact opposite of the sense required. Ratum: cf. 141.

Sec.28. Perceptum: thoroughly known and grasped. Similar arguments are very frequent in Sextus, e.g. Adv. Math. VIII. 281, where the dogmatist argues that if proof be impossible, as the sceptic says, there must be a proof to show it impossible; the sceptic doctrine must be provable. Cf. 109 of this book. Postulanti: making it a necessity for the discussion; cf. De Leg. I. 21. Consentaneum esse: [Greek: akolouthon einai]. Ut alia: although others. Tantum abest ut—ut: cf. Madv. Gram. 440 a.

Sec.29. Pressius: cf. De Fato 31, 33, N.D. II. 20, T.D. IV. 14, Hortensius fragm. 46 ed. Nobbe. The word is mocked in 109. Decretum: of course the Academics would say they did not hold this [Greek: dogma] as stabile fixum ratum but only as probabile. Sextus however Pyrrh. Hyp. I. 226 (and elsewhere) accuses them of making it in reality what in words they professed it not to be, a fixed dogma. Sentitis enim: cf. sentis in D.F. III. 26. Fluctuare: "to be at sea," Halm fluctuari, but the deponent verb is not elsewhere found in Cic. Summa: cf. summa philosophiae D.F. II. 86. Veri falsi: cf. n. on 92. Quae visa: so Halm for MSS. quaevis, which edd. had changed to quae a quovis. Repudiari: the selection depended on the probabile of course, with the Academics. Veri falsique: these words were used in different senses by the dogmatist and the sceptic, the former meant by them "the undestructibly true and false." This being so, the statements in the text are in no sense arguments, they are mere assertions, as Sext. says, [Greek: psile phasei ison pheretai psile phasis] (A.M. VII. 315), [Greek: phasei men phasis epischethesetai] (ib. 337). Cognoscendi initium: cf. 26, "This I have," the Academic would reply, "in my probabile." Extremum expetendi: a rather unusual phrase for the ethical finis. Ut moveri non possint: so [Greek: kineisthai] is perpetually used in Sext. Est ut opinor: so Halm after Ernesti for sit of the MSS. I think it very likely that the MSS. reading is right, and that the whole expression is an imitation of the Greek [Greek: hikanos eioestho] and the like. The subj. is supported by D.F. III. 20, De Off. I. 8, Ad Att. XIII. 14, 3, where ut opinor is thrown in as here, and by Ac. II. 17, D.F. III. 21, 24, N.D. I. 109, where si placet is appended in a similar way.

Sec.Sec.30—36. Summary. With respect to physical science, we might urge that nature has constructed man with great art. His mind is naturally formed for the attainment of knowledge (30). For this purpose the mind uses the senses, and so gradually arrives at virtue, which is the perfection of the reason. Those then who deny that any certainty can be attained through the senses, throw the whole of life into confusion (31). Some sceptics say "we cannot help it." Others distinguish between the absolute absence of certainty, and the denial of its absolute presence. Let us deal with these rather than with the former (32). Now they on the one hand profess to distinguish between true and false, and on the other hold that no absolutely certain method for distinguishing between true and false is possible (33). This is absurd, a thing cannot be known at all unless by such marks as can appertain to no other thing. How can a thing be said to be "evidently white," if the possibility remains that it may be really black? Again, how can a thing be "evident" at all if it may be after all a mere phantom (34)? There is no definite mark, say the sceptics, by which a thing may be known. Their "probability" then is mere random guess work (35). Even if they only profess to decide after careful pondering of the circumstances, we reply that a decision which is still possibly false is useless (36).

Sec.30. Physicis: neuter not masc.; cf. I. 6. Libertatem et licentiam: et = "and even." Libertas = [Greek: parresia] as often in Tacitus. Abditis rebus et obscuris: cf. n. on I. 15, and the word [Greek: syneskiasmenos] Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 26. Lucem eripere: like tollere (n. on 26), cf. 38, 103 and N.D. I. 6. For the sense see n. on 16, also 61. Artificio: this word is used in Cic. as equivalent to ars in all its senses, cf. 114 and De Or. II. 83. Fabricata esset: the expression is sneered at in 87. Quem ad modum primum: so Halm rightly for MSS. prima or primo, which latter is not often followed by deinde in Cicero. Primum is out of position, as in 24. Appetitio pulsa: = mota, set in motion. For [Greek: horme] see 24. Intenderemus: as in the exx. given in 20. Fons: "reservoir," rather than "source" here. It will be noted that [Greek: synkatathesis] must take place before the [Greek: horme] is roused. Ipse sensus est: an approach to this theory is made in Plat. Theaet. 185, 191. Cf. especially Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 350 [Greek: kai hoi men diapherein auten ton aistheseon, hos hoi pleious, hoi de auten einai tas aistheseis ... hes staseos erxe Straton]. All powers of sensation with the Stoics, who are perhaps imitated here, were included in the [Greek: hegemonikon], cf. n. on I. 38. Alia quasi: so Faber for aliqua. "In vera et aperta partitione nec Cicero nec alius quisquam aliquis—alius dixit, multo minus alius—aliquis," M.D.F. III. 63. Goer. on the other hand says he can produce 50 exx. of the usage, he forbears however, to produce them. Recondit: so the [Greek: ennoiai] are called [Greek: apokeimenai noeseis] (Plut. De Sto. Repug. p. 1057 a). In Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 373 [Greek: mneme] is called [Greek: thesaurismos phantasion]. Similitudinibus: [Greek: kath' homoiosin] Sext. Pyrr. Hyp. II. 75. Cic. uses this word as including all processes by which the mind gets to know things not immediately perceived by sense. In D.F. III. 33 it receives its proper meaning, for which see Madv. there, and the passages he quotes, "analogies" will here best translate the word, which, is used in the same wide sense in N.D. II. 22 38. Construit: so MSS. Orelli gave constituit. Notitiae: cf. 22. Cic. fails to distinguish between the [Greek: physikai ennoiai] or [Greek: koinai] which are the [Greek: prolepseis], and those [Greek: ennoiai] which are the conscious product of the reason, in the Stoic system. Cf. M.D.F. III. 21, V. 60, for this and other inaccuracies of Cic. in treating of the same subject, also Zeller 79. Rerumque: "facts". Perfecta: sapientia, virtus, perfecta ratio, are almost convertible terms in the expositions of Antiocheanism found in Cic. Cf. I. 20.

Sec.31. Vitaeque constantiam: which philosophy brings, see 23. Cognitionem: [Greek: epistemen]. Cognitio is used to translate [Greek: katalepsis] in D.F. II. 16, III. 17, cf. n. on I. 41. Ut dixi ... dicemus: For the repetition cf. 135, 146, and M.D.F. I. 41. The future tense is odd and unlike Cic. Lamb. wrote dicimus, I would rather read dicamus; cf. n. on 29. Per se: [Greek: kath' auten], there is no need to read propter, as Lamb. Ut virtutem efficiat: note that virtue is throughout this exposition treated as the result of the exercise of the reason. Evertunt: cf. eversio in 99. Animal ... animo: Cic. allows animus to all animals, not merely anima; see Madv. D.F. V. 38. The rule given by Forc. s.v. animans is therefore wrong. Temeritate: [Greek: propeteia], which occurs passim in Sext. The word, which is constantly hurled at the dogmatists by the sceptics, is here put by way of retort. So in Sext. Adv. Math. VII. 260, the sceptic is called [Greek: embrontetos] for rejecting the [Greek: kataleptike phantasia].

Sec.32. Incerta: [Greek: adela]. Democritus: cf. I. 44. Quae ... abstruserit: "because she has hidden." Alii autem: note the ellipse of the verb, and cf. I. 2. Etiam queruntur: "actually complain;" "go so far as to complain." Inter incertum: cf. Numenius in Euseb. Pr. Ev. XIV. 7, 12, [Greek: diaphoran einai adelou kai akataleptou, kai panta men einai akatalepta ou panta de adela] (quoted as from Carneades), also 54 of this book. Docere: "to prove," cf. n. on 121. Qui haec distinguunt: the followers of Carneades rather than those of Arcesilas; cf. n. on I. 45. Stellarum numerus: this typical uncertainty is constantly referred to in Sext. e.g. P.H. II. 90, 98, A.M. VII. 243, VIII. 147, 317; where it is reckoned among things [Greek: aionion echonta agnosian]. So in the Psalms, God only "telleth the number of the stars;" cf. 110. Aliquos: contemptuous; [Greek: aponenoemenous tinas]. Cf. Parad. 33 agrestis aliquos. Moveri: this probably refers to the speech of Catulus; see Introd. p. 51. Aug. Cont. Ac. III. 15 refers to this passage, which must have been preserved in the second edition.

Sec.33. Veri et falsi: these words Lamb. considered spurious in the first clause, and Halm brackets; but surely their repetition is pointed and appropriate. "You talk about a rule for distinguishing between the true and the false while you do away with the notion of true and false altogether." The discussion here really turns on the use of terms. If it is fair to use the term "true" to denote the probably true, the Academics are not open to the criticism here attempted; cf. 111 tam vera quam falsa cernimus. Ut inter rectum et pravum: the sceptic would no more allow the absolute certainty of this distinction than of the other. Communis: the [Greek: aparallaktos] of Sextus; "in whose vision true and false are confused." Cf. [Greek: koine phantasia alethous kai pseudous] Sext. A.M. VII. 164 (R. and P. 410), also 175. Notam: the [Greek: semeion] of Sextus; cf. esp. P.H. II. 97 sq. Eodem modo falsum: Sext. A.M. VII. 164 (R. and P. 410) [Greek: oudemia estin alethes phantasia hoia ouk an genoito pseudes]. Ut si quis: Madv. in an important n. on D.F. IV. 30 explains this thus; ista ratione si quis ... privaverit, possit dicere. I do not think our passage at all analogous to those he quotes, and still prefer to construe quem as a strong relative, making a pause between quis and quem. Visionem: Simply another trans. of [Greek: phantasia]. Ut Carneades: see Sext. A.M. VII. 166 [Greek: ten te pithanen phantasian kai ten pithanen hama kai aperispaston kai diexodeumenen] (R. and P. 411). As the trans. of the latter phrase in Zeller 524 "probable undisputed and tested" is imperfect, I will give Sextus' own explanation. The merely [Greek: pithane] is that sensation which at first sight, without any further inquiry, seems probably true (Sext. A.M. VII. 167—175). Now no sensation is perceived alone; the percipient subject has always other synchronous sensations which are able to turn him aside ([Greek: perispan, perielkein]) from the one which is the immediate object of his attention. This last is only called [Greek: aperispastos] when examination has shown all the concomitant sensations to be in harmony with it. (Sext. as above 175—181.) The word "undisputed," therefore, is a misleading trans. of the term. The [Greek: diexodeumene] ("thoroughly explored") requires more than a mere apparent agreement of the concomitant sensations with the principal one. Circumstances quite external to the sensations themselves must be examined; the time at which they occur, or during which they continue; the condition of the space within which they occur, and the apparent intervals between the person and the objects; the state of the air; the disposition of the person's mind, and the soundness or unsoundness of his eyes (Sext. 181—189).

Sec.34. Communitas: [Greek: aparallaxia] or [Greek: epimixia ton phantasion]; Sext. A.M. VII. 403, P.H. I. 127. Proprium: so Sext. often uses [Greek: idioma], e.g. A. M. IX. 410. Signo notari: signo for nota, merely from love of variety. The in before communi, though bracketed by Halm after Manut., Lamb. is perfectly sound; it means "within the limits of," and is so used after notare in De Or., III. 186. Convicio: so Madv. Em. 143 corrected the corrupt MSS. readings, comparing Orator 160, Ad Fam. XV. 18. A.W. Zumpt on Pro Murena 13 rightly defines the Ciceronian use of the word, "Non unum maledictum appellatur convicium sed multorum verborum quasi vociferatio." He is wrong however in thinking that Cic. only uses the word once in the plural (Ad Att. II. 18, 1), for it occurs N.D. II. 20, and elsewhere. Perspicua: [Greek: enarge], a term used with varying signification by all the later Greek schools. Verum illud quidem: "which is indeed what they call 'true'." Impressum: n. on 18. Percipi atque comprehendi: Halm retains the barbarous ac of the MSS. before the guttural. It is quite impossible that Cic. could have written it. The two verbs are both trans. of [Greek: katalambanesthai]; Cic. proceeds as usual on the principle thus described in D.F. III. 14 erit notius quale sit, pluribus notatum vocabulis idem declarantibus. Subtiliter: Cic.'s constant trans. of [Greek: akribos] or [Greek: kat' akribeian] (passim in Sext. e.g. P.H. II. 123). Inaniterne moveatur: MSS. agree in ve for ne, on which see M.D.F. IV. 76. Inaniter = [Greek: kenos] = [Greek: pseudos]. Cf. n. on I. 35, also II. 47, D.F. V. 3 (inaniter moveri), T.D. IV. 13, De Div. II. 120, 126, 140 (per se moveri), Greek [Greek: kenopathein] (Sext. P.H. II. 49), [Greek: kenopatheia] (= inanis motus, Sext. A.M. VIII. 184), [Greek: kenopathemata kai anaplasmata tes dianoias] (ib. VIII. 354), [Greek: diakenos helkysmos] (ib. VII. 241), [Greek: diakenos phantasia] (ib. VIII. 67), and the frequent phrase [Greek: kinema tes dianoias]. For the meaning see n. on 47. Relinquitur: so in Sext. [Greek: apoleipein] is constantly used as the opposite of [Greek: anairein] (tollere).

Sec.35. Neminem etc.: they are content to make strong statements without any mark of certainty. Primo quasi adspectu: the merely [Greek: pithane phantasia] is here meant; see 33.

Sec.36. Ex circumspectione, etc.: the [Greek: diexodeumene]; see n. on 33. Primum quia ... deinde: for the slight anacoluthia, cf. M.D.F ed. II. p. 796. Iis visis, etc.: i.e. if you have a number of things, emitting a number of appearances, and you cannot be sure of uniting each appearance to the thing from which it proceeds, then you can have no faith in any appearance even if you have gone through the process required by Carneades' rules. Ad verum ipsum: cf. 40. Quam proxime: cf. 47, and also 7. Insigne: [Greek: semeion], the same as nota and signum above. Quo obscurato: so Lamb. for MSS. obscuro which Halm keeps. Cf. quam obscurari volunt in 42 and quo sublato in 33. Argumentum: Cic. seems to be thinking of the word [Greek: tekmerion], which, however, the Stoics hardly use. Id quod significatur: [Greek: to semeionton] in Sext.

Sec.Sec.37—40. Summary The distinction of an animal is to act. You must either therefore deprive it of sensation, or allow it to assent to phenomena (37). Mind, memory, the arts and virtue itself, require a firm assent to be given to some phenomena, he therefore who does away with assent does away with all action in life (38, 39).

Sec.37. Explicabamus: 19—21 and 30 (quae vis esset in sensibus). Inanimum: not inanimatum, cf. M.D.F. IV. 36. Agit aliquid: I. 23. Quae est in nostra: Walker's insertion of non before est is needless, cf. n. on I. 40. It is the impact of the sensation from without, not the assent given to it, that is involuntary (Sext. A.M. VIII. 397 [Greek: to men gar phantasiothenai abouleton en]). For in potestate cf. De Fato 9, N.D. I. 69

Sec.38. Eripitur: cf. 30. Neque sentire: Christ om. neque; but the sceptics throughout are supposed to rob people of their senses. Cedere: cf. [Greek: eikein, eixis] in Sext. P.H. I. 193, 230, Diog. VII. 51, [Greek: ton de aisthetikon meta eixeos kai synkatatheseos ginontai [hai phantasia]]; also 66 of this book. [Greek: Oikeion]: cf. 34. Adsentitur statim: this really contradicts a good deal that has gone before, esp. 20. Memoriam: cf. 22. In nostra potestate: this may throw light on fragm. 15 of the Ac. Post., which see.

Sec.39. Virtus: even the Stoics, who were fatalists as a rule, made moral action depend on the freedom of the will; see n. on I. 40. Ante videri aliquid for the doctrine cf. 25, for the passive use of videri, n. on 25. Adsentiatur: the passive use is illustrated by Madv. Em. 131, the change of construction from infin. to subj. after necesse est on D.F. V. 25. Tollit e vita: so De Fato 29.

Sec.Sec.40—42. Summary. The Academics have a regular method. They first give a general definition of sensation, and then lay down the different classes of sensations. Then they put forward their two strong arguments, (1) things which produce sensations such as might have been produced in the same form by other things, cannot be partly capable of being perceived, partly not capable, (2) sensations must be assumed to be of the same form if our faculties do not enable us to distinguish between them. Then they proceed. Sensations are partly true, partly false, the false cannot of course be real perceptions, while the true are always of a form which the false may assume. Now sensations which are indistinguishable from false cannot be partly perceptions, partly not. There is therefore no sensation which is also a perception (40). Two admissions, they say, are universally made, (1) false sensations cannot be perceptions, (2) sensations which are indistinguishable from false, cannot be partly perceptions, partly not. The following two assertions they strive to prove, (1) sensations are partly true, partly false, (2) every sensation which proceeds from a reality, has a form which it might have if it proceeded from an unreality (41). To prove these propositions, they divide perceptions into those which are sensations, and those which are deduced from sensations; after which they show that credit cannot be given to either class (42). [The word "perception" is used to mean "a certainly known sensation."]

Sec.40. Quasi fundamenta: a trans. probably of [Greek: themelios] or the like; cf. [Greek: hosper themelios] in Sext. A.M. V. 50. Artem: method, like [Greek: techne], cf. M.D.F. III. 4, Mayor on Iuv. VII. 177. Vim: the general character which attaches to all [Greek: phantasiai]; genera the different classes of [Greek: phantasiai]. Totidem verbis: of course with a view to showing that nothing really corresponded to the definition. Carneades largely used the reductio ad absurdum method. Contineant ... quaestionem: cf. 22 and T.D. IV. 65 una res videtur causam continere. Quae ita: it is essential throughout this passage to distinguish clearly the sensation (visum) from the thing which causes it. Here the things are meant; two things are supposed to cause two sensations so similar that the person who has one of the sensations cannot tell from which of the two things it comes. Under these circumstances the sceptics urge that it is absurd to divide things into those which can be perceived (known with certainty) and those which cannot. Nihil interesse autem: the sceptic is not concerned to prove the absolute similarity of the two sensations which come from the two dissimilar things, it is enough if he can show that human faculties are not perfect enough to discern whatever difference may exist, cf. 85. Alia vera sunt: Numenius in Euseb. Pr. Ev. XIV. 8, 4 says Carneades allowed that truth and falsehood (or reality and unreality) could be affirmed of things, though not of sensations. If we could only pierce through a sensation and arrive at its source, we should be able to tell whether to believe the sensation or not. As we cannot do this, it is wrong to assume that sensation and thing correspond. Cf. Sext. P.H. I. 22 [Greek: peri men tou phaisthai toion e toion to hypokeimenon] (i.e. the thing from which the appearance proceeds) [Greek: oudeis isos amphisbetei, peri de tou ei toiouton estin hopoion phainetai zeteitai]. Neither Carneades nor Arcesilas ever denied, as some modern sceptics have done, the actual existence of things which cause sensations, they simply maintained that, granting the existence of the things, our sensations do not give us correct information about them. Eiusdem modi: cf. 33 eodem modo. Non posse accidere: this is a very remarkable, and, as Madv. (D.F. I. 30) thinks, impossible, change from recta oratio to obliqua. Halm with Manut. reads potest. Cf. 101.

Sec.41. Neque enim: a remark of Lucullus' merely. Quod sit a vero: cf. Munio on Lucr. II. 51 fulgor ab auro. Possit: for the om. of esse cf. n. on I. 29.

Sec.42. Proposita: cf. [Greek: protaseis] passim in Sext. In sensus: = in ea, quae ad sensus pertinent cf. I. 20. Omni consuetudine: "general experience" [Greek: empeiria], cf. N.D. I. 83. Quam obscurari volunt: cf. I. 33. quod explanari volebant; the em. of Dav. obscurare is against Cic.'s usage, that of Christ quam observari nolunt is wanton without being ingenious. De reliquis: i.e. iis quae a sensibus ducuntur. In singulisque rebus: the word rebus must mean subjects, not things, to which the words in minima dispertiunt would hardly apply. Adiuncta: Sext. A.M. VII. 164 (R. and P. 410) [Greek: pasei te dokousei alethei kathestanai eurisketai tis aparallaktos pseudes], also VII. 438, etc.

Sec.Sec.43—45. Summary. The sceptics ought not to define, for (1) a definition cannot be a definition of two things, (2) if the definition is applicable only to one thing, that thing must be capable of being thoroughly known and distinguished from others (43). For the purposes of reasoning their probabile is not enough. Reasoning can only proceed upon certain premisses. Again to say that there are false sensations is to say that there are true ones; you acknowledge therefore a difference, then you contradict yourselves and say there is none (44). Let us discuss the matter farther. The innate clearness of visa, aided by reason, can lead to knowledge (45).

Sec.43. Horum: Lamb. harum; the text however is quite right, cf. Madv. Gram. 214 b. Luminibus: cf. 101. Nihilo magis: = [Greek: ouden mallon], which was constantly in the mouths of sceptics, see e.g. Sext. P.H. I. 14. Num illa definitio ... transferri: I need hardly point out that the [Greek: horos] of the Academics was merely founded on probability, just as their "truth" was (cf. n. on 29). An Academic would say in reply to the question, "probably it cannot, but I will not affirm it." Vel illa vera: these words seem to me genuine, though nearly all editors attack them. Vel = "even" i.e. if even the definition is firmly known, the thing, which is more important, must also be known. In illa vera we have a pointed mocking repetition like that of veri et falsi in 33. In falsum: note that falsum = aliam rem above. For the sense cf. Sext. P.H. II. 209 [Greek: mochtherous horous einai tous periechontas ti ton me prosonton tois horistois], and the schoolmen's maxim definitio non debet latior esse definito suo. Minime volunt: cf. 18. Partibus: Orelli after Goer. ejected this, but omnibus hardly ever stands for omn. rebus, therefore C.F. Hermann reads pariter rebus for partibus. A little closer attention to the subject matter would have shown emendation to be unnecessary, cf. 42 dividunt in partis, T.D. III. 24, where genus = division, pars = subdivision.