p. 257: Here I use work done by David Chan.

p. 258: I use here the research of J. J. L. Duyvendak; the reasons for the end of such enterprises, as given here, may not exhaust the problem. It may not be without relevance that Cheng came from a Muslim family. His father was a pilgrim (Bull. Chin. Studies, vol. 3, pp. 131-70). Further research is desirable.—Concerning folk-tales, I use my own research. The main Buddhist tales are the Jataka stories. They are still used by Burmese Buddhists in the same context.

p. 260: The Oirat (Uyrat, Ojrot, Oeloet) were a confederation of four tribal groups: Khosud, Dzungar, Doerbet and Turgut.

p. 261: I regard this analysis of Ming political history as unsatisfactory, but to my knowledge no large-scale analysis has been made.—For Wang Yang-ming I use mainly my own research.

p. 262: For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work.

p. 263: On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L. C. Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in Isis, vol. 36, 1946 and 39, 1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Prusek, J. Needham, and M. Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, Studia Orientalia vol. 9, 1941.—For the earliest contacts of Wang with Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.—While there is no satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, Lu Hsiang-shan, a Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher, New Haven 1944, can be used.

p. 264: For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.—Large parts of the Yung-lo ta-tien are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yuean T'ung-li studied this problem).

p. 265: Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the Tuemet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into Mongolia (1574).—For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of the Manchu see Fr. Michael, The Origins of Manchu Rule in China, Baltimore 1942.

p. 266: M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century, The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L. J. Gallagher, New York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about the Copernican theory.

p. 267: For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.—The Szechwan rebellion was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B. Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant rebellions.—For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J. K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957. A different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yueeh in Li-shih yen-chiu 1955, No. 3.

p. 268: Work on the "academies" (shu-yuean) in the earlier time is done by Ho Yu-shen.

p. 273-4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research.

p. 274: The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6 millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be close to 680 million. In general see P. T. Ho. Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.

p. 276: Based upon my own research.—A different view of the development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, Modern Capitalism and Eastern Asia, Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, The Rise of the Modern Chinese Business Class, New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the sociological theories of T. Parsons.

p. 277: The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four Oeloet (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W. Fuchs.

p. 278: Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech, China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century, Leiden 1950. A collection of data is found in M. W. Fisher and L. E. Rose, England, India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958, Berkeley 1959. For diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred to J. K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yue.

p. 279: For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.—A man who deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see Lin Mou-sheng, Men and Ideas, New York 1942, and especially W. T. de Bary in J. K. Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, Chicago 1957.

p. 280-1: On Liang see now J. R. Levenson, Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China, London 1959.

p. 282: It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.—The Kalmuks are largely identical with the above-mentioned Oeloet.

p. 286: The existence of hong is known since 1686, see P'eng Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade see H. B. Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China 1635-1834, Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J. K. Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.—For Lin I used G. W. Overdijkink's study.

p. 287: On customs read St. F. Wright, Hart and the Chinese Customs, Belfast 1950.

p. 288: For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916), Cambridge, Mass., 1958.

p. 289: The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the revolts still remains to be done.—On T'ai-p'ing much has been published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen.

p. 291: For Tseng Kuo-fan see W. J. Hail, Tseng Kuo-fan and the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion, Hew Haven 1927, but new research on him is about to be published.—The Nien-fei had some connection with the White Lotos, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, The Nien Rebellion, Seattle 1954.

p. 292: Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been studied. On Salars see L. Schram, The Monguors of Kansu, Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe.

p. 293: On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China, Peking 1938, and Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies, vol. 1.

p. 294: For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874, Stanford 1957.

p. 295: Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands of this group.—Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chosen.

p. 297: M. C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.—Much research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th. Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established. Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks are entirely preliminary.

p. 298: For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others. See M. E. Cameron, The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921, Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J. K. Fairbank and Liu Kwang-ching, Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to Chinese Works, 1898-1937, Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China 1840-1928, Princeton 1956.—For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, The Chinese Gentry, Seattle 1955.—For the history of Tzu Hsi Bland-Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager, Peking 1939 (Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used For some of K'ang Yo-wei's ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy of K'ang Yu Wei, London 1957.

Chapter Eleven

p. 305: I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic, Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and his later The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen, Baltimore 1937.—Independently, Atatuerk in Turkey developed a similar theory of the growth of democracy.

p. 306: On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, The Ideological Background of the Chinese Student Movement, New York 1948.

p. 307: On Hu Shih see his own The Chinese Renaissance, Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, Nationalism and Language Reform in China, Princeton 1950.

p. 310: The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): "In case the Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic laws" (R. J. Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4).

p. 315: For the military activities see F. F. Liu, A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949, Princeton 1956. A marxist analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China, Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents are translated in C. Brandt, B. Schwartz, J. K. Fairbank, A Documentary History of Chinese Communism, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.

Chapter Twelve

For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao, second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years; see J. E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition, 1927-1935, Stanford 1966. For the civil war, see L. M. Chassin, The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949, Cambridge, Mass., 1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, The China Reader, vol. 3, Communist China, New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist China, Berkeley 1966. For cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, China in Crisis, vol. 1, China's Heritage and the Communist Political System, Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China, see J. Myrdal, Report from a Chinese Village, New York 1965; for Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change, Berkeley 1966.



INDEX

Abahai, ruler, 269

Abdication, 92-3, 182, 227, 302

Aborigines, 323

Absolutism, 196, 208, 210, 232 ff., 247 (see Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy)

Academia Sinica, 307

Academies, 221, 255, 267-8, 272

Administration, 64, 82-4, 138 ff, 142, 144, 154, 170, 173-4, 210; provincial, 85 (see Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy)

Adobe (Mud bricks), 16, 19, 32

Adoptions, 204

Afghanistan, 146-7

Africa, 201, 259

Agriculture, development, 54, 198 ff., 249-50, 275; Origin of, 10, 11; of Shang, 21; shifting (denshiring), 32 (see Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure, Canals, Fallow)

An Ti, ruler of Han, 92

Ainu, tribes, 9

Ala-shan mountain range, 88

Alchemy, 49, 104 (see) Elixir

Alexander the Great, 146-7

America, 276, 300 (see) United States

Amithabha, god, 188

Amur, river, 278

An Chi-yeh, rebel, 293

An Lu-shan, rebel, 184 ff., 189, 195

Analphabetism, 65

Anarchists, 47

Ancestor, cult, 24, 32

Aniko, sculptor, 243

Animal style, 17

Annam (Vietnam), 97, 160, 209, 219, 234, 258, 265, 295, 330

Anyang (Yin-ch'ue), 19, 22

Arabia, 258; Arabs, 104, 178, 183, 185, 266

Architecture, 147, 256

Aristocracy, 25, 26, 36, 122, 195 (see Nobility, Feudalism)

Army, cost of, 211; organization of, 24, 118, 174, 236; size of, 53; Tibetan, 127 (see War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ue)

Art, Buddhist, 146-7 (see Animal style, Architecture, Pottery, Painting, Sculpture, Wood-cut)

Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya, 59

Artisans, 19, 26, 31, 33, 56, 79; Organizations of, 58 (see Guilds, Craftsmen)

Assimilation, 144, 152, 166, 244 (see Colonization)

Astronomy, 266

Austroasiats, 10, 12

Austronesians, 12

Avars, tribe, 140 (see Juan-juan)

Axes, prehistoric, 10

Axis, policy, 51

Babylon, 65

Baghdad, city, 201

Balasagun, city, 224

Ballads, 133

Banks, 265, 305

Banner organization, 268, 291

Barbarians (Foreigners), 109, 122, 246, 278

Bastards, 41

Bath, 217

Beg, title, 289

Beggar, 239

Bengal, 250, 283

Boat festival, 23

Bokhara (Bukhara), city, 46

Bon, religion, 242

Bondsmen, 31, 117, 143 (see pu-ch'ue, Serfs, Feudalism)

Book, printing, 201; B burning, 66

Boettger, inventor, 256

Boxer rebellion, 299

Boycott, 314

Brahmans, Indian caste, 34, 106

Brain drain, 326

Bronze, 17, 20, 22, 29, 33, 40, 106, 180-1 (see Metal, Copper)

Brothel (Tea-house), 163, 217

Buddha, 46; Buddhism, 20, 106, 108-9, 125, 127, 133 ff., 145 ff., 150, 161, 164, 168, 178, 179 ff., 188, 217, 218, 236, 257, 259, 266, 306 (see Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya, Hinayana, Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism)

Budget, 168, 175, 209, 210, 215, 261 (see Treasury, Inflation, Deflation)

Bullfights, 182

Bureaucracy, 24, 33, 63, 72; religious B, 25 (see Administration; Army)

Burgher (liang-min), 143, 183, 216

Burma, 12, 146, 234, 248, 265, 269, 283, 318, 319, 322, 329, 330

Businessmen, 64 (see Merchants, Trade)

Byzantium, 177

Calcutta, city, 283

Caliph (Khaliph), 185

Cambodia, 234, 295

Canals, 170, 246; Imperial C, 168, 235-6 (see Irrigation)

Cannons, 232, 263

Canton (Kuang-chou), city, 67, 77, 89, 97, 159, 190, 209, 237, 262, 266, 286, 287, 308, 309, 312, 314

Capital of Empire, 144 (see Ch'ang-an, Si-an, Lo-yang, etc.)

Capitalism, 180-1, 212, 297, 303 (see Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.)

Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations), 273, 287, 290, 312, 316

Caravans, 86, 98, 121, 129, 181 (see Silk road, Trade)

Carpet, 243

Castes, 106 (see Brahmans)

Castiglione, G., painter, 281

Cattle, breeding, 155

Cavalry, 53 (see Horse)

Cave temples, 146-7 (see Lung-men, Yuen-kang, Tun-huang)

Censorate, 84

Censorship, 254

Census, 143 (see Population)

Central Asia, 25, 87-88, 90, 113, 119, 135, 169, 179, 209, 259, 277, 330 (see Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States)

Champa, State, 249

Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism, 164, 175, 218, 263

Chan-kuo Period (Contending States), 51 ff.

Chancellor, 82

Ch'ang-an, capital of China, 123, 127, 129, 167, 172, 176, 184, 185, 190, 207 (see Sian)

Chang Ch'ien, ambassador, 88

Chang Chue-chan, teacher, 265

Chang Hsien-chung, rebel, 268, 271

Chang Hsueeh-liang, war lord, 316

Chang Ling, popular leader, 101, 136, 147, 264

Chang Ti, ruler, 99

Chang Tsai, philosopher, 218

Chang Tso-lin, war lord, 312, 316

Chao, state, 53, 63; Earlier Chao, 124; Later Chao, 124

Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler, 208, 209

Chao Meng-fu, painter, 243

Charters, 30

Chefoo Convention, 295

Ch'en, dynasty, 162 ff.

Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler, 162

Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual, 307, 320

Ch'eng Hao, philosopher, 219

Cheng Ho, navy commander, 258

Ch'eng I, philosopher, 219

Cheng-i-chiao, religion, 263-4

Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han, 92; ruler of Chin, 156

Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu, 257

Ch'eng-tu, city, 110, 120

Ch'i, state, 40; short dynasty, 190, 225; Northern Ch'i, 148 ff., 149, 150 ff., 161, 162, 168

Ch'i-fu, clan, 129 ff.

Chi-nan, city, 55

Ch'i-tan (see Kitan)

Ch'i Wan-nien, leader, 118

Chia, clan, 120

Chia-ch'ing, period, 285

Chia Ssu-tao, politician, 228

Ch'iang, tribes, 21, 118 (see Tanguts)

Chiang Kai-shek, president, 264, 311, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 321, 322, 324, 326

Ch'ien-lung, period, 272, 282, 284, 285

ch'ien-min (commoners), 143

Chin, dynasty, 229 ff. (see Juchen); dynasty, 114, 115 ff.; Eastern Chin dynasty, 152 ff., 155 ff.; Later Chin dynasty, 139

Ch'in, state, 36; Ch'in, dynasty, 53, 59, 60, 62 ff., 80; Earlier Ch'in dynasty, 126, 157; Later Ch'in dynasty, 129, 139, 159; Western Ch'in dynasty, 129, 140

Ch'in K'ui, politician, 226

Chinese, origin of, 2, 8 ff.

Ching Fang, scholar, 255

Ching-te (-chen), city, 201, 256

ching-t'ien system, 33

Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler, 260

Ch'in Ying, painter, 255

Chou, dynasty, 29 f., 76; short Chou dynasty, 180; Later Chou dynasty, 206; Northern Chou dynasty, 148, 149, 150 ff., 169, 172

Chou En-lai, politician, 320

Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site, 8

Chou-kung (Duke of Chou), 33, 93 Chou-li, book, 33

Chou Tun-i, philosopher, 218

Christianity, 179, 266, 282, 290 (see Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries)

Chronology, 7, 335

Ch'u, state, 38, 199 ff., 205

Chu Ch'uean-chung, general and ruler, 190, 191, 203, 204

Chu Hsi, philosopher, 219, 263, 279

Chu-ko Liang, general, 111

Chu Te general, 321

Chu Tsai-yue, scholar, 255

Chu Yuean-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler, 239 ff., 243 ff., 246, 247, 256, 257

chuang, 181, 212-13, 345 (see Manors, Estates)

Chuang Tzu;, philosopher, 47-8, 50

Chuen-ch'en, ruler, 88

Ch'un-ch'iu, book, 43, 80

chuen-t'ien system (land equalization system), 142-3, 173, 187

chuen-tzue (gentleman), 42, 44

Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher, 50

Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city, 38, 110, 318

Church, Buddhistic, 146, 147, 188, 218; Taoistic, 136, 147 (see Chang Ling)

Cities, 36, 37; spread and growth of cities, 31, 55-6, 175, 229, 250-1, 252; origin of cities, 19; twin cities, 33 (see City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Lo-yang, Hankow, etc.)

City States (of Central Asia), 97, 132, 177

Clans, 31, 196

Classes, social classes, 79, 143-4, 207, 216 (see Castes, ch'ien-min, liang-min, Gentry, etc.)

Climate, changes, 9

Cliques, 91, 160, 197, 257, 261

Cloisonne, 256

Cobalt, 221, 256

Coins, 78, 94, 116, 199, 209 (see Money)

Colonialism, 278, 283, 329 (see Imperialism)

Colonization, 97, 102, 111, 116, 153, 209, 248 ff. (see Migration, Assimilation)

Colour prints, 256

Communes, 331

Communism, 314, 320 ff. (see Marxism, Socialism, Soviets)

Concubines, 100, 227

Confessions, 102

Confucian ritual, 78-9; Confucianism, 93, 136, 145, 150, 163-4, 168, 175, 183-4, 188, 306; Confucian literature, 78; false Confucian literature, 93-4; Confucians, 40 ff., 134 (see Neo-Confucianism)

Conquests, 122, 270 (see War, Colonialism)

Conservatism, 219

Constitution, 311

Contending States, 40 ff.

Co-operatives, 319

Copper, 17, 211 (see Bronze, Metal)

Corruption, 51, 200

Corvee (forced labour), 82, 173, 187, 196, 238 (see Labour)

Cotton, 250

Courtesans, 182 (see Brothel)

Coxinga, rebel, 267, 271

Craftsmen, 26, 105, 183, 197, 216, 247-8 (see Artisans)

Credits, 215

Criminals, 146, 218, 248

Crop rotation, 249

Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet, 278, 310

Dance, 105

Deflation, 215

Deities, 23 (see Tien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.)

Delft, city, 256

Demands, the twenty-one, 311, 313

Democracy, 305, 301

Denshiring, 12

Despotism, 81, 196 (see Absolutism)

Dewey, J., educator, 307

Dialects, 64-5 (see Language)

Dialecticians, 59

Dictators, 38, 47 (see Despotism)

Dictionaries, 65

Diploma, for monks, 208

Diplomacy, 223, 226

Disarmament, 115, 120

Discriminatory laws, 189, 233 ff., 270 (see Double Standard)

Dog, 54

Dorgon, prince, 269

Double standard, legal, 80

Drama, 242, 255, 280

Dress, changes, 53

Dungan, tribes, 292

Dynastic histories (see History), 2

Dzungars, people, 277

Eclipses, 43

Economy, 53 ff., 94 ff., 100, 109, 112-13, 142 ff.; Money economy, 198; Natural economy, 107-8, 116 (see Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money, Trade, etc.)

Education, 73, 103, 201, 306, 326, 327 (see Schools, Universities, Academies, Script, Examination system, etc.)

Elements, the five, 60

Elephants, 26

Elite, 73, 74, 196, 218 (see Intellectuals, Students, Gentry)

Elixir, 187 (see Alchemy)

Emperor, position of, 81, 92, 210, 304; Emperor and church, 218 (see Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.)

Empress (see Lue, Wu, Wei, Tzu Hsi)

Encyclopaedias, 219, 264, 279

England, 265, 283, 285 (see Great Britain)

Ephtalites, tribe, 150

Epics, 133

Equalization Office, 91, 94 (see chuen-t'ien)

Erotic literature, 254

Estates (chuang,) 154, 175, 181, 212, 236

Ethics, 45 (see Confucianism)

Eunuchs, 91, 100, 191, 253, 259-60, 261, 267, 272

Europe, 143, 212; Europeans, 209, 233, 237, 246, 263, 272, 297, 299

Examination system, 74, 78, 85-6, 91, 175, 197, 216, 252-3, 259, 280; Examinations for Buddhists, 207

Fables, 259

Factories, 250, 251

Fallow system, 54, 249

Falsifications, 93 (see Confucianism)

Family structure, 24, 29, 31, 42, 54, 138-9, 196, 332; Family ethics, 58; Family planning, 331

Fan Chung-yen, politician, 212, 213

Fascism, 264

Federations, tribal, 117

Felt, 33

Feng Kuo-chang, politician, 312

Feng Meng-lung, writer, 254, 255

Feng Tao, politician, 201

Feng Yue-hsiang, war lord, 312, 315

Ferghana, city, 88

Fertility cults, 23; differential fertility, 73

Fertilizer, 54

Feudalism, 24, 29, 30 ff., 37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 85; end of feudalism, 51, 59, 62-3; late feudalism, 71-2, 77 ff.; new feudalism, 81; nomadic feudalism, 76, 131 (see Serfs, Aristocracy, Fiefs, Bondsmen, etc.)

Fiefs, 30, 54, 78, 82

Finances, 209 (see Budget, Inflation, Money, Coins)

Fire-arms (see Rifles, Cannons)

Fishing, 94

Folk-tales, 254, 258

Food habits, 54-5, 155

Foreign relations, 84 (see Diplomacy, Treaty, Tribute, War)

Forests, 26

Formosa (T'aiwan), 152, 267, 276, 277, 295, 296, 323 ff.

France, 287, 295, 296, 313, 317

Frontier, concept of, 38

Frugality, 58

Fu Chien, ruler, 126 ff., 130, 131, 136, 139, 157-8

Fu-lan-chi (Franks), 263

Fu-lin, Manchu ruler, 269

Fu-yue, country, 141

Fukien, province, 167, 228, 237, 248, 249, 250, 251, 276

Galdan, leader, 277

Gandhara, country, 146

Gardens, 154

Geisha (see Courtesans), 217

Genealogy, 52, 167, 196

Genghiz Khan, ruler, 225, 230, 241

Gentry (Upper class), 44, 78, 80, 101, 108, 133, 138, 143, 144, 166, 173, 174, 196, 197, 203, 209, 210, 214, 236, 239, 252 ff., 257, 268, 272, 297, 303-4, 307; colonial gentry, 163; definition of gentry, 72; gentry state, 71 ff., southern gentry, 153

Germany, 296, 311, 312, 317

Goek Turks, 149 ff.

Governors, role of, 184 ff.

Grain (see Millet, Rice, Wheat)

Granaries, 216, 290

Great Britain, 285, 293, 294, 295, 310 (see England)

Great Leap Forward, 331

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 333

Great Wall, 57

Greeks, 59, 60

Guilds, 58, 197

Hakka, ethnic group, 228, 289, 323

Hami, city state, 245

Han, dynasty, 71 ff., 122; Later Han dynasty, 206

Han Fei Tzu, philosopher, 59

Han T'o-wei, politician, 226-7

Han Yue, philosopher, 182, 217, 218

Hankow (Han-k'ou), city, 38, 156, 162, 251, 290, 314

Hangchow (Hang-chou), city, 38, 225, 228

Heaven, 42, 81 (see Shang Ti, T'ien)

Hermits, 46 ff. (see Monks, Sages)

Hinayana, religion, 135

Historians, 2

Histories, dynastic, 2, 242; falsification of histories, 43, 52, 93; Historiography, 43, 103-4 Hitler, Adolf, dictator, 317, 319

Hittites, ethnic group, 25

Ho Ch'eng-t'ien, scholar, 255

Ho-lien P'o-p'o, ruler, 139, 140, 159, 225

Ho Ti, Han ruler, 99

hong, association, 286

Hong Kong, colony, 286, 319, 325

Hopei, province, 296

Horse, 11, 90, 186, 223, 237; horse chariot, 25; horse riding, 53; horse trade, 63

Hospitals, 216

Hou Ching, ruler, 161-2

Houses, 19, 33 (see Adobe)

Hsi-hsia, kingdom, 214, 221, 223, 224 ff., 231

Hsi-k'ang, Tibet, 310

Hsia, dynasty, 17-18, 21, 25; Hunnic Hsia dynasty, 139 (see Hsi-hsia)

Hsia-hou, clan, 113

Hsia Kui, painter, 221

Hsiao Tao-ch'eng, general, 160

Hsiao Wu Ti, Chin ruler, 158

Hsieh, clan, 157

Hsieh Hsuean, general, 128

Hsien-feng, period, 294

Hsien-pi, tribal federation, 98, 102, 114, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 126, 127, 128 ff., 130, 131, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 148, 169

Hsien Ti, Han ruler, 100

Hsien-yuen, tribes, 21

Hsin, dynasty, 92

Hsin-an merchants, 251, 263

Hsin Ch'ing-nien, journal, 307

Hsiung-nu, tribal federation, 67 ff., 75 ff., 81, 86 ff., 90, 95, 96, 97 ff., 102, 108, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 224, 226 (see Huns)

Hsue Shih-ch'ang, president, 312

Hsuean-te, period, 259

Hsuean-tsang, Buddhist, 181

Hsuean Tsung, T'ang ruler, 181; Manchu ruler, 259, 288

Hsuean-t'ung, period, 300

Hsuen Tzu, philosopher, 57-8

Hu, name of tribes, 118 (see Huns)

Hu Han-min, politician, 314-15

Hu Shih, scholar and politician, 307, 320

Hu Wei-yung, politician, 257

Huai-nan Tzu, philosopher, 50, 104

Huai, Ti, Chin ruler, 123, 124

Huan Hsuean, general, 158, 159

Huan Wen, general, 157-8

Huang Ch'ao, leader of rebellion, 189 ff., 195, 203

Huang Ti, ruler, 52

Huang Tsung-hsi, philosopher, 247, 352

Hui-chou merchants, 251, 254

hui-kuan, association, 197

Hui Ti, Chin ruler, 120; Manchu ruler, 257

Hui Tsung, Sung ruler, 221

Hui Tzu, philosopher, 59

Human sacrifice, 19, 23

Hung Hsiu-ch'uean, leader of rebellion, 289 ff.

Huns, 57, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 136, 139, 140, 147, 148, 151, 278 (see Hu, Hsiung-nu)

Hunting, 25-6

Hutuktu, religious ruler, 310

Hydraulic society, 56

i-chuang, clan manors, 213

Ili, river, 282 ff., 293, 330

Imperialism, 76, 265, 285 ff., 294, 295, 329 (see Colonialism)

India, 20, 26, 34, 45, 60, 89, 106, 111, 118, 125, 134-5, 145, 146, 164, 181, 182, 198, 243, 265, 287, 288, 310, 329 (see Brahmans, Bengal, Gandhara, Calcutta, Buddhism)

Indo-China, 234, 258 (see Cambodia, Annam, Laos).

Indo-Europeans, language group, 15, 25, 29, 150 (see Yueeh-chih, Tocharians, Hittites)

Indonesia, 10, 201, 209, 319 (see Java)

Industries, 198, 214, 250 ff.; Industrialization, 275, 325-26, 327-28, 331-32; Industrial society, 212 (see Factories)

Inflation, 20, 211, 215, 237

Inheritance, laws of, 24, 54

Intellectuals, 300, 309 (see Elite, Students)

Investments, 198, 212, 212-14

Iran (Persia), 60, 61, 234

Iron, 40, 55, 96, 198; Cast iron, 56; Iron money, 202 (see Steel)

Irrigation, 56, 62

Islam, 179, 183, 202-3 (see Muslims)

Istanbul (Constantinople), 256, 259, 293

Italy, 317

Japan, 9, 10, 26, 44, 88, 106, 112, 114, 126, 144, 145, 170, 178, 179, 181, 196, 201, 234, 245-6, 254, 256, 258, 263, 264, 265, 275, 294 ff., 297, 298, 300, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317 ff., 322, 323, 324, 325 (see Meiji, Tada, Tanaka)

Java, 234

Jedzgerd, ruler, 178

Jehol, province, 11, 287 Jen Tsung, Manchu ruler, 285

Jesuits, 266, 278

Jews, 179

Ju (scribes), 34, 41

Ju-chen (Chin Dynasty, Jurchen), 221-2, 223, 225, 226, 227, 229 ff, 244, 265

Juan-juan, tribal federation, 114, 140, 149

Jurchen (see Ju-chen)

K'ai-feng, city (see Yeh, Pien-liang), 203, 230

Kalmuk, Mongol tribes, 282, 283, 284 (see Oeloet)

Kang-hsi, period, 272, 277, 279

K'ang Yo-wei, politician and scholar, 298-99

Kansu, province, 12, 14, 86, 87, 121, 124, 125, 129, 131, 132, 139, 140, 142, 159, 163, 225, 292, 293, 324 (see Tun-huang)

Kao-ch'ang, city state, 177

Kao, clan, 148

Kao-li, state, 126, 141, 222 (see Korea)

Kao Ming, writer, 242

Kao Tsu, Han ruler, 71, 77

Kao Tsung, T'ang ruler, 179, 180

Kao Yang, ruler, 148

Kapok, textile fibre, 250

Kara Kitai, tribal federation, 223-4

Kashgar, city, 99, 282, 292

Kazak, tribal federation, 282, 283

Khalif (see Caliph), 293

Khamba, Tibetans, 310

Khan, Central Asian title, 149, 169, 176, 177, 186

Khocho, city, 177

Khotan, city, 99, 135, 174

King, position of, 24, 34, 42, 43; first kings, 19; religious character of kingship, 37 (see Yao, Shun, Hsia dynasty, Emperor, Wang, Prince)

Kitan (Ch'i-tan), tribal federation, 184, 186, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 221, 222 ff., 229, 241 (see Liao dynasty)

Ko-shu Han, general, 184-5

Korea, 9, 88-89, 112, 126, 169 ff., 178, 181, 201, 219, 222, 265, 268, 295, 296, 324, 329 (see Kao-li, Pai-chi, Sin-lo)

K'ou Ch'ien-chih, Taoist, 147

Kowloon, city, 287

Ku Yen-wu, geographer, 279

Kuan Han-ch'ing, writer, 242

Kuang-hsue, period, 295 ff.

Kuang-wu Ti, Han ruler, 96 ff.

Kub(i)lai Khan, Mongol ruler, 234, 241

Kung-sun Lung, philosopher, 59

K'ung Tzu (Confucius), 40 ff.

Kuo-min-tang (KMT), party, 313, 321, 323, 324, 325

Kuo Wei, ruler, 206

Kuo Tzu-hsing, rebel leader, 239

Kuo Tzu-i, loyal general, 184, 186

Kyakhta (Kiachta), city, 278

Labour, forced, 235, 237 (see Corvee); Labour laws, 198; Labour shortage, 251

Lacquer, 256

Lamaism, religion, 242-3

Land ownership, 31, 32, 54 (see Property); Land reform, 94, 142-3, 172-3, 229, 290, 315, 325, 330 (see chuen-t'ien, ching-t'ien)

Landlords, 54, 55, 154, 155, 198, 212, 213, 236-7, 251; temples as landlords, 134

Language, 36, 46; dialects, 64-5, 167; Language reform, 307-8, 324

Lang Shih-ning, painter, 281

La Tzu, philosopher, 45 ff., 101, 136

Laos, country, 12

Law codes, 56, 66, 80, 81-2, 93 (see Li K'ui, Property law, Inheritance, Legalists)

Leadership, 73-4

League of Nations, 316

Leibniz, philosopher, 281

Legalists (fa-chia), 47, 63, 65, 66, 80, 81

Legitimacy of rule, 44, 111 (see Abdication)

Lenin, V., 320, 333

Lhasa, city, 278, 329

Li An-shih, economist, 142

Li Chung-yen, governor, 315

Li Hung-chang, politician, 291, 296, 297

Li K'o-yung, ruler, 190, 191, 203, 204

Li Kuang-li, general, 88

Li K'ui, law-maker, 56, 80

Li Li-san, politician, 320

Li Lin-fu, politician, 184

Li Lung-mien, painter, 220

Li Shih-min (see T'ai Tsung), T'ang ruler, 170, 172, 178

Li Ssu, politician, 66

Li Ta-chao, librarian, 320

Li T'ai-po, poet, 182

Li Tzu-ch'eng, rebel, 268, 269, 271

Li Yu, writer, 280

Li Yu-chen, writer, 280

Li Yuean, ruler, 172

Li Yuean-hung, politician, 301, 302, 312

Liang dynasty, Earlier, 124, 130; Later Liang, 130, 150, 162, 191, 203 ff., 207; Northern Liang, 130 ff., 132, 133, 140; Southern Liang, 132; Western Liang, 131, 140

Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, journalist, 280-1

liang-min (burghers), 143

Liao, tribes, 12; Liao dynasty (see Kitan), 203, 208, 222 ff.; Western Liao dynasty, 224

Liao-chai chih-i, short-story collection, 280

Libraries, 66, 201-2

Lin-chin, city, 55

Lin-ch'uan, city, 263

Lin Shu, translator, 280

Lin Tse-hsue, politician, 286

Literati, 73 (see Scholars, Confucianists)

Literature, 66, 103 ff., 182 ff., 220, 253 ff. (see pien-wen, pi-chi, Poetry, Drama, Novels, Epics, Theatre, ballads, Folk-tales, Fables, History, Confucians, Writers, Scholars, Scribes)

Literary revolution, 307, 320

Liu Chi, Han ruler, 68, 71 ff.

Liu Chih-yuean, ruler, 206

Liu Chin, eunuch, 261

Liu Hsiu (see Kuang-wu Ti), Han ruler, 96

Liu Lao-chih, general, 158

liu-min (vagrants), 198

Liu Pang (see Liu Chi)

Liu Pei, general and ruler, 100, 101, 102

Liu Shao-ch'i, political leader, 333

Liu Sung, rebel, 284

Liu Tsung-yuean, writer, 182

Liu Ts'ung, ruler, 123, 124

Liu Yao, ruler, 124

Liu Yue, general, 158, 159; emperor, 225

Liu Yuean, sculptor, 243; emperor, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131, 137, 139

Lo Kuan-chung, writer, 254

Loans, to farmers, 94; foreign, 288

Loess, soil formation, 9

Logic, 46

Long March, 321

Lorcha War, 287, 291

Loyang (Lo-yang), capital of China, 32, 33, 36, 37, 55, 97, 113, 122, 127, 142, 144, 145, 148, 149, 150, 160, 168, 176, 180, 184, 185, 215

Lu, state, 41, 43

Lue, empress, 77 ff.

Lu Hsiang-shan, philosopher, 263

Lu Hsuen, writer, 320

Lue Kuang, ruler, 130

Lue Pu, general, 100

Lue Pu-wei, politician, 63, 103

Lun, prince, 120

Lun-heng, book, 104

Lung-men, place, 150

Lung-shan, excavation site, 14, 15 ff., 19

Lytton Commission, 316

Ma Yin, ruler, 199-200

Ma Yuean, general, 97; painter, 221

Macchiavellism, 60, 164, 263-4

Macao, Portuguese colony, 227, 266, 286

Mahayana, Buddhist sect, 135, 145

Maitreya, Buddhist deity, 147, 189 (see Messianic movements)

Malacca, state, 263

Malaria, 249

Managers, 212-13

Manchu, tribal federation and dynasty, 76, 232, 265, 267, 270 ff., 301, 312, 329, 330

Manchuria, 9, 11, 14, 111, 114, 137, 222, 246, 275, 277, 296, 311, 316, 317

Manichaeism, Iranian religion, 46, 179, 187

Manors (chuang, see Estates), 154

Mao Tun, Hsiung-nu ruler, 75, 76, 119, 122, 139, 170

Mao Tse-tung, party leader, 320, 321, 333

Marco Polo, businessman, 238, 317

Market, 56; Market control, 85

Marriage systems, 73-5, 167, 196, 332

Marxism, 304, 306, 322, 331, 333; Marxist theory of history, 75 (see Materialism, Communism, Lenin, Mao Tse-tung)

Materialism, 58, 164

Mathematics, 61

Matrilinear societies, 24

Mazdaism, Iranian religion, 101, 179, 187, 342

May Fourth Movement, 307, 320

Medicine, 219; Medical doctors, 144, 216-17

Meditation (see Ch'an)

Megalithic culture, 20

Meiji, Japanese ruler, 294

Melanesia, 10

Mencius (Meng Tzu), philosopher, 57

Merchants, 31, 55, 56, 62, 63, 65, 79, 90-1, 104-5, 134, 160, 163, 179, 189, 198, 200, 201, 202, 212, 215-16, 247-8, 251, 276-7, 297; foreign merchants, 190, 234, 237, 281-2 (see Trade, Salt, Caravans, Businessmen)

Messianic movements, 61, 147

Metal, 15, 20 (see Bronze, Copper, Iron)

Mi Fei, painter, 220

Middle Class, 195, 254, 297, 304, 309, 310, 314 (see Burgher, Merchant, Craftsmen, Artisans)

Middle East (see Near East)

Migrations, 54, 116, 120 ff., 130, 142, 152 ff., 228, 237, 248, 275-6, 294; forced migrations, 54, 167 (see Colonization, Assimilation, Settlement)

Militarism, 63

Militia, 174, 215, 291

Millet, 11, 21, 32

Mills, 181, 213

Min, state in Fukien, 205

Ming dynasty, 243 ff.

Ming Jui, general, 283

Min Ti, Chin ruler, 123

Ming Ti, Han ruler, 99; Wei ruler, 114; Later T'ang ruler, 204

Minorate, 24

Missionaries, Christian, 266, 281, 287, 289 (see Jesuits)

Mo Ti, philosopher, 58

Modernization, 296-7

Mohammedan rebellions, 292 ff. (see Muslim)

Mon-Khmer tribes, 10

Monarchy, 47, 247, 281 (see King, Emperor, Absolutism, Despotism)

Monasteries, Buddhist, 144, 207, 236; economic importance, 125, 134, 180-1, 187 ff.

Money, 20, 55, 180-1; Money economy, 56, 58, 107-8; Origin of money, 40; paper money, 202, 211, 347 (see Coins, Paper, Silver)

Mongolia, 8, 9, 11, 98, 283, 317

Mongols, tribes, tribal federation, dynasty, 17, 40, 53, 57, 76, 102, 114, 117, 119, 120, 137, 140, 175, 220, 225, 227, 228, 230 ff., 232 ff., 240, 243, 244, 257, 259, 264, 266, 268, 270, 277, 281, 284, 291, 329, 330 (see Yuean dynasty, Kalmuk, Tuemet, Oirat, Oeloet, Naiman, Turgut, Timur, Genghiz, Kublai)

Monks, Buddhist, 134, 146, 164, 188, 207, 218, 239, 246, 253-4

Monopolies, 85, 91, 200, 215

Mound-dwellers, 16

Mu-jung, tribes, 119, 126, 128-9

Mu Ti, East Chin ruler, 157

Mu Tsung, Manchu ruler, 294

Mulberries, 143

Munda tribes, 10

Music, 163, 182-3, 255 (see Theatre, Dance, Geisha)

Muslims, 179, 233, 278, 289; Muslim rebellions, 289, 292 ff. (see Islam, Mohammedans)

Mysticism, 46

Naiman, Mongol tribe, 233

Nan-chao, state, 171

Nan-yang, city, 96

Nanking (Nan-ching), capital of China, 38, 121, 156, 162, 225, 228, 235, 246, 250, 254, 257, 262, 263, 266, 270, 286, 287, 290, 291, 302, 315, 316, 318; Nanking regime, 314 ff.

Nationalism, 76, 131, 233, 284-5 (see Kuo-min-tang)

Nature, 46; Nature philosophers, 60

Navy, 258

Near East, 16, 81, 106, 109, 111, 140, 146, 221, 238 (see Arabs, Iran, etc.)

Neo-Confucianism, 218 ff., 263

Neolithicum, 9

Nepal, 243, 283

Nerchinsk, place, 278

Nestorian Christianity, 187

Ni Tsan, painter, 243

Nien Fei, rebels, 291-2

Niu Seng-yu, politician, 188

Nobility, 31, 80, 124, 131, 138; Nomadic nobility, 76 (see Aristocracy)

Nomadism, 10, 40, 67, 222-3; Economy of nomads, 35-6, 137; Nomadic society structure, 75

Novels, 254 ff., 280

Oil, 294

Oirat, Mongol tribes, 260

Okinawa (see Ryukyu)

Oeloet, Mongol tribes, 277

Opera, 242, 255-6

Opium, 276, 286; Opium War, 286

Oracle bones, 22, 24

Ordos, area, 9, 17, 20, 67, 86, 125, 129, 133, 148, 170, 225

Orenburg, city, 282

Organizations, 58 (see hui-kuan Guilds, hong, Secret Societies)

Orphanages, 218

Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, 293

Ou-yang Hsiu, writer, 254

Outer Mongolia, 310-11, 330

Pagoda, 243

Pai-chi (Paikche), state in Korea, 141

Pai-lien-hui (see White Lotos) 239

Painting, 56, 105, 183, 220 ff., 243, 255, 281

Palaeolithicum, 8 ff.

Pan Ch'ao, general, 99, 100

pao-chia, security system, 173

Paper, 105, 183, 251; Paper money, 202, 228, 237 (see Money)

Parliament, 300-1

Party (see Kuo-min-tang, Communists)

Pearl Harbour, 319

Peasant rebellions, 238 ff. (see Rebellions)

Peking, city, 169, 184, 197, 207, 208, 221, 223, 235, 239, 246, 256, 257, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 272, 278, 283, 287, 290, 291, 297, 299, 305, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 318; Peking Man, 8

Pensions, 217, 247

People's Democracy, 294

Persecution, religious, 147, 188, 207

Persia (Iran), 256, 258, 259; Persian language, 234

Peruz, ruler, 178

Philippines, state, 295, 323, 325

Philosophy, 44, 217 ff., 263 ff. (see Confucius, Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Huai-nan Tzu, Hsuen Tzu, Mencius, Hui Tzu, Mo Ti, Kung-sun Lung, Shang Tzu, Han Fei Tzu, Tsou Yen, Legalists, Chung-ch'ang, T'ung, Yuean Chi, Liu Ling, Chu Hsi, Ch'eng Hao, Lu Hsiang-shan, Wang Yang-ming, etc.)

pi-chi, literary form, 220

pieh-yeh (see Manor), 154

Pien-liang, city (see K'ai-feng), 230

pien-wen, literary form, 253

Pig, 54, 199

Pilgrims, 245

P'ing-ch'eng, city, 122

Pirates, 245, 263

Plantation economy, 154

Plough, 54

Po Chue-i, poet, 182, 220

Po-hai, state, 171, 222, 229

Poetry, 48, 163, 175, 182 ff., 227, 241, 255; Court Poetry, 105; Northern Poetry, 133

Poets, 219 ff. (see T'ao Ch'ien, Po Chue-i, Li T'ai-po, Tu Fu, etc.)

Politicians, migratory, 52

Pontic migration, 16

Population changes, 21, 55, 62, 78, 108, 236, 238, 273-4; Population decrease, 107 (see Census, Fertility)

Porcelain, 20, 183, 201, 221, 251, 256, 281

Port Arthur, city, 296

Portsmouth, treaty, 296

Portuguese 262, 263 (see Fu-lan-chi, Macao)

Potter, 32; Pottery, 14, 15 ff., 20; black pottery, 16 (see Porcelain)

Price controls, 212

Priests, 24, 34 (see Shamans, Ju, Monks)

Primogeniture, 54

Princes, 115, 120, 123

Printing, 201-2 (see Colour, Book)

Privileges of gentry, 173

Proletariate, 305, 320 (see Labour)

Propaganda, 93

Property relations, 31, 54, 196 (see Laws, Inheritance, Primogeniture)

Protectorate, 82

Provinces, administration, 85

pu-ch'ue, bondsmen, 143, 174

Pu-ku Huai-en, general, 185, 186

P'u Sung-lin, writer, 280

P'u Yi, Manchu ruler, 300, 312

Puppet plays, 255

Railways, 301, 324; Manchurian Railway, 296

Rebellions, 95-6, 156, 158, 184 ff., 189 ff., 238 ff., 261 ff., 267 ff., 284, 289 ff., 291 ff., 299, 301 (see Peasants, Secret Societies, Revolutions)

Red Eyebrows, peasant movement, 95 ff.

Red Guards, 333

Reforms, 298, 299; Reform of language, 307-9 (see Land reform)

Regents, 89

Religion, 8, 22-4, 37, 42, 44, 48, 135-6; popular religion, 101 (see Bon, Shintoism, Persecution, Sacrifice, Ancestor cult, Fertility cults, Deities, Temples, Monasteries, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Mazdaism, Manichaeism, Messianic religions, Secret societies, Soul, Shamanism, State religion)

Republic, 303 ff.

Revolutions, 244; legitimization of revolution, 57 (see Rebellions)

Ricci, Matteo, missionary, 266

Rice, 12, 155, 219, 235, 249

Rifles, 263

Ritualism, 34, 42

Roads, 30, 56, 65

Roman Empire, 31, 51, 107, 144, 210

Roosevelt, F.D., president, 322

Russia, 246, 259, 278, 282, 283, 284, 293, 294, 296, 298, 300, 310, 311, 313-14, 315, 317, 320, 321, 322, 323, 328-29, 330, 333, 334 (see Soviet Republics)

Ryukyu (Liu-ch'iu), islands, 295

Sacrifices, 19, 23, 26

Sages, 47

Sakhalin (Karafuto), island, 295, 296

Salar, ethnic group, 292

Salary, 213, 227

Salt, 40; Salt merchants, 189, 238, 248-9, 262; Salt trade, 200-1

Samarkand, city, 45, 183, 241

San-min chu-i, book, 305

Sang Hung-yang, economist, 91

Sassanids, Iranian dynasty, 178

Scholars (Ju), 34, 41, 52, 59, 60, 100 (see Literati, Scribes, Intellectuals, Confucianists)

Schools, 79, 196, 324-25 (see Education)

Science, 60-1, 104-5, 219, 281 (see Mathematics, Astronomy, Nature)

Scribes, 34

Script, Chinese, 22, 29, 65, 225, 308

Sculpture, 19-20, 106, 147, 183, 243; Buddhist sculptures, 146

se-mu (auxiliary troops), 233

Seal, imperial, 92-3

Secret societies, 61, 95 ff., 289 (see Red Eyebrows, Yellow Turbans, White Lotos, Boxer, Rebellions)

Sects, 135; Buddhist sects, 188

Seng-ko-lin-ch'in, general, 291

Serfs, 21, 26, 31, 32, 33, 53-4, 72, 143, 197, 216 (see Slaves, Servants, Bondsmen)

Servants, 32

Settlement, of foreigners, 177; military, 248 (see Colonization)

Sha-t'o, tribal federation, 187, 190, 203, 204, 206, 207, 222, 230

Shadow theatre, 255

Shahruk, ruler, 258

Shamans, 160, 184; Shamanism, 34, 242, 135 ff., 146

Shan tribes of South East Asia, 12

Shan-hai-ching, book, 103

Shan-yue, title of nomadic ruler, 88, 89, 90, 95, 103, 119, 125, 151

Shang dynasty, 19 ff., 41

Shang Ti, deity, 23, 24, 25

Shang Tzu, philosopher (Shang Yang), 59

Shanghai, city 246, 250, 287, 288, 301, 305, 308, 314-15, 316, 318

Shao Yung, philosopher, 220

Sheep, 54, 118

Shen Nung, mythical figure, 52

Shen Tsung, Sung ruler, 196; Manchu ruler, 265, 267

Sheng Tsu, Manchu ruler, 272

Shih-chi, book, 103

Shih Ching-t'ang, ruler, 204, 222

Shih Ch'ung, writer, 49

Shih Heng, soldier, 260

Shih Hu, ruler, 125 ff.

Shih Huang-ti, ruler, 63 ff., 78

Shih Lo, ruler, 123, 124, 125, 126

Shih-pi, ruler, 170

Shih Ssu-ming, 185

Shih Tsung, Manchu ruler, 264, 282

Shih-wei, Mongol tribes, 141

Shintoism, Japanese religion, 44

Ships, 168 (see Navy)

Short stories, 255

Shoulder axes, 10

Shu (Szechwan), area and/or state, 219

Shu-Han dynasty, 108, 110, 111, 115

Shun, dynasty, 268; mythical ruler, 17

Shun-chih, reign period, 270

Sian (Hsi-an, Ch'ang-an), city, 31, 33, 35, 97

Siao Ho (Hsiao Ho), jurist, 80

Silk, 20-1, 56, 90-1, 105, 116, 143, 185, 186, 209, 214, 276, 289, 303; Silk road, 86

Silver, 211, 251-2, 276

Sin-lo (Hsin-lo, Silla), state of Korea, 141

Sinanthropos, 8

Sinkiang (Hsin-Chiang, Turkestan), 14, 248, 294, 329, 330

Slash and burn agriculture (denshiring), 12

Slaves, 26, 32, 79, 94, 123, 137-8, 143; Slave society, 26; Temple slaves, 146

Social mobility, 73-4, 196, 197, 218-19; Social structure of tribes, 117

Socialism, 93 ff., 291 (see Marxism, Communism)

Sogdiana, country in Central Asia, 45, 60, 134-5, 163, 174, 184

Soul, concept of soul, 32

South-East Asia, 9, 10, 14, 198, 201 250, 275, 324 (see Burma, Champa, Cambodia, Annam, Laos, Vietnam, Tonking, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mon-Khmer)

Soviet Republics, 294, 312, 328 (see Russia)

Speculations, financial, 227

Ssu-ma, clan, 113-14

Ssu-ma Ch'ien, historian, 103-4

Ssu-ma Kuang, historian, 220

Ssu-ma Yen, ruler, 114, 115

Standardization, 64 ff.

States, territorial and national, 37, 51; State religion, 145-6, 180

Statistics, 83 (see Population)

Steel, 56, 198

Steppe, 9

Stone age, 8 ff.

Stratification, social, 29 (see Classes, Social mobility)

Strikes, 198

Students, 304-5, 306, 320

Su Chuen, rebel, 156

Su Tsung, T'ang ruler, 185

Su Tung-p'o, poet, 219

su-wang (uncrowned king), 43

Sui, dynasty, 151

Sun Ts'e, ruler, 100, 101 Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien), revolutionary leader, president, 280, 299, 300, 302, 305, 309, 311, 312, 313, 315, 318, 321

Sung, dynasty, 207, 208 ff., 238; Liu-Sung dynasty, 159 ff.

Szechwan (Ssu-ch'uan), province, 101, 139, 156, 157, 159, 185, 190, 199, 200, 202, 207, 214, 215, 219, 262, 301 (see Shu)

Ta-tan (Tatars), tribal federation, 233

Tada, Japanese militarist, 295

Tai, tribes, 17, 19, 21, 111, 152 (see Thailand)

Tai Chen, philosopher, 279

Tai Ch'ing dynasty (Manchu), 267

T'ai P'ing, state, 274, 289 ff., 333

T'ai Tsu, Sung ruler, 209; Manchu ruler, 257

T'ai Tsung, T'ang ruler 174, 178 (see Li Shih-min)

Taiwan (T'ai-wan, see Formosa), 323 ff, 334

T'an-yao, priest, 146

Tanaka, Japanese militarist, 295

T'ang, dynasty, 83-4, 144, 147, 172 ff.; Later T'ang dynasty, 204 ff.

T'ang Hsien-tsu, writer, 255

T'ang Yin, painter, 255

Tanguts, Tibetan tribal federation and/or state, 99, 102, 118, 224-5, 233 (see Ch'iang)

Tao, philosophical term, 42, 46, 47

Tao-kuang, reign period, 285 ff., 288

Tao-te-ching, book, 46

T'ao-t'ieh, mythical emblem, 22

Tao-yen, monk, 264

Taoism, religion, 101-2, 133, 136, 150, 183, 188, 236, 266; Taoists, 46, 61, 104, 241, 263-4 (see Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Chang Ling, etc.)

Tarim basin, 89, 179

Tatars (Ta-tan) Mongolian tribal federation, 190, 230, 233

Taxation, 33, 55, 65, 78, 143, 154, 173, 175, 178, 210, 211, 212, 213, 247, 252; Tax collectors, 55, 74, 116; Tax evasion, 214, 226, 246; Tax exemptions, 188, 213, 236; Taxes for monks, 208; Tax reform, 187

Te Tsung, Manchu ruler, 295, 299

Tea, 276; Tea trade, 200; Tea house (see Brothel), 182

Teachers, 74 (see Schools)

Technology, 219

Tell, archaeological term, 16

Temples, 101, 183 (see Monasteries)

Tengri khan, ruler, 186

Textile industry, 198 (see Silk, Cotton)

Thailand, state, 12, 248, 265 (see Tai tribes)

Theatre, 182-3, 242 (see Shadow, Puppet, Opera)

Throne, accession to, 150 (see Abdication, Legitimacy)

Ti, Tibetan tribes, 21, 118

Tibet, 12, 15, 19, 29, 30, 35, 102, 110, 116, 118-19, 120, 121, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 135, 139, 145, 169, 174, 177, 179, 181, 186, 187, 200, 224-5, 242, 273, 278, 283, 284, 293, 310, 329 (see Ch'iang, Ti, T'u-fan, T'u-yue-hun, Lhasa Tanguts)

T'ien, deity, 32

Tientsin (T'ien-chin), city, 287, 290, 299

Timur, ruler, 258

Tin, 17

Ting-ling, tribal federation, 89, 102

T'o-pa (see Toba)

T'o-t'o, writer, 241-2

Toba, Turkish tribal federation, 76, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 123, 126, 127, 132, 136 ff., 159, 160, 161, 168, 169, 172, 173, 174, 177, 214, 222, 224

Tocharians, Central Asian ethnic group, 150

Tokto (see T'o-t'o)

Toeloes, Turkish tribal group, 169, 178, 185

Tombs, 19, 34

Tonking, state, 10, 54, 295, 330

Tortoise, 22, 47-8

Totalitarianism, 80 (see Dictatorship, Fascism, Communism)

Tou Ku, general, 99

T'ou-man, ruler, 67

Towns (see City)

Trade, 88-9, 90, 99, 127; barter trade, 57; international trade, 60, 62, 86, 127-8, 139, 178, 179, 198, 209, 223, 245, 258, 264-5, 276, 286 (see Merchants, Commerce, Caravans, Silk road)

Translations, 135, 182, 280, 307

Transportation, 56, 168, 235, 247, 283 (see Roads, Canals, Ships, Post, Caravans, Horses)

Travels of emperors, 66

Treasury, 84, 206

Treaty, international, 77, 226, 278, 286, 290-1, 293, 295, 296

Tribal organization, 76, 223, 224 (see Banner, Army, Nomads)

Tribes, disappearance of, 133, 151-2; social organization, 117; military organization, 149

Tribute (kung), 33, 88, 209, 214, 226, 230, 248

tsa-hu, social class, 144

Tsai T'ien, prince, 295

Ts'ai Yuean-p'ei, scholar, 307

Ts'ao Chih, poet, 48

Ts'ao Hsueeh-ch'in, writer, 280

Ts'ao K'un, politician, 312

Ts'ao P'ei, ruler, 102, 109, 113

Ts'ao Ts'ao, general, 100, 101, 102

Tsewang Rabdan, general, 277

Tseng Kuo-fan, general, 291

Tso Tsung-t'ang, general, 293

Tsou Yen, philosopher, 60-1

Ts'ui, clan, 113, 147, 181

T'u-chueeh, Goek Turk tribes, 149 (see Turks)

Tu Fu, poet, 182

T'u-fan, Tibetan tribal group, 171, 177, 205

Tu-ku, Turkish tribe, 124, 151

T'u-shu chi-ch'eng, encyclopaedia, 279

tu-tu, title, 174

T'u-yue-hun, Tibetan tribal federation, 130, 141, 169, 177

Tuan Ch'i-jui, president, 312

Tuemet, Mongol tribal group, 265

Tung Ch'i-ch'ang, painter, 255

T'ung-chien kang-mu, historical encyclopaedia, 43

T'ung-chih, reign period, 294

Tung Chung-shu, thinker, 80, 104

Tung Fu-hsiang, politician, 298

Tung-lin academy, 267

Tungus tribes, 11, 19, 117, 222, 229, 265 (see Ju-chen, Po-hai, Manchu)

Tunhuang (Tun-huang), city, 85, 324

Turfan, city state, 245

Turgut, Mongol tribal federation, 283

Turkestan, 45, 60, 62, 85, 86 ff., 88, 95, 97, 99, 113, 114, 125, 127, 130, 132, 134, 135, 139, 141, 142, 146, 147, 159, 163, 176, 177, 178, 187, 220, 224, 241, 245, 259, 273, 277, 278, 282, 289, 293, 294 (see Central Asia, Tarim, Turfan, Sinkiang, Khotan, Ferghana, Samarkand, Khotcho, Tocharians, Yueeh-chih, Sogdians, etc.)

Turkey, 259

Turks, 11, 15, 17, 25, 29, 30, 32, 35, 53, 57, 108, 109, 117, 119, 122, 127, 133, 135, 137, 140, 146 ff., 149 ff., 169 ff., 174, 176 ff., 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 203, 206, 230, 282, 294, 329 (see Goek Turks, T'u-chueeh, Toba, Toeloes, Ting-ling, Uighur, Sha-t'o, etc.)

Tzu Hsi, empress, 294 ff., 296 ff.

Uighurs, Turkish federation, 171, 174, 176, 177, 178, 181, 185, 186 ff., 190, 233, 234, 278

United States, 287, 304, 309, 313, 322, 342 (see America)

Ungern-Sternberg, general, 311

Urbanization, 31, 250 (see City)

Urga, city, 310

University, 304-5, 306, 307, 318, 320

Usury, 94

Vagrants (liu-min), 198, 213

Vietnam, 330, 334 (see Annam)

Village, 23; Village commons, 94, 154

Vinaya Buddhism, 188

Voltaire, writer, 242

Walls, 57; Great Wall, 57, 67, 256

Wan-li, reign period, 265, 266

Wang (king), 38

Wang An-shih, statesman, 215 ff., 217-18, 254

Wang Chen, eunuch, 260

Wang Ching-wei, collaborator, 315, 318

Wang Ch'ung, philosopher 104-5

Wang Hsien-chih, peasant leader, 189-90

Wang Kung, general, 158

Wang Mang, ruler, 92 ff., 97, 100, 101

Wang Shih-chen, writer, 255

Wang Shih-fu, writer, 242

Wang Tao-k'un, writer, 254

Wang Tun, rebel, 156-7

Wang Yang-ming, general and philosopher, 261 ff.

War, 82; size of wars, 21, 53; War-chariot, 25, 29, 30, 53; cost of wars, 90; War lords, 309 ff.; Warrior-nomads, 36 (see Army, World War, Opium War, Lorcha War, Fire-Arms)

Washington, conference, 313

Wei, dynasty, 102, 113 ff.; small state, 40; empress, 180

Wei Chung-hsien, eunuch, 267-8

Wei T'o, ruler in South China, 77

Welfare state, 215 ff.

Well-field system (ching-t'ien), 33

Wen Ti, Han ruler, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86; Wei ruler 113; Toba ruler, 144; Sui ruler, 167 ff.

Wen Tsung, Manchu ruler, 294

Whampoa, military academy, 314

Wheat, 11, 21, 32

White Lotos sect (Pai-lien), 239, 267, 284-5

Wholesalers, 200

Wine, 21

Wood-cut, 251, 256 (see Colour print)

Wool, 21, 33, 286 (see Felt)

World Wars, 295, 310, 311, 312, 317

Women rights, 280, 332

Writing, invention, 18, 22 (see Script)

Wu, empress, 179 ff.; state, 38, 111-12, 115, 121

Wu-ch'ang, city, 301 (see Hankow)

Wu Ching-tzu, writer, 280

Wu-huan, tribal federation, 98, 102, 114

Wu P'ei-fu, war lord, 312

Wu San-Kui, general, 269, 271, 272, 277

Wu Shih-fan, ruler, 271

Wu-sun, tribal group, 89

Wu Tai (Five Dynasties period), 199 ff.

Wu Tao-tzu, painter, 183

Wu(Ti), Han ruler, 86, 89, 91; Chin ruler, 115; Liang ruler, 161, 164

Wu Tsung, Manchu ruler, 261, 264

Wu Wang, Chou ruler, 30

wu-wei, philosophical term, 47

Yakub beg, ruler, 293

Yamato, part of Japan, 112

Yang, clan, 119, 120

Yang Chien, ruler, 151, 163, 166 ff. (see Wen Ti)

Yang (Kui-fei), concubine, 184

Yang-shao, archaeological site, 12 ff., 29

Yang Ti, Sui ruler, 168, 178

Yao, mythical ruler, 17; tribes in South China, 12, 16, 19, 21, 111, 152

Yarkand, city in Turkestan, 97, 98, 282

Yeh (K'ai-feng), city, 125, 148

Yeh-ta (see Ephtalites)

Yehe-Nara, tribe, 294

Yellow Turbans, secret society, 101, 158

Yeh-lue Ch'u-ts'ai, politician, 241

Yen, state, 114; dynasty, 112; Earlier Yen dynasty, 126, 127; Later Yen dynasty 127, 128 ff.; Western Yen dynasty, 129

Yen-an, city, 321-2

Yen Fu, translator, 280

Yen Hsi-shan, war lord, 315

Yen-ta (Altan), ruler, 264-5

Yen-t'ieh-lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), book, 91

Yin Chung-k'an, general, 158

Yin-ch'ue, city, 21

Yin and Yang, philosophical terms, 60

Ying Tsung, Manchu ruler, 259, 260

Yo Fei, general, 226

Yue Liang, general, 156, 157

Yue-wen, tribal group, 119, 148, 169, 172

Yuean Chen, 182

Yuean Chi, philosopher, 50

Yuean Mei, writer, 280

Yuean Shao, general, 100

Yuean Shih-k'ai, general and president, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 309, 310, 311, 312

Yuean Ti, Han ruler, 92; Chin ruler, 152, 156

Yueeh, tribal group and area, 12, 16, 38, 77, 152

Yueeh-chih, Indo-European-speaking ethnic group, 75, 88, 118, 150

Yuen-kang, caves, 146-7, 344

Yuennan, (Yuen-nan), province, 10, 89, 97, 110, 248, 258, 275, 292

Yung-cheng, reign period, 278, 282

Yung-lo, reign period, 257, 264

Zen Buddhism (see Ch'an), 164

Zoroaster, founder of religion, 342



Transcriber's Notes

Most typos/misspellings were left as in the original text. In some obvious cases they are noted here. There are cases of American and UK English. There are cases of unusual hyphenation. There are more than one spelling of Chinese proper nouns. There are cases, like Marxism, which are not capitalized. There are cases of double words, like 'had had'. These are correctly used.

Additionally, the author has spelled the following words inconsistently. Those have not been changed, but are listed here:

Northwestern Southwards Programme re-introduced practise Lotos Ju-Chen cooperate life-time man-power favor advise

Page 25. (conceived as a kind of celestrial court) This should be celestial court.

Page 25. (the middle of the second millenium B.C.). Normally 'millenium' is spelled 'millennium', with a double n.

Page 26. (they re-settled the captured). Normally 're-settled' is spelled without a hyphen.

Page 80. ("Collected Statues of the Manchu Dynasty") This is likely a typo for "Collected Statutes of the Manchu Dynasty".

Page 197. (allowed to enter the state examina) This may be a typo for state examinations.

Page 209. (accounted for 25 per cent cent) I removed the duplicate cent.

Page 255. ("The Peony Pavillion") Pavillion/Pavilion is spelled with one 'l' in other places thoughout this work.

Page 264. (Ling's church Taosim.) This may be Taoism, but I left as was printed.

Page 275. (could allevitate the pressure) Alleviate was probably meant.

Page 278. (particulary in regard) Typo for particularly.

Pages 335 and 336. The spelling of J. G. Andersoon/Andersson is not consistent. Johan Gunnar Andersson appears to be associated with studies of China.

Page 342. The name W. Eichhorn is apparently misspelled here as Eichhron.

Page 323. Equipped is spelled equiped.

Page 337. (and when it florished,) Typo for flourished.

Index and page 60. Machiavellism/Machiavellian is spelled with 2 'c's. Machiavelism is more common as Machiavellianism.

THE END