%532. Millionaires and "Captains of Industry."%—As old lines of industry were expanded and new ones were created, the opportunities for money-getting were vastly increased. Men now began to amass immense fortunes in gold and silver mining; by dealing in coal, in grain, in cattle, in oil; by speculation in stocks; in iron and steel making; in railroading,—millionaires and multi-millionaires became numerous, and were often called "captains of industry," as an indication of the power they held in the industrial world.

%533. Condition of Labor.%—Meanwhile, the conditions of the workingman were also changing rapidly: 1. The chief employers of labor were corporations and great capitalists. 2. The short voyage and low fare from Europe, the efforts made by steamship companies to secure passengers, the immense business activity in the country from 1867 to 1872, and the opportunities afforded by the rapidly growing West, brought over each year hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Europe to swell the ranks of labor. Between 1867 and 1873 the number was 2,500,000. 3. Bad management on the part of some corporations; "watering" or unnecessarily increasing their stock on the part of others, combined with sharp competition, began, especially after the panic of 1873, to cut down dividends. This was followed by reduction of wages, or by an increase in the duties of employees, and sometimes by both.

%534. Labor Organizations; the Knights of Labor.%—Trades unions existed in our country before the Constitution; but it was at the time of the great industrial development during and after the war, that the era of unions opened. At first that of each trade had no connection with that of any other. But in 1869 an effort was made to unite all workingmen on the broad basis of labor, and "The Noble Order of Knights of Labor" was founded. For a while it was a secret order; but in 1878 a declaration of principles was made, which began with the statement that the alarming development and aggressiveness of great capitalists and corporations, unless checked, "would degrade the toiling masses," and announced that the only way to check this evil was to unite "all laborers into one great body." The knights were in favor of

1. The creation of bureaus of labor for the collection and spread of information.

2. Arbitration between employers and employed.

3. Government ownership of telegraphs, telephones, railroads.

4. The reduction of the working day to eight hours.

They were opposed

1. To the hiring out of convict labor.

2. To the importation of foreign labor under contract.

3. To interest-bearing government bonds, and in favor of a national currency issued directly to the people without the intervention of banks.

%535. The Workingman in Politics%.—As these ends could be secured only by legislation, they very quickly became political issues and brought up a new set of economic questions for settlement. From 1865 to 1870 the matters of public concern were the reconstruction measures and the public debt. From 1870 to 1878 they were currency questions, civil service reform, and land grants to railroads. From 1878 to 1888 almost every one of them was in some way directly connected with labor.

SUMMARY

1. Great inventions founded and developed new industries.

2. These in turn expanded the ranks of labor, and led to the rise of corporations and labor organizations, and a demand for a long series of reforms.



CHAPTER XXXV

POLITICS SINCE 1880

%536. Candidates in 1880.%—The campaign of 1880 was opened by the meeting of the Republican national convention at Chicago, where a long and desperate effort was made to nominate General Grant for a third term. But James Abram Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were finally chosen. The platform called for national aid to state education, for protection to American labor, for the suppression of polygamy in Utah, for "a thorough, radical, and complete" reform of the civil service, and for no more land grants to railroads or corporations.

The Greenback-Labor party nominated James B. Weaver and B.J. Chambers, and declared

1. That all money should be issued by the government and not by banking corporations.

2. That the public domain must be kept for actual settlers and not given to railroads.

3. That Congress must regulate commerce between the states, and secure fair, moderate, and uniform rates for passengers and freight.

Next came the Prohibition party convention, and the nomination of Neal Dow and Henry Adams Thompson.

Last of all was the Democratic convention, which nominated General Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English. The platform called for

1. Honest money, consisting of gold and silver and paper convertible into coin on demand.

2. A tariff for revenue only.

3. Public lands for actual settlers.

%537. Election and Death of Garfield.%—The campaign was remarkable for several reasons:

1. Every presidential elector was chosen by popular vote; and every electoral vote was counted as it was cast. This was the first presidential election in our country of which both these statements could be made.

2. For the first time since 1844 there was no agitation of a Southern question.

3. All parties agreed in calling for anti-Chinese legislation.

Garfield and Arthur were elected, and inaugurated on March 4, 1881. But on July 2, 1881, as Garfield stood in a railway station at Washington, a disappointed office seeker came up behind and shot him in the back. A long and painful illness followed, till he died on September 19, 1881.



%538. Presidential Succession%—The death of Garfield and the succession of Arthur to the presidential office left the country in a peculiar situation. An act of Congress passed in 1792 provided that if both the presidency and vice presidency were vacant at the same time, the President pro tempore of the Senate, or if there were none, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, should act as President, till a new one was elected. But in September, 1881, there was neither a President pro tempore of the Senate nor a Speaker of the House of Representatives, as the Forty-sixth Congress ceased to exist on March 4, and the Forty-seventh was not to meet till December. Had Arthur died or been killed, there would therefore have been no President. It was not likely that such a condition would happen again; but attention was called to the necessity of providing for succession to the presidency, and in 1886 a new law was enacted. Now, should the presidency and vice presidency both become vacant, the presidency passes to members of the Cabinet in the order of the establishment of their departments, beginning with the Secretary of State. Should he die, be impeached and removed, or become disabled, it would go to the Secretary of the Treasury, and then, if necessary, to the Secretary of War, the Attorney-general, the Postmaster-general, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior.

%539. Party Pledges redeemed.%—Since the Republican party was in power, a redemption of the pledges in their platform was necessary, and three laws of great importance were enacted. One, the Edmunds law (1882), was intended to suppress polygamy in Utah and the neighboring territories. Another (1882) stopped the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. The third, the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), was designed to secure appointment to public office on the ground of fitness, and not for political service.

%540. Corporations.%—These measures were all good enough in their way; but they left untouched grievances which the workingmen and a great part of the people felt were unbearable. That the development of the wealth and resources of our country is chiefly due to great corporations and great capitalists is strictly true. But that many of them abused the power their wealth gave them cannot be denied. They were accused of buying legislatures, securing special privileges, fixing prices to suit themselves, importing foreign laborers under contract in order to depress wages, and favoring some customers more than others.

%541. The Anti-monopoly and Labor Parties.%—Out of this condition of affairs grew the Anti-monopoly party, which held a convention in 1884 and demanded that the Federal government should regulate commerce between the states; that it should therefore control the railroads and the telegraphs; that Congress should enact an interstate commerce law; and that the importation of foreign laborers under contract should be made illegal.

This platform was so fully in accordance with the views of the Greenback or National party, that Benjamin F. Butler, the candidate of the Anti-monopolists, was endorsed and so practically united the two parties.



%542. The Republican and Democratic Parties%.—The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine and John A. Logan, and the Democrats Stephen Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks. The Prohibitionists put up John P. St. John and William Daniel. The nomination of Blaine was the signal for the revolt of a wing of the Republicans, which took the name of Independents, and received the nickname of "Mugwumps." The revolt was serious in its consequences, and after the most exciting contest since 1876, Cleveland was elected.

%543. Public Measures adopted during 1885-1889.%—Widely as the parties differed on many questions, Democrats, Republicans, and Nationalists agreed in demanding certain reform measures which were now carried out. In 1885 an Anti-Contract-Labor law was enacted, forbidding any person, company, or corporation to bring any aliens into the United States under contract to perform labor or service. In 1887 came the Interstate Commerce Act, placing the railroads under the supervision of commissioners whose duty it is to see that all charges for the transportation of passengers and freight are "reasonable and just," and that no special rates, rebates, drawbacks, or unjust discriminations are made for one shipper over another. In 1888 a second Chinese Exclusion Act prohibited the return of any Chinese laborer who had once left the country. That same year a Department of Labor was established and put in charge of a commissioner. His duty is to "diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with labor."

%544. Political Issues since 1888%.—Thus by the end of Mr. Cleveland's first term many of the demands of the workingmen had been granted, and laws enacted for their relief. These issues disposed of, a new set arose, and after 1888 financial questions took the place of labor issues.

%545. The Surplus and the Tariff.%—These financial problems were brought up by the condition of the public debt. For twenty years past the debt had been rapidly growing less and less, till on December 1, 1887, it was $1,665,000,000, a reduction of more than $1,100,000,000 in twenty-one years. By that time every bond of the United States that could be called in and paid at its face value had been canceled. As all the other bonds fell due, some in 1891 and others in 1907, the government must either buy them at high rates, or suffer them to run. If it suffered them to run, a great surplus would pile up in the Treasury. Thus on December 1, 1887, after every possible debt of the government was met, there was a surplus of $50,000,000. Six months later (June 1, 1888) the sum had increased to $103,000,000.

Unless this was to go on, and the money of the country be locked up in the Treasury, one of three things must be done:

1. More bonds must be bought at high rates.

2. Or the revenue must be reduced by reducing taxation.

3. Or the surplus must be distributed among the states as in 1837, or spent.

%546. The Mills Tariff Bill.%—Each plan had its advocates. But the Democrats, who controlled the House of Representatives, attempted to solve the problem by cutting down the revenue, and passed a tariff bill, called the Mills Bill, after its chief author, Mr. R. Q. Mills of Texas. The Republicans declared it was a free-trade measure and defeated it in the Senate.

%547. The Campaign of 1888; Benjamin Harrison, Twenty-third President.%—In the party platforms of 1888 we find, therefore, that three issues are prominent: (1) taxation, (2) tariff reform, (3) the surplus. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman, and demanded frugality in public expenses, no more revenue than was needed to pay the necessary cost of government, and a tariff for revenue only. The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. Morton, and demanded a tariff for protection, a reduction of the revenue by the repeal of taxes on tobacco and on spirits used in the arts, and by the admission free of duty of foreign-made articles the like of which are not produced at home.



The Prohibitionists, the Union Labor party, and the United Labor party also placed candidates in the field. Harrison and Morton were elected, and inaugurated March 4, 1889.

%548. The Republicans in Control.%—The Republican party not only regained the presidency, but was once more in control of the House and Senate. Thus free to carry out its pledges, it passed the McKinley Tariff Act (1890); a new pension bill, which raised the number of pensioners to 970,000, and the sum annually spent on pensions from $106,000,000 to $150,000,000; and a new financial measure, known as

%549. The Sherman Act.%—You remember that the attempt to enact a law for the free coinage of silver in 1878 led to the Bland-Allison Act, for the purchase of bullion and the coinage of at least $2,000,000 worth of silver each month. As this was not free coinage, the friends of silver made a second attempt, in 1886, to secure the desired legislation. This also failed. But in the summer of 1890, the silver men, having a majority of the Senate, passed a free-coinage bill (June 17), which the House rejected (June 25). A conference followed, and from this conference came a bill which was quickly enacted into a law and called the Sherman Act. It provided

1. That the Secretary of the Treasury should buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month.

2. That he should pay for the bullion with paper money called treasury notes.

3. That on demand of the holder the Secretary must redeem these notes in gold or silver.

4. After July 1, 1891, the silver need not be coined, but might be stored in the Treasury, and silver certificates issued.

%550. The Farmers' Alliance%.—This legislation, combined with an agricultural depression and widespread discontent in the agricultural states, caused the defeat of the Republicans in the elections of 1890. The Democratic minority of 21 in the House of Representatives of the Fifty-first Congress was turned into a Democratic majority of 135 in the Fifty-second. Eight other members were elected by the Farmers' Alliance.

For twenty years past the farmers in every great agricultural state had been organizing, under such names as Patrons of Husbandry, Farmers' League, the Grange, Patrons of Industry, Agricultural Wheel, Farmers' Alliance. Their object was to promote sociability, spread information concerning agriculture and the price of grain and cattle, and guard the interests and welfare of the farmer generally. By 1886 many of these began to unite, and the National Agricultural Wheel of the United States, the Farmers' Alliance and Cooperative Union of America, and several more came into existence. In 1889 the amalgamation was carried further still, and at a convention in St. Louis they were all practically united in the Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union.

The purpose of this alliance was political, and as its stronghold was Kansas, the contest began in that state in 1890. At a convention of Alliance men and Knights of Labor, a "People's Party" was formed, which elected a majority of the state legislature. Five out of seven Congressmen were secured, and one United States senator. Before Congress met (in December, 1891), another member of the House was elected elsewhere, and three more senators. The support of fifty other representatives was claimed. Greatly elated over this important footing, the Alliance men marked out a plan for congressional legislation. They demanded

1. A bill for the free and unlimited coinage of silver.

2. The subtreasury scheme.

3. A Land Mortgage Bill.

%551. The Subtreasury Plan of the Alliance Party.%—The idea at the base of these demands was that the amount of money in circulation must be increased, and loaned to the people without the aid of banks or capitalists. It was proposed, therefore, that the government should establish a number of subtreasury or money-loaning stations in each state, at which the farmers could borrow money from the government (at two per cent interest), giving as security non-perishable farm produce.

%552. The Land Mortgage Scheme% provided that any owner of from 10 to 320 acres of land, at least half of which was under cultivation, might borrow from the government treasury notes equal to half the assessed value of the land and buildings.

%553. The People's Party organized.%—That either of the old parties would further such schemes was far from likely. A cry was therefore raised by the most ardent Alliance men for a third party, and at a conference of Alliance and Labor leaders in May, 1891, a new national party was founded, and named "The People's Party of the United States of America."

%554. Party Candidates in 1892.%—When the campaign opened in 1892 there were thus four parties in the field. The People's party nominated James B. Weaver and James G. Field. The platform called for

1. The free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to 1.

2. A graduated income tax.

3. Government ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephones.

4. The restriction of immigration.

5. A national currency to be loaned to the people at two per cent interest per annum, secured by land or produce.

6. All land held by aliens, or by railroads in excess of their actual needs, to be reclaimed and held for actual settlers.

The Prohibitionists nominated John Bidwell and J. B. Cranfill, and declared "anew for the entire suppression of the manufacture, sale, importation, exportation, and transportation of alcoholic liquors as a beverage."

The Democratic party selected Grover Cleveland for the third time and chose Adlai E. Stevenson for Vice President. The platform condemned trusts and combines, advocated the reclamation of the public lands from corporations and syndicates, the exclusion of the Chinese and of the criminals and paupers of Europe, denounced "the Sherman Act of 1890," and called for "the coinage of both gold and silver without discriminating against either metal or charge for mintage," with "the dollar unit of coinage of both metals" "of equal intrinsic and exchangeable value."

The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison and Whitelaw Reid, expressed their sympathy with the cause of temperance, their opposition to trusts, and called for the coinage of both gold and silver in such way that "the debt-paying power of the dollar, whether silver, gold, or paper, shall be at all times equal."

%555. Grover Cleveland reelected.%—The election was a complete triumph for the Democratic party. Mr. Cleveland was again elected, and for the first time since 1861 the House, Senate, and President were all three Democratic.

Mr. Cleveland was inaugurated March 4,1893. Never in its history had the country been seemingly more prosperous; the crops were bountiful; business was flourishing, manufactures were thriving. But the prosperity was not real. Business was inflated, and during the following summer an industrial and financial panic which had long been brewing swept over the business world, wrecking banks and destroying industrial and commercial establishments.

To understand what now happened, two facts must be remembered:

1. Under the Resumption of Specie Payment Act of 1875, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to buy specie by the issue of bonds and keep it to redeem United States notes.

2. In May, 1878, it was ordered that when a greenback was redeemed in specie, it should "not be retired, canceled, or destroyed, but shall be reissued and paid out again and kept in circulation." There were then $346,681,000 in greenbacks unredeemed.

%556. The Gold Reserve.%—Meantime, under the law of 1875, and before January 1, 1879, the secretary issued $95,500,000 in bonds, the proceeds of which, with other gold then in the Treasury, made a fund deemed sufficient to redeem such notes as were likely to be presented. This has since been called our gold reserve, and has been fixed by the secretaries at $100,000,000. January 1, 1879, the reserve was $114,000,000, and though it often rose and fell, it never went below that amount till July, 1892. By that time there were other gold obligations. The silver purchased under the law of 1890 was paid for with notes exchangeable for "coin"; but as the secretaries always construed "coin" to mean gold, and as by 1893 these notes amounted to $150,000,000, our gold obligations—that is, notes exchangeable for gold—were nearly $500,000,000 (greenbacks, $346,000,000; silver purchase notes, $150,000,000). This immense and steadily increasing sum caused a doubt of our ability to pay in gold, and a fear that we might be forced to pay in silver. Now silver, since 1873, had fallen steadily in value from $1.30 an ounce to $0.81 an ounce in 1893, so that the bullion value of a silver dollar was about 67 cents. The fear, then, that our debts might be paid in silver (1) led foreigners to cease investing money in this country, and to send our stocks and bonds home to be sold, and (2) led people in this country to draw gold out of the banks and the Treasury and hoard it, so that in April, 1893, the gold reserve, for the first time since it was created, fell below $100,000,000 (to $97,000,000).

%557. The Panic of 1893.%—Business depression and "tight money" followed. Over three hundred banks suspended or failed, manufactories all over the country shut down, and a period of great distress set in. People, alarmed at the condition of the banks, began to draw their deposits and hoard them, thereby causing such a scarcity of bills of small denominations that a "currency famine" was threatened.

%558. The Purchase of Silver stopped.%—Believing that the fear that we should soon be "on a silver basis" had much to do with this state of affairs, and that the compulsory purchase of silver each month had much to do with the fear, the President assembled Congress in special session, August 7, and asked for the repeal of that clause of the Sherman Act of 1890 which required a monthly purchase of silver. After a struggle in which both of the old parties were split, the compulsory purchase clause was repealed, November 1, 1893.

%559. The Silver Movement.%—The steady fall in the bullion value of silver was a serious blow to the prosperity of the great silver-producing states,—Colorado, Montana, Idaho, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, and the territories of Arizona and New Mexico,—where silver mining was "the very heart from which every other industry receives support." In Colorado alone 15,000 miners were made idle. To the people of this section, some 2,000,000 in number, the silver question was of vital importance; and, alarmed at the call for the special session of Congress and the possible repeal of the silver-purchase clause, they held a convention at Denver, with a view to affecting public sentiment. A few weeks after, the National Bimetallic League met at Chicago. Both opposed the repeal, and demanded that if the government ceased to buy silver, the mints should be opened to free coinage. This the friends of silver in the Senate attempted in vain to bring about.

%560. The Industrial Depression; the Wilson Bill.%—The industrial revival which it was hoped would follow the repeal of the silver-purchase law did not take place. Prices did not rise; failures continued; the long-silent mills did not reopen; gold continued to leave the country, imports fell off, and, when the year ended, the receipts of the government were $34,000,000 behind the expenditures. With this condition of the Treasury facing it, Congress met in December, 1893. The Democrats were in control, and pledged to revise the tariff; and true to the pledge, William L. Wilson of West Virginia, Chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means, presented a new tariff bill (the Wilson Bill) which after prolonged debate passed both Houses and became a law at midnight, August 27, 1894, without the President's signature. As it was expected that the revenue yielded would not be sufficient to meet the expenses of government, one section of the law provided for a tax of two per cent on all incomes above $4000. This the Supreme Court afterwards declared unconstitutional.

%561. The Bond Issues.%—We have seen that in April, 1893, the gold reserve fell to $97,000,000. But it did not stop there; for, the business depression and the demand for the free and unlimited coinage of silver continuing, the withdrawal of gold went on, till the reserve was so low that bonds were repeatedly sold for gold wherewith to maintain it. In this wise, during 1894-95, $262,000,000 were added to our bonded debt.

%562. Foreign Relations; the Hawaiian Revolution.%—when Cleveland took office, a treaty providing for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands was pending in the Senate. In January, 1983, these islands were the scene of a revolution, which deposed the Queen and set up a "provisional government." Commissioners were then dispatched to Washington, where a treaty of annexation was negotiated and (February 15) sent to the Senate for approval. In the course of the revolution, a force of men from the United States steamer Boston was landed at the request of the revolutionary leaders, and our flag was raised over some of the buildings. When these facts became known, the President, fearing that the presence of United States marines might have contributed much to the success of the revolution, recalled the treaty from the Senate, and sent an agent to the islands to investigate. His report set forth in substance that the revolution would never have taken place had it not been for the presence and aid of United States marines, and that the Queen had practically been deposed by United States officials. A new minister was thereupon sent, with instructions to announce that the treaty of annexation would not be confirmed, and to seek for the restoration of the Queen on certain conditions. But President Dole of the Hawaiian republic denied the right of Cleveland to impose conditions, or in any way interfere in the domestic concerns of Hawaii, and refused to surrender to the Queen.

%563. The Venezuelan Boundary Dispute.%—During 1895, the boundary dispute which had been dragging on for more than half a century between Great Britain and Venezuela, reached what the President called "an acute stage," and made necessary a statement of the position of the United States under the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain was therefore informed "that the established policy of the United States is against a forcible increase of any territory of a European power" in the New World, and "that the United States is bound to protest against the enlargement of the area of British Guiana against the will of Venezuela"; and she was invited to submit her claims to arbitration. Her answer was that the Monroe Doctrine was "inapplicable to the state of things in which we live at the present day" and a refusal to submit her claims to arbitration. The President then asked and received authority to appoint a commission to examine the boundary and report. "When such report is made and accepted," said Cleveland, "it will in my opinion be the duty of the United States to resist by every means in its power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests, the appropriation by Great Britain of any lands, or the exercise of any governmental jurisdiction, over any territory which after investigation we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." For a time the excitement this message aroused in Great Britain and our own country was extreme. But it soon subsided, and on February 2, 1897, a treaty of arbitration was signed at Washington between Great Britain and Venezuela.

%564. The Election of 1896%.—By that time the presidential election was over. When in the spring the time came to choose delegates to the party nominating conventions, the drift of public sentiment was so strong against the administration, that it seemed certain that the Republicans would "sweep the country." Little interest, therefore, was taken by the Democrats, while the Republicans were most concerned in the question whether Mr. McKinley or Mr. Reed should be their presidential candidate. But as delegates were chosen by the Democrats in the Western and Southern States, it became certain that the issue was to be the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to 1.

The Republican convention met in June, nominated William McKinley and Garret A Hobart, and declared the party "opposed to the free coinage of silver except by international agreement," whereupon thirty-four delegates representing the silver states (Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, South Dakota, and Utah) seceded from the party. The Democratic convention assembled early in July, and after a most exciting convention chose William J. Bryan and Arthur Sewall, and declared for "the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ration of 16 to 1, without waiting for the aid and consent of any other nation." A great defection followed this declaration, scores of newspapers refused to support the candidates, and in September a convention of "gold Democrats," taking the name of the National Democratic party, nominated John M. Palmer and Simon B. Buckner, on a "gold standard" platform.

Meanwhile, the Prohibitionists, the National party (declaring for woman suffrage, prohibition, government ownership of railroads and telegraphs, an income tax, and the election of the President, Vice President, and senators by direct vote of the people), the Socialist Labor party, the Silver party, and the Populists, had all put candidates in the field. The Silver party indorsed Bryan and Sewall; the Populists nominated Bryan and Thomas E. Watson.



%565. McKinley, President.%—An "educational campaign" was carried on with a seriousness never before approached in our history, and resulted in the election of Mr. McKinley. He was inaugurated on March 4, and immediately called a special session of Congress to revise the tariff, a work which ended in the enactment of the "Dingley Tariff," on July 24, 1897.

%566. The Cuban Question.%—Absorbing as were the election and the tariff, there was another matter, which for two years past had steadily grown more and more serious. In February, 1895, the natives of Cuba for the sixth time in fifty years rebelled against the misrule of Spain and founded a republic. A cruel, bloody, and ruinous war followed, and as it progressed, deeply interested the people of our country. The island lay at our very doors. Upwards of $50,000,000 of American money were invested in mines, railroads, and plantations there. Our yearly trade with Cuba was valued at $96,000,000. Our ports were used by Cubans in fitting out military expeditions, which the government was forced to stop at great expense.

%567. Shall Cuba be given Belligerent Rights?%—These matters were serious, and when to them was added the sympathy we always feel for any people struggling for the liberty we enjoy, there seemed to be ample reason for our insisting that Spain should govern Cuba better or set her free. Some thought we should buy Cuba; some that we should recognize the Republic of Cuba; others that we should intervene even at the risk of war. Thus urged on, Congress in 1896 declared that the Cubans were entitled to belligerent rights in our ports, and asked the President to endeavor to persuade Spain to recognize the independence of Cuba; and the House in 1897 recommended that the independence of Cuba be recognized. But nothing came of either recommendation, and so the matter stood when McKinley was inaugurated.

During the summer of 1897 matters grew worse. A large part of the island became a wilderness. The people who had been driven into the towns by order of Captain General Weyler, the "reconcentrados," were dying of starvation, and our countrymen, deeply moved at their suffering, began to send them food and medical aid.

%568. The Maine destroyed.%—While engaged in this humane work they were horrified to hear that on the night of February 15, 1898, our battleship Maine was blown up in the harbor of Havana, and 260 of her sailors killed. Although our Court of Inquiry was unable to fix the responsibility for the explosion, many people believed that it had been perpetrated by Spaniards, and the hope of a peaceable settlement of the Cuban question rapidly waned. The sum of $50,000,000 was voted to the President for strengthening our defenses and buying ships and munitions of war. After declining to recognize the Cuban Republic, Congress adopted a resolution, on April 19, declaring for the freedom of Cuba, demanding that Spain should withdraw from the island, and authorizing the President to compel her withdrawal, if necessary, by means of our army and navy. Spain severed diplomatic relations with us on April 21, and the war began on that date, as declared by an Act of Congress a few days later. Two hundred thousand volunteers were quickly enlisted, out of the much larger number that wished to serve.

%569. War with Spain.%—The Battle of Manila.—While one fleet which had long been gathering at Key West went off and blockaded Havana and other parts of the coast of Cuba, another, under Commodore George Dewey, sailed from Hong-kong to attack the Spanish fleet at the Philippine Islands. Dewey found it in the Bay of Manila, where, on May 1, 1898, he fought and won the most brilliant naval battle in the world's history. Passing the forts at the entrance, he entered the bay, and, without the loss of a man or a ship, he destroyed the entire Spanish fleet of ten vessels, killed and wounded over 600 men, and captured the arsenal at Cavite (cah-ve-ta') and the forts at the entrance to the bay. The city of Manila was then blockaded by Dewey's fleet, and General Merritt with 20,000 troops was sent across the Pacific to take possession of the Philippines, which had long been Spain's most important possession in the East. For his great victory Dewey received the thanks of Congress and was promoted to be Rear-Admiral, and later was given for life the full rank of Admiral.



%570. The Destruction of Cervera's Fleet—Capture of Santiago.%—Meantime a second Spanish fleet, under Admiral Cervera, sailed from the Cape Verde Islands. Acting Rear-Admiral Sampson, with ships which had been blockading Havana, and Commodore Schley, with a Flying Squadron, went in search of Cervera, and after a long hunt he was found in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba (sahn-te-ah'go da coo'bah), which was promptly blockaded by the ships of both squadrons, with Sampson in command. The narrow entrance to the harbor was so well defended by forts and submarine mines that a direct attack on Cervera was impossible. In an attempt to complete the blockade, Naval Constructor R. P. Hobson and a volunteer crew of seven men took the collier Merrimac to the harbor entrance, and, amid a rain of shot and shell, sank her in the channel (June 3). The gallant little band escaped with life, but were made prisoners of war, and in time were exchanged.



The capture of Santiago was decided upon when Cervera sought refuge in its harbor, and about 18,000 men (mostly of the regular army), under General Shafter, were hurried to Cuba and landed a few miles from the city. On July 1 the enemy's outer line of defenses were taken, after severe fighting at El Caney (ca-na') and San Juan (sahn hoo-ahn'); and on the next day the Spaniards failed in an attempt to retake them. So certain was it that the city must soon surrender, that Cervera was ordered to dash from the harbor, break through the American fleet, and put to sea. On Sunday morning, July 3, the attempt was made; a desperate sea fight followed, and, in a few hours, all six of the Spanish vessels were sunk or stranded, shattered wrecks, on the coast of Cuba. The Spanish loss in killed and wounded was heavy, while Admiral Cervera and about 1800 of his men were taken prisoners. Not one of our vessels was seriously damaged, and but one of our men was killed. When the battle began, the American war ships were in their usual positions before the harbor, as assigned them by Admiral Sampson; but Sampson himself, in his flagship, was several miles to the east on his way to a conference with General Shafter. Commodore Schley's flagship, the Brooklyn, was at the west end of the line, and as the enemy tried to escape in that direction, she was in the thickest of the fight. Another war ship which especially distinguished herself was the Oregon, a Western-built ship, which had sailed from San Francisco all the way around Cape Horn in order to reach the seat of war.



After the naval battle of July 3, all hope of successful resistance by the Spaniards vanished, and on July 17, General Toral surrendered Santiago, the eastern end of Cuba, and an army of nearly 25,000 men. A week later General Miles set off to seize the island of Porto Rico. He landed on the southern coast, and had occupied much of the island when hostilities came to an end.

571. Peace.—On August 12, 1898, a protocol was signed by representatives of the two nations, providing for the immediate cessation of hostilities, the withdrawal of Spain from the West Indies, and the occupation of Manila by the United States till the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which was to be negotiated by a commission meeting in Paris, and which was to provide for the disposition of the Philippines.

News of the cessation of hostilities was instantly sent to all our fleets and armies. But, on August 13, before word could reach the Philippines, Manila was attacked by General Merritt's army and Dewey's fleet, whereupon the Spanish general surrendered the city and about 7000 soldiers.

A formal treaty of peace was signed at Paris December 10, 1898, providing that Spain should relinquish her title to Cuba, and cede Porto Rico, Guam (one of the Ladrones), and the Philippines to the United States; and that the United States should pay $20,000,000 to Spain. The treaty was then submitted to the governments of the United States and Spain for ratification; but in both countries it met some opposition. In our country objections were made especially to the taking of the Philippines without the consent of their inhabitants, many of whom, under the leadership of Aguinaldo, had previously rebelled against Spain and were now demanding complete independence; but the prevailing view was that our immediate control was necessary to prevent civil war, anarchy, and foreign complications there. Accordingly, on February 6, 1899, the treaty was ratified by the Senate by a vote of 57 to 27. Spain also accepted the treaty, which was formally proclaimed April 11. The $20,000,000 was promptly paid to Spain, and ordinary diplomatic relations were resumed.

%572. The War Bonds and War Taxes.%—For the expenses of the war with Spain Congress made ample provision. The Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to issue $400,000,000 in 3 per cent bonds,[1] and borrow $100,000,000 upon temporary certificates of indebtedness. Stamp taxes, an inheritance tax, and a duty on tea were laid, and the silver in the Treasury was ordered to be coined at the rate of $1,500,000 a month.

[Footnote 1: $200,000,000 of the war bonds were offered for popular subscription, and $109,000,000 were subscribed in sums under $500. All was taken in sums under $5000.]

%573. Hawaii annexed.%—But in few respects was the effect of the war so marked as in the changed sentiment of the people toward Hawaii. During five years the little republic had been steadily seeking annexation to the United States, and seeking in vain. But with the partial occupation of the Philippines, and the impending acquisition of Porto Rico, and perhaps Cuba, the policy of territorial expansion lost many of its terrors, and the Hawaiian Islands were annexed by joint resolution of Congress, signed by the President July 7, 1898. The formal transfer of sovereignty took place August 12. The islands continued temporarily under their existing form of government, with slight modifications, till June 14, 1900, when they were organized as a territory.



%574. The War in the Philippines.%—While the treaty with Spain was under consideration, the city of Manila was held by General Otis, Merritt's successor; but native troops, under Aguinaldo, were in control of most of Luzon and several other islands. On the night of February 4, 1899, the long-threatened conflict between them was begun by Aguinaldo's unsuccessful attack on the Americans at Manila. War now followed; but in battle after battle the natives were beaten and scattered, till by the beginning of the year 1900 the main army of the Filipinos had been completely broken up, and the only forces still opposing American authority were small bodies of bandits and guerrillas. These held out persistently, and continued the warfare for more than a year. In 1900 the President sent a commission to the Philippines to organize civil government in such localities and in such degree as it should deem advisable; and in 1902 Congress enacted a plan of government under which the Philippines are constituted a partly self-governing dependency.

%575. Porto Rico and Cuba.%—After the close of the Spanish war, both Porto Rico and Cuba remained under the military control of the United States for many months. For Porto Rico, which had been ceded to our country, Congress provided a system of civil government which went into effect May 1, 1900. This organized Porto Rico as a dependency.

Cuba, however, had not been ceded to the United States. It had passed under our control only for the restoration of peace and the establishment of a stable government there; for Congress, in its resolution of April 19, 1898, asserted its determination, after the pacification of Cuba, "to leave the government and control of the island to its people." In June, 1900, the local city governments were turned over to municipal officers that had been elected by the people. In the following winter a constitution was framed by a convention of delegates elected by the Cubans. Then, after certain provisions had been added to this, to govern the future relations between Cuba and the United States, and after the first officers of the Cuban Republic had been elected, the United States troops were withdrawn and the new government took charge of the island, May 20, 1902.

%576. Disorders in China.%—Early in 1900 a patriotic society of Chinese, called the Boxers, began to massacre native Christians in the north of China, and to drive out or kill all missionaries and other foreigners. The disorder soon spread to Pekin, where the foreign ministers and their countrymen (including some Americans) were besieged in their quarter of the city by Boxers and regular Chinese troops; for the Chinese government, instead of suppressing the Boxers, acted in sympathy with them.

President McKinley sent warships and soldiers to China, where they cooeperated with the forces of Japan and the European powers in rescuing the imperiled foreigners in Pekin. War was not declared against China, though she resisted the invading troops, making it necessary for them to capture several towns and to fight several battles before Pekin was taken. A treaty was then negotiated with the United States, Japan, and the European powers, providing for the restoration of order and a settlement of the various claims against China.

%577%. At home during 1900 our population was counted; a President was elected; and a currency law of much importance was enacted. In the United States and the territories there were found to be about 76,000,000 people, and in the one state of New York more inhabitants than there were in all the United States in 1810.

By the currency law, known as the Gold Standard Act, it is provided:—

1. That the gold dollar shall be the standard unit of value.

2. That all forms of money issued or coined shall be kept "at a parity of value" with this gold standard.

3. That United States notes and Treasury notes shall be redeemed in gold coin. For this purpose $150,000,000 of gold coin or bullion is set apart in the Treasury.

%578%. When the time came to prepare for the election of a President and Vice President, eleven conventions were held, as many platforms were framed, and eight pairs of candidates were nominated. There were the Democratic and Republican parties; the People's Party (Fusionists) and the People's Party (Middle of the Road Anti-Fusionists); the Prohibition, United Christian, Silver Republican, Socialist Labor, Social Democratic, and National parties; and the Anti-Imperialist League. The things opposed, approved of, or demanded by these parties were many and various; but a few should be stated as showing what the people were thinking about: Trusts, the gold standard, the free coinage of silver, a canal across Nicaragua or the isthmus of Panama, election of United States senators by the people, repeal of the war taxes, statehood for the territories, independence for the Filipinos, aid to American shipping, irrigation of the arid lands in the West, public ownership of railways and telegraphs, desecration of the Sabbath, equality of men and women, exclusion of the Asiatics, the Monroe Doctrine.

%579. McKinley Reelected.%—The Populist (Fusionist) convention nominated William J. Bryan and Charles A. Towne. But the Democrats named Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson. Thereupon Towne withdrew, and Bryan and Stevenson were made the candidates of the Populists and the Silver party as well as of the Democrats. The Democratic platform denounced imperialism and trusts, and reiterated the demand for the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. The Republicans renominated President McKinley, and nominated Theodore Roosevelt for Vice President, on a platform indorsing McKinley's administration and favoring the gold standard of money. McKinley and Roosevelt were elected.

%580. McKinley Assassinated.% On March 4, 1901, the President began his second term, which six months later came to a dreadful end. In May a great fair—the Pan-American Exposition—was opened at Buffalo, and to this exposition the President came as a guest early in September, and was holding a public reception on the afternoon of the 6th, when an anarchist who approached as if to shake hands, suddenly shot him twice. For several days it was thought that the wounds would not prove fatal; but early on the morning of the 14th, the President died, and that afternoon Mr. Roosevelt took the oath of office required by the Constitution and became President.



%581. Public Measures adopted in 1901-1904.%—The events connected with our large island possessions had directed much attention to our military and naval forces. As a result, Congress passed several measures to increase the efficiency of the army, and appropriated large sums for additions to the navy. For the reclamation of the arid parts of the Far West an important law was enacted (1902), setting aside the money received from the sales of public land in that part of the country and appropriating it for the planning and construction of irrigation works. In 1903 a ninth member was added to the President's cabinet in the person of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The new department was made to include the Department of Labor established fifteen years before, and a number of other bureaus already existing; at the same time the Bureau of Corporations was newly established, and was given the power to investigate the organization and workings of any trust or corporation (except railroads) engaged in interstate or foreign commerce, and, with the President's approval, to publish the information so obtained.

A long-standing dispute as to the eastern boundary of southern Alaska was referred to a British-American tribunal, which decided chiefly in favor of the United States (1903). By a reciprocity treaty with Cuba which went into effect in 1904, the duties on Cuban trade were somewhat lowered.

%582. The Isthmian Canal.%—A French company many years ago began to dig a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, but it failed through bad management before the work was half done. A United States commission made a survey of this route and also of the Nicaragua route across Central America, estimated the cost of building each canal, and gave careful consideration to the advantages of each route. The owners of the French canal having offered to sell for $40,000,000, Congress in 1902 authorized the President to buy and complete it, provided satisfactory title and permanent control of the route could be secured. In all, about $200,000,000 was provided for this work. In 1903 a treaty was negotiated with Colombia, giving the United States a permanent lease of a six-mile strip across the isthmus, for an annual rental of $250,000 and the payment of $10,000,000, but Colombia rejected the treaty. The Colombian province of Panama thereupon seceded (November 3), and its independence was recognized by the United States and other nations. A treaty was soon made whereby the United States guaranteed the independence of Panama, and Panama ceded to the United States a ten-mile strip across the isthmus for the sums rejected by Colombia. The rights of the French company were then bought, and a United States commission began the work of completing the canal (1904).

%583. Election of Roosevelt.%—There were almost as many parties as ever in the campaign of 1904. The Republicans indorsed the existing administration, demanded the continuance of the protective tariff and the gold standard, and nominated Roosevelt for President and Charles W. Fairbanks for Vice President. The Democrats nominated Alton B. Parker and Henry G. Davis, and declared for a reduction of the tariff and against militarism and trusts, but were silent on the money question. Roosevelt and Fairbanks were elected by a large majority.

%584. Interstate Commerce.%—In spite of the act of 1887 and some later laws, favored shippers were still given various unfair advantages in the service and charges of railroads. In 1906 Congress greatly enlarged the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission to supervise railroads, express companies, and other common carriers operating in more than one state, and even authorized it to fix new freight and passenger rates in place of any it deemed to be unjust or unreasonable.

Besides this law to regulate interstate transportation, Congress passed several acts to regulate the quality of goods entering into interstate commerce. Efficient inspection of meat-packing establishments was provided, at a cost of $3,000,000 a year. Adulteration or misbranding of any foods, drugs, medicines, or liquors manufactured anywhere for sale in another state, was forbidden under heavy penalties.

%585. Intervention in Cuba.%—One of the provisions added to the Cuban constitution gave the United States the right to intervene "for the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty." This right was first exercised in the autumn of 1906, when the Cuban government failed to suppress an insurrection in the island. Efforts were first made, in vain, to bring about peace in Cuba without armed intervention; then the Cuban president resigned, our envoy Secretary Taft proclaimed himself provisional governor of Cuba, United States troops were stationed at various points, and the insurgents peacefully disbanded. The work of completing the restoration of order and confidence, preparatory to the holding of a new election under the Cuban constitution, was intrusted by the President to Charles E. Magoon, who became provisional governor in October.

%586. The Panic of 1907.%—For several years our country had enjoyed unusual prosperity. Never had the business of the country been better. A distrust of banks and banking institutions, however, was suddenly developed. Belief that the money of depositors was being used in a reckless way became widespread, and when a run on some banks in New York city forced them to suspend, a panic swept over the country. People everywhere made haste to withdraw their deposits, and the banks for a time were forced to refuse to cash checks for large sums. Business depression and hard times followed.

%587. The Currency Law.%—In the midst of the panic the Sixtieth Congress met and in the course of its session enacted (for six years) a currency law. This is an emergency measure by which the national banks, when currency is scarce, may issue more under certain conditions. The total amount put out by all the national banks must not be greater than $500,000,000. Those using this currency must pay a heavy tax, which it is believed will lead to its prompt recall as soon as the emergency has passed.

%588. Election of Taft.%—For the thirty-first time in our history electors of President and Vice President were chosen in 1908. Seven parties placed candidates in the field. The Republicans nominated William H. Taft and James S. Sherman; the Democrats named William J. Bryan and John W. Kern. Candidates were also presented by the Prohibition, Populist, Socialist Labor, Socialist, and Independence parties. In many respects the Republican and Democratic platforms were alike. Both declared for revision of the tariff, postal savings banks, a bureau of mines and mining, protection of our citizens abroad, a better civil service, improvement of our inland waterways, preservation of our forests, and the admission of Arizona and New Mexico as separate states. The Democratic platform called for an income tax, the publication of the names of contributors to national campaign funds, legislation against private monopolies, and full control of interstate railways. Taft and Sherman were elected.

One of Taft's first acts as President was to call a special session of Congress, which met March 15 to frame a new tariff act.



SUMMARY

1. The political issues before the country since 1880 have been of two general classes—industrial and financial.

2. The industrial issues led to the formation of certain great organizations, as the Farmers' Alliance, Knights of Labor, Patrons of Industry, etc.; and to the enactment of certain important laws, as the Interstate Commerce Acts, the Anti-Chinese laws, the Anti-Contract Labor law, and the establishment of the Labor Bureau.

3. The financial issues were in general connected in some way with the agitation for free coinage of silver.

4. These issues seriously affected both the old parties and produced others, as the Anti-monopoly party, the People's party, the Silver party, the National, the Socialist.

5. In 1893 financial questions became so serious that a panic occurred, which forced the repeal of the purchase clause of the Sherman Act. In 1907 there was another panic.

6. Among our foreign complications during this period were the question of the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, the Venezuela boundary dispute, the Cuban question, which finally involved us in a war with Spain, and the trouble with China arising from the Boxer outbreak.

7. The chief events of the war with Spain were Dewey's naval victory in Manila Bay, May 1; the battles of El Caney and San Juan, near Santiago, July 1; the naval battle of July 3 off Santiago; the surrender of Santiago, July 14; the invasion of Porto Rico, near the end of July; and the capture of Manila, August 13.

8. The war resulted in the cession of Porto Rico and the Philippines to our country, and in Spain's withdrawal from Cuba.

9. The withdrawal of Spain from the Philippines was followed by an uprising of natives led by Aguinaldo; but the insurrection was soon suppressed and a system of civil government established.

10. By peaceful negotiation a treaty was perfected giving the United States control of the route for the Panama Canal.



APPENDIX

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE—1776

* * * * *

IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security.—Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands.

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers.

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature.

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power.

He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States:



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES—1787[1]

[Footnote 1: This reprint of the Constitution exactly follows the text of that in the Department of State in Washington, save in the spelling of a few words.]

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I

SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

SECTION 2. 1 The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.

2 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

3 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons[2]. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

[Footnote 2: The last half of this sentence was superseded by the 13th and 14th Amendments. (See p.16 following.)]

4 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

5 The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECTION 3. 1 The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six years; and each senator shall have one vote.

2 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

3 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

4 The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

5 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

6 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.

7 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

SECTION 4. 1 The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.

2 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

SECTION 5. 1 Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.

2 Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.

3 Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.

4 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

STATE CONSTITUTIONS

We have seen (page 155), that in 1776 the Continental Congress advised the people of the colonies to form governments for themselves, and that the people of the colonies accordingly adopted constitutions and became sovereign and independent states. Of the thirteen original state constitutions, none save that of Massachusetts is now in force, and even that has been amended. Changes in political ideas, changes in the conditions of life due to the wonderful progress of our country, have forced the people to alter, amend, and often remake their state constitutions.

All our state constitutions now in force divide the powers of government among three departments,—legislative, executive, and judicial.

The Legislative Department—called in some states the Legislature, in others the General Assembly, and in still others the General Court— consists in every state of two branches or houses, usually known as the Senate and House of Representatives. In six states the legislature meets annually, and in all the rest biennially; the members of both branches are everywhere elected by the people, and serve from one to four years. In most states a session of the legislature is limited to a period of from forty to ninety days. The legislature enacts the laws (which must not conflict with the Constitution of the United States, the treaties, the acts of Congress, or the constitution of the state); but the powers of the two houses are not equal in all the states. In some the House of Representatives has the sole right to originate bills for the raising and the expenditure of money, and in some the Senate confirms or rejects appointments to office made by the Governor.

The Governor is the executive; is elected for a term of years varying from one to four; and is in duty bound to see that the laws are enforced. To him, in nearly all the states, are sent the acts of the legislature to be signed if he approves, or vetoed if he disapproves. In some states the Governor may veto parts or items of an act and approve the rest. He is commander in chief of the militia; commissions all officers whom he appoints; and in most of the states may pardon criminals.

The Judicial Branch of government is composed of the state courts, whose judges are appointed, or elected for a long term of years.

These three branches of government—the executive, the legislative, and the judicial—are distinct and separate, and none can exercise the powers of the others. No judge can enact a law; no legislature can try a suit; no executive can perform the duties of a judge or a legislature.

When the thirteen colonies threw off their allegiance to the British Crown, the government set up by each was supreme within the limits of the state. Each could coin money, impose duties on goods imported from abroad or from other states, fix the legal rate of interest, make laws regulating marriage and divorce and the descent of property, and do anything else that any supreme government could do.

But when the states united in forming a strong general government by adopting the Constitution, they did not give up all their powers of government. They intrusted part of them to the Federal government, and retained the rest as before. In other words, the people of each state, instead of continuing to have one government, adopted a double government, state and Federal, according to the plan laid down in the Constitution. It is the Federal Constitution that makes the division of powers between the nation and the separate states. The Constitution, for instance, gives the Federal government the powers of coining money and laying import duties, and forbids these powers to the states; but the rate of interest, marriage and divorce, and the descent of property are matters not mentioned in the Constitution, and concerning which the states retain the power to make laws.

In many cases it is hard to decide whether a state has power to do a certain thing. Whenever the question turns on the interpretation of the Federal Constitution, it is decided by the United States courts. The Federal Constitution and the laws and treaties made in accordance with it are supreme in case of any conflict with a state constitution or law.

The powers of government exercised by the states are more numerous, and affect the individual citizen in more ways, than those of the nation. The force of contracts; the relations of employer and employed, husband and wife, parent and child; the administration of schools; and the punishment of most crimes, are matters controlled by the state. A much larger amount of taxes is imposed by the states than by the nation.

Local Governments.—Moreover, the local government of counties, towns, and cities is entirely under the control of the state. State constitutions contain many provisions in regard to this local government, but the legislature can make laws affecting it more or less greatly in the various states. In the local government of a city, town, or county there is to some extent a distribution of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial officers. The legislative function is exercised by the city council or board of aldermen, the town trustees (or by the whole body of voters), and the county board of supervisors or commissioners; the executive, by the city mayor, the county sheriff, and other officers; and the judicial, by various city courts, justices of the peace, and county courts.

Political Rights and Duties.—The political rights and duties of citizens depend chiefly on the state constitutions and laws. Elections, both state and national, are conducted by state officers. The state prescribes who shall have the right to vote, and the various states differ greatly in this respect. Congress grants citizenship by a uniform rule of naturalization; but some states allow aliens to vote (on certain conditions), and some provide that a naturalized citizen can not vote until a certain period has elapsed after his naturalization. In some states women may vote; in some only those men who have certain property or educational qualifications.

The right to vote is the qualification for holding most offices; additional qualifications are prescribed for very important offices, in the Federal and state constitutions. Thus, none but a native may be a President or Vice President of the United States, nor may a citizen under thirty years of age be a member of the United States Senate. Besides voting and office holding, the most important political rights and duties of citizens are to sit on juries and to serve in the army. The qualifications of jurors in state courts are prescribed by state authority, and in national courts by national authority. Congress has the exclusive power to raise armies, and in the Civil War hundreds of thousands of citizens came under national authority in connection with the duty to bear arms. The militia, however, is commanded by state officers, and in time of peace is under the control of the separate states.



INDEX

%A%

Abolition, laws; societies; opposition to; Compromise Bill; issue of Civil War. Acadia, extent of; struggle for. Act, of 1870; of 1873; of 1875. Adams. Adams, Alvin. Adams, Charles F. Adams, John, defends soldiers; Declaration of Independence; negotiates treaty; vice president; president. Adams, John Quincy, opposes European colonization; presidential nominee; president; opposed to slavery. Adams, John Q., vice-pres. nominee. Adams, Samuel. Adams Express Company. "Adams men". "Administration men". Alabama. Alabama, admitted; secedes; readmitted. Alabama claims. Alaska, boundaries; purchased. Albany, Dutch at; colonial congress at. Alexandria. Algonquins. Alien and Sedition laws. Allegheny River, French on. Allen, Ethan. Allison amendment. Amendments to Constitution, ten; twelfth; proposed thirteenth; thirteenth; fourteenth; fifteenth. America, discovery of; naming of. American Antislavery Society. American Fur Trading Company. American party. American Republican party; disappears. Amherst. Amnesty, proclamation issued; political issue. Anaesthesia discovered. Anderson, Robert. Andre, Major John. Annapolis, Md., founded; riot at; trade convention at. Annapolis, Port Royal called. Annual message. Anti-Chinese movement. Anti-Federalists. Anti-Nebraska men. Antietam, battle of. Antimasonic party. Antislavery movement. Appomattox Courthouse. Arbitration, policy; between England and Venezuela. Argall, Governor. Argus. Arizona, territory; silver interests. Arkansas, becomes territory; admitted; secedes; Confederates in; reconstruction; readmitted. Army of the Cumberland; disbanded. Army of the Potomac, peninsular campaign; at Gettysburg; in Wilderness campaign; disbanded. Army of Tennessee. Army of Virginia. Arnold, Benedict, attacks Quebec; at Saratoga; treason of; in British service. Articles of Confederation. Ashburton, Lord. Assumption of state debts. Astor, John Jacob. Astoria founded. Atchison settled. Atlanta burned. Atlantic cable. Auburn settled. Aurania settled. Austin, Moses. Austin, Stephen.

%B%

Bahama Islands. Balboa. Baltimore, founded; in colonial times; Congress at; attacked; route to the West; convention at; insurgents in; labor congress in. Baltimore, Lord, Banks, United States, see National Bank; state, see State Banks. Banks, N. P., presidential nominee, in Civil War, Bannock City founded, Barry, John, Barron, Commander, Baton Rouge, captured, Spaniards claim, "Battle above the Clouds," Bean, William, Bear State republic, Beauregard, General, Bell, John, Belmont, Belpre settled, Bemis Heights, battle of, Bennington, battle of, Benton, Thomas II., senator, Bents Fort, Berceau, Berkeley, Lord, Berlin Decree, Bidwell, John, Bienville, Celoron de, Big Bottom massacre, Bills of credit, Biloxi settled, Bimetallism, Birney, James Gillespie, presidential nominee, abolitionist, Black, James, Black Rock burned, Bladensburg, battle of, Blaine, James G., Blair, Francis P., Bland-Allison Silver Bill, Blockade, of 1814, Southern, Blockade runners, Blue Lodges, Bonded debt, of 1866, of 1894, Bonds, United States, Bonhomme Richard, Bonneville, Captain, Boom towns, Boone, Daniel, Boonesboro settled, Booth, John Wilkes, assassinates Lincoln, Bordentown, Border states secede, Boscawen, Boston, Boston, founded, in colonial times, riot, massacre, tea party, Port Bill, occupied by British, evacuated, in 1790, fire, Boston Neck, Boston Sentinel, Boundary, of United States in 1783, in 1815, Canadian, Spanish, of Alaska, of Texas, map showing territorial growth of United States, Boxer, Braddock, Edward, Bradford, William, Bradstreet, Bragg, Brandywine, battle of, Brazil discovered, Breckinridge, John C., vice president, presidential candidate, Breeds Hill, battle of, Brewster, William, British, see English. British Columbia, boundary of, British Guiana, Brown, B. Gratz, Brown, Jacob, Brown, John, Brown, Robert, Brownists, Brush, Bryan, William J., Buchanan, James, president, attitude toward seceded states, Buckner, General Simon B., Buell, General, Buena Vista, battle of, Buffalo burned, Bull Run, battles of, Bunker Hill, battle of, Bunker Hill Monument, Burgoyne, John, Burke P. B., Burlingame, Anson, Burnside, General, Burr, Aaron, Business depression of '93, Butler, Butler, A. P., Butler, Benjamin F., Butler, William O., Butterfield overland stage.

%C%

Cabinet, first, Cable, Atlantic, Cabots, Cabral, Calhoun, John C., in War Congress, vice president, favors nullification, on slavery, on Compromise Bill, death of, California, Fremont in, independent, slavery in, gold discoveries, applies for admission, settled and admitted, Pacific Railroad to, Calverts, Cambridge settled, Camden, battle of, Canada, ceded to British, boundary of, fisheries, Canals, Canonchet, Canso attacked, Cape Ann colony, Cape Breton, Cape Cod named, Cape Fear River settlements, Captains of industry. Caribbean Islands. Carleton, Sir Guy. Carolinas, settled; see North and South Carolina. Carpetbaggers. Carson, Kit. Carteret, Sir George. Cartier, Jacques. Cass, Lewis. Castine massacre. Castle Pinckney. Catholics in Maryland. Cayuga Indians. Cedar Creek, battle of. Cedar Mountain, battle of. Celoron de Bienville. Census, first; of 1810; of 1870; of 1900. Central Pacific Railroad. Cerro Gordo, battle of. Certificates, national. Chadds Ford, battle of. Chambers, B. J. Chambersburg burned. Champlain. Chancellorsville, battle of. Chapultepec, battle of. Charles I., grants Maryland; persecutes Puritans; beheaded. Charles II., grants Connecticut; grants Carolina; grants Pennsylvania. Charleston, founded; attacked; in colonial times; opposes tea tax; captured; nominating convention. Charleston harbor. Charlestown, settled. Charlestown Neck. Charter colonies. Charters, of 1606; of 1609; of 1629. Chase, Salmon P. Chattanooga, battle of. Cherokee Indians. Cherry Creek. Cherry Valley massacre. Chesapeake. Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Chester. Chicago, Republican conventions; in 1832; in 1840; labor congress; convention of '69; fire; meat packing; Bimetallic League. Chickahominy River. Chickamauga, battle of. Chickasaw Indians. China, disorder in. Chinese Exclusion acts. Chinese immigration. Chippewa, battle of. Choctaw Indians. Church of New England. Churubusco, battle of. Cincinnati, in 1802; in 1810; convention of 1872; labor congress; convention of 1876. Circuit courts. Civil Rights Bill. Civil service reform. Civil War; cost of; results of. Clark, General George Rogers. Clark, William. Clay, Henry, speaker; presidential nominee; secretary of state; Compromise Tariff; Infant School; Compromise Bill; death of. Clermont. Cleveland, population in 1840. Cleveland, Stephen Grover, president. Clinton, George. Clinton, Governor De Witt. Clinton, Sir Henry, campaigns. Cobb, Howell. Cochrane, General John. Cockburn, Admiral. Cohoes founded. Coin at a premium. Coinage of gold and silver. Cold Harbor, battle of. Colfax, Schuyler. Collins steamship line. Colonial, life; forms of government. Colonies, Spanish; English; Dutch; Swedish. Colorado, acquired; a territory; admitted; silver interests. Colt. Columbia Centinel. Columbia River discovered. Columbus, Christopher. Columbus, Ky., evacuated. Columbus, O., population in 1840; conventions. Commerce, in colonial times; about 1810; destroyers; See also Trade. Committee of Safety. Compromise, Missouri; tariff; of 1850; of Crittenden. Compromises in Constitution. Comptroller of the Currency. Concord, battle of. Confederate cruisers. Confederate States, formed; during civil war; capital of; end of; military supplies of; debts and losses of; congress dissolved. Congress. Congress, under Articles of Confederation, and see Continental Congress; reconstruction plan of; gives land grants; acts of 1862 and 1863. Congress, National Labor. Connecticut, settled; in colonial times; Reserve. Conscription, Confederate. Constellation. Constitution. Constitution of U.S., amendments to, see Amendments. Printed in Appendix, Constitutional Union party, Continental army, Continental Congress, Continental debt, Continental money, Contract labor, Contraction policy, Contreras, battle of, Conway cabal, Cooper, Peter, Corinth, battle of, Cornwallis, Lord, Coronado, Corporations, rise of, opposition to, Cortereal, Cortes, Cotton gin, Cotton industry, Cotton-seed oil, Council Bluffs, Mormons at, Council for New England, Coureurs de bois, Court of Admiralty, Courts of U.S. established, Cowpens, battle of, Cranfill, J.B., Crawford, William H., Credit Strengthening Act, Creek Indians, Crittenden's Compromise, Croghan, Major, Crown Point, founded, English at, Cuba, Culpeper Courthouse, Cumberland, Cumberland Road, Cunard steamship line, Currency, U.S., Curtis, Gen. S.R., Customs Commissioners.

%D%

Dakota Territory, formed, population of, Dallas, George Mifflin, Dalton, battle of, Daniel, William, Davenport, John, Davie, William K., Davis, David, Davis, Jefferson, president of Confederacy, capture of, Dayton, William L., De Soto, Deane, Silas, Dearborn's expedition, Debt, national, after the Revolutionary War, in 1790, in 1801, in 1835, new national, during Civil War, in 1866, in 1887, in 1894, Declaration of Independence, in Vermont, See Appendix, Declaration of Rights, DeKalb, Delaware, claims in, sold to Penn, in colonial times, slavery in, Delaware, Lord, 32. Delaware Indians, 68, 72. Delegates, territorial, 162, 351 n. 2. Democratic party, Democratic Republicans, Denver, settled, convention at, Department of Labor established, Detroit, settled surrender of, Dewey, Commodore, Dingley Tariff, Dinwiddie, Governor Robert, Direct tax, District courts, District of Columbia, slavery in, Dixon, Jeremiah, Dole, president of Hawaiian Republic, Donelson, Andrew Jackson, Donelson, John, Dorchester settled, Dorchester Heights captured, Douglas, Stephen A., Nebraska Bill, debates with Lincoln, elected senator, presidential nominee, Dover riot, Dow, Neal, Drake, Drake, Sir Francis, Draper, Dr. John W., Dred Scott decision, Duane, William J., Duluth founded, Duquesne, Marquis, Durham massacre, Dutch, possessions, settlements, Dutch West India Company.

%E%

Earle, Thomas, Early, Jubal, East India Company, East Indies, trade with, Eastern Colonies, occupations, etc., Eastport captured, Edmunds Law, Electoral college, Electoral commission, Electricity, Elizabeth, Queen, Elizabeth City captured, Ellmaker, Amos, Ellsworth, Oliver, Emancipation, agitation; Proclamation; cost of. Embargo laws. Emigration, western. Endicott, John. English, possessions; settlements; relations with France; relations with Indians; government of colonies; attitude to colonies; war with colonies; at war with French; disputed right of trade; favor South American republics; favor South; Venezuelan boundary question. English, William H. English fur companies. Enterprise. Era of Good Feeling. Ericsson, Captain John. Ericsson, Leif. Erie Canal. Erie Indians. Essex. Europe, claims in America; attitude during Civil War. Evans, Oliver. Everett, Edward. Exeter massacre. Explorations, European; French; Western; Northwestern. Express, pony. Express companies formed.

%F%

Fair Oaks, battle of. Fairbanks. Farewell Address of President Washington. Farmers' Alliance. Farragut, Admiral. Federal Hall. Federal money. Federalist party, Ferdinand, King, aids Columbus. Field, Cyrus W. Field, James G. Fifteenth Amendment. "Fifty-four forty or fight". Fillmore, Millard, vice president; president; presidential nominee. Financial, distress of '37; condition after Civil War; policy, Grant's; questions after '88. First Continental Congress. Fiscal Bank of United States. Fiscal Corporation. Fishery question. Fitch, John. Five Nations, or Iroquois Indians. Flag, national; American naval. Flamborough Head, 148. Florida. Florida, discovered; a British possession; East and West; a Spanish possession; purchased; a territory; admitted; secedes; readmitted. Foote, Flag Officer. Force Act, of; Jackson's; of 1871. Foreign labor. Foreigners, see Immigration. Fort Assumption built. Fort Boise. Fort Chartres built. Fort Crevecoeur built. Fort Cumberland. Fort Donelson captured. Fort Duquesne built; captured. Fort Edward. Fort Erie captured. Fort Fisher captured. Fort Frontenac captured. Fort Hall founded. Fort Henry captured. Fort Le Boeuf built Fort Leavenworth. Fort Lee attacked. Fort Loyal massacre. Fort McAllister captured. Fort McHenry bombarded. Fort Macon captured. Fort Meigs, battle of. Fort Monroe. Fort Morgan. Fort Moultrie. Fort Nassau built. Fort Natchitoches. Fort Necessity built. Fort Orange built. Fort Pillow captured. Fort Pitt. Fort Rosalie founded. Fort St. Louis built. Fort Stanwix besieged. Fort Stephenson, battle of. Fort Sumter; battles of. Fort Ticonderoga. Fort Tombeckbee built. Fort Toulouse founded. Fort Venango built. Fort Washington captured. "Forty-niners". Fourteenth Amendment. Fractional currency. Franchise right; interference with. Franklin, Benjamin, during the French War; experiments; Declaration of Independence; ambassador to France. Franklin, state of. Fray Marcos. Fredericksburg, in colonial times; battle of. Free coinage, of gold and silver; of silver. Free-soil party; joins Republicans. Freedmen, treatment after war; vote. Freedmen's Bureau Bill. Frelinghuysen, Theodore. Fremont, John C., in California; presidential nominee; in Shenandoah valley. French, possessions; explorations; relations with Indians; relations with English; and Indian War; abandon America; acknowledge our independence; republic established; war with English; trouble with United States; during Civil War; in Mexico. French Directory. Frenchtown, battle of. Fries's Rebellion. Frobisher, Sir Martin. Frolic. Frontenac, Count. Frontier life. Frye, Joshua. Fugitive-slave laws. Fulton, Robert. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. Funding of national debt. Fusion tickets.

%G%

Gadsden, James. Gadsden Purchase. "Gag Rule". Gage, General Thomas. Gaines Mill, battle of. Gallatin, Albert. Gallipolis settled. Gallissoniere, Marquis de la. Gama, Vasco da. Garfield, James, president; death of. Garrison, William Lloyd. Gates, General Horatio. Gates, Sir Thomas. Genet. Geneva awards. George II, grants charter. Georgia, settled; in colonial times; annexed territory; conquered; cedes land to Congress; secedes; Sherman's march through; again in the Union; Germantown, battle of. Gerry, Elbridge. Gerrymander. Gettysburg, battle of. Gettysburg Address, Lincoln's. Gila River. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. Goffe, William. Gold, discovered in California; at Pikes Peak; in Northwestern States; payments suspended; sole legal tender; standard. Gold Democrats. Gold reserve. Goldsboro. Goodyear. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando. Gosnold. Gourgues. Government, colonial; under Articles of Confederation; of territories; control of railroads, etc. Grant, General U. S., in Civil War; relations with Johnson; president; third term proposed. Gray, Captain. Great American Desert. Great Britain, see English. Great Lakes explored. Great Salt Lake. Great Western. Greeley, Horace. Green Mountain Boys. Greenback party. Greenbacks. Greene, Nathanael. Grenville, Prime Minister. Groesbeck, W. S. Groton massacre. Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of. Guerriere. Guilford founded. Guilford Courthouse, battle of. Guinther. Guthrie.

%H%

Hail, Columbia! written. Hale, John P. Hale, Nathan. Half-Moon. Halleck, General Henry. Hamet. Hamilton, Alexander. Hamlin, Hannibal. Hampton Roads, peace conference at; Confederate cruiser sunk in; Monitor and Merrimac. Hancock, General Winfield. Hand loom. Hand mill. Hand press. Hard cider campaign. Hard times of '73; of '93. Harnden, W. F. Harpers Ferry. Harrisburg convention. Harrison, Benjamin, president. Harrison, William Henry, in War of 1812; delegate in Congress; at Tippecanoe; presidential candidate; elected; death of. Harrisons Landing. Harrodsburg settled. Hartford settled. Hatteras Inlet. Haverhill massacre. Hawaiian annexation. Hayes, Rutherford B., president. Hayne, Governor. Helena founded. Hendricks, Thomas A. Hennepin. Henry, Patrick. Hessians. Highways of trade. Hispaniola colonized. Hobart, Garret A. Hoe octuple press,. Holly Springs. Holy Alliance. Home manufactures defended. Homestead Law. Hood, General J.B. Hooker, General. Hooker, Thomas. Hopkinson, Joseph. Hornet. House of Burgesses. House of Commons. House of Lords. House of Representatives, formed, elects president Houston. Samuel. Howe, Elias. Howe, General William. Hudson, Henry. Hudson Bay Company. Hull's surrender. Hunt, Walter. Huron Indians. Hutchinson, Anne.

%I%

Iberville. Idaho, a territory admitted silver interests. Idaho City founded. Illinois, a territory admitted. Immigration, Chinese, see Chinese; European Western, see Emigration. Impeachment of Johnson. Impressment of sailors. Income tax. Indented servants. Independence Chamber. Independence, Declaration of. Independence Hall. Independent National party. Independent Treasury law. Independents or Mugwumps. India rubber. Indian country. Indiana, a territory; admitted. Indiana Register. Indianapolis, population in 1840. Indians, alliance with French, traits of wars in French and Indian War during Revolution in 1790 in 1812, troubles with in Oregon territory sold. Industrial revolution Inflation Bill. Insurgente. Interest indents. Internal improvements, political issue. Internal revenue system. Interstate Commerce. Intolerable Acts. Inventions. "Invisible Empire,". Iowa, a territory admitted, 366. Ironclads. Iroquois Indians. Irwinsville. Isabella. Queen, aids Columbus. Island No. 10 captured. Isthmian Canal. Iuka, battle of.

%J%

Jackson, convention at battle of. Jackson, Dr. Jackson, General Andrew, at New Orleans, defeats Indians presidential nominee president, 301-811. Jackson, General T.J. "Jackson men," Jalapa, battle of. Jamaica discovered,. James I., creates Virginia Company; annuls charter. Jamestown settled. Java captured. Jay, John, treaty of Paris, ambassador to London. Jay Cooke and Co.'s failure. Jefferson, Thomas, writes Declaration of Independence secretary of state, Republican leader vice president, opposes Alien and Sedition laws president favors political proscription. Jerry. Jerseys, see New Jersey; retreat across. Johnson, Andrew, vice president president amnesty policy. Johnson, Herschel V. Johnson, R.M. Johnston, Gen. A.S. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E. Joliet. Louis. Jones, John Paul. Julian, George W. Jumonville.

%K%

Kanawha state. Kansas, struggle for slavery question in, admitted rapid growth Farmers' Alliance. Kansas City. Kansas-Nebraska Law. Kaskaskia settled. Kearny, Colonel Stephen. Kearsarge. Kendall, Amos. Kentucky, settled; resolutions; admitted; Confederates in; slavery in. Key, Francis S., writes Star-Spangled Banner. Kickapoo Indians. King George's War. King Philip's War. King William's War. King, Rufus. King, William R. Kings Mountain. Kirtland. Knights of Labor. Know-nothing party. Knox, General Henry. Ku Klux Klan.

%L%

La Salle, Robert de. Labor, in 1763; in 1790; questions in 1860; after Civil War; slave and free; foreign and convict; parties. Labor department established. Laconia. Lafayette, Marquis de. Lake Champlain, battle of. Lake Erie, battle of. Lancaster, Congress at. Land grants, free; to railroads; opposed. Land Mortgage scheme. Lane, Joseph. Lane, Ralph. Larimer, General. Laud, Archbishop. Laudonniere. Lawrence. Lawrence settled. Lawrence, Amos A. Lawrence, James. Leaven worth. Lecompton constitution. Lee, Charles. Lee, Richard Henry. Lee, Robert E., campaigns in Civil War; surrenders. Lenni Lenape Indians. Leopard. Letters of marque. Lewis, Meriwether. Lewiston founded. Lexington, 148. Lexington, battle of. Lexington, Ky. Liberal Republican party. Liberator. Liberty party. Limestone settled. Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Douglas, in Illinois senatorial contest; elected president; during Civil War; inauguration speech; Emancipation Proclamation; Gettysburg Address; peace conference with Stephens; reflected; assassinated. Lincoln, General. Line of Demarcation. Little Belt. Livingston, Robert R. Loan-office certificates. Log cabin campaign. Log cabins. Log of the Mayflower. Logan, John A. Logstown. London Company. Long, Dr. Long, Major; discovers Longs Peak. Long houses, Indian. Long Parliament. Lookout Mountain, battle of. Lords of Trade. Lottery, Congress. Louis XV. claims Ohio region. Louisburg, built; captured by English; restored to French. Louisiana, La Salle in; extent of; French in; struggle for; Spanish; purchased; admitted; boundary; secedes; reconstructs government; readmitted. Louisville, settled; labor congress at. Lovejoy, Elijah. Lowell founded. Lundy, Benjamin. Lundys Lane, battle of. Lyon, General.