It has been claimed by the Russians that Kuropatkin was thinking of assuming the offensive when the Japanese forced his hand; but however that may be, the fact is that he fought on the defensive as he had done throughout the whole war with two exceptions. Nevertheless, we may confidently assert that at no previous period had the Russians been so confident and so strong. According to the Japanese estimate, the accuracy of which may be trusted, Kuropatkin had 376 battalions, 171 batteries, and 178 squadrons; representing 300,000 rifles, 26,000 sabres and 1368 guns, while the defences behind which these troops were sheltered were of the most elaborate character, superior to anything that the Japanese had encountered during the previous battles of the field-campaign. On the other hand, the Japanese also were in unprecedented strength. Up to the battle of Heikautai, Kuropatkin had been confronted by only three armies, namely, the First, Second, and Fourth, under Generals Kuroki, Oku, and Nozu, respectively. In the middle of February, these numbered three, four, and two divisions, respectively. But there had now been added a considerable number of reserve brigades, bringing up the average strength of most of the divisions to from 22,000 to 25,000 men. Further, in addition to these armies, two others were in the field, namely, the Third, under General Nogi, and the Fifth, under General Kawamura. General Nogi's force had marched up from Port Arthur, but General Kawamura's was a new army formed of special reservists and now put in the field for the first time.

The Russians occupied a front forty-four miles in extent and from five to six miles in depth. They did not know, apparently, that General Kawamura's army had joined Oyama's forces, nor did they know where Nogi's army was operating. The Japanese programme was to hold the Russian centre; to attack their left flank with Kawamura's army, and to sweep round their right flank with Nogi's forces. The latter were therefore kept in the rear until Kawamura's attack had developed fully on the east and until the two centres were hotly engaged. Then "under cover of the smoke and heat generated by the conflict of the other armies on an immense front, and specially screened by the violent activity of the Second Army, Nogi marched in echelon of columns from the west on a wide, circling movement; swept up the Liao valley, and bending thence eastward, descended on Mukden from the west and northwest, giving the finishing blow of this gigantic encounter; severing the enemy's main line of retreat, and forcing him to choose between surrender and flight. To launch, direct, and support four hundred thousand men engaged at such a season over a front one hundred miles in length was one of the most remarkable tasks ever undertaken on the field of battle by a modern staff."

Of course, all these events did not move exactly as planned, but the main feature of the great fight was that Kuropatkin, deceived by Kawamura's movement, detached a large force to oppose him, and then recalled these troops too late for the purpose of checking General Nogi's flanking operation. The fighting was continuous for almost two weeks, and on the morning of March 16th, the Russians had been driven out of Mukden and forced northward beyond Tiehling. In fact, they did not pause until March 20th, when Linievitch, who had succeeded Kuropatkin in the chief command, was able to order a halt at Supingchieh, seventy miles to the north of Mukden. "The Russian losses in this most disastrous battle included, according to Marshal Oyama's reports, 27,700 killed and 110,000 wounded," while an immense quantity of war material fell into the hands of the victors. The Japanese losses, up to the morning of March 12th, were estimated at 41,222.

THE BATTLE OF TSUSHIMA

From the outset, both sides had appreciated the enormous preponderance that would be conferred by command of the sea. It was in obedience to this conviction that the Russian authorities were in the act of taking steps to increase largely their Pacific squadron when the outbreak of war compelled them to suspend the despatch of re-enforcements. They did not, however, relinquish their preparations. Evidently, any vessels sent to the scene of combat after fighting had begun must be competent to defend themselves against attack, which condition entailed strength to form an independent squadron. The preparations to acquire this competence involved a long delay, and it was not until the 16th of October, 1904, that Admiral Rozhdestvensky left Libau with some forty ships. The world watched this adventure with astonished eyes. Thitherto Great Britain, equipped as she is with coaling-stations all round the globe, had been the only power thought capable of sending a large fleet on an ocean voyage. Rozhdestvensky's squadron consumed over three thousand tons of coal daily when steaming at a reduced speed, and how this supply was to be kept up in the absence of ports of call, no one was able to conjecture. The difficulty was ultimately overcome by the very benevolent character which the neutrality of certain powers assumed, and in May, 1905, the Baltic squadron, as the vessels under Rozhdestvensky were called, made its appearance in Far Eastern waters.

It had been supposed that the Russians would seek to envelop their movements in obscurity, but they seem to have appreciated, from the outset, the absurdity of endeavouring to conceal the traces of a fleet of forty vessels steaming along the routes of the world's commerce. They therefore proceeded boldly on their way, slowly but indomitably overcoming all obstacles. It will be observed that the date of their departure from Libau was just two months after the last attempt of the Port Arthur squadron to escape to Vladivostok. Doubtless, this sortie, which ended so disastrously for the Russians, was prompted in part by anticipation of the Baltic fleet's approaching departure, and had the Port Arthur squadron, or any considerable portion of it, reached Vladivostok before Rozhdestvensky's coming, Admiral Togo might have been caught between two fires. The result of the sortie, however, dispelled that hope. Long before Rozhdestvensky reached the Far East, he fell into touch with Japanese scouts, and every movement of his ships was flashed to the enemy. That Vladivostok was his objective and that he would try to reach that place if possible without fighting, were unquestionable facts. But by what avenue would he enter the Sea of Japan? The query occupied attention in all the capitals of the world during several days, and conjectures were as numerous as they were conflicting. But Admiral Togo had no moment of hesitation. He knew that only two routes were possible, and that one of them, the Tsugaru Strait, could be strewn with mines at very brief notice. The Russians dare not take that risk. Therefore Togo waited quietly at his base in the Korean Strait and on the 27th of May his scouts reported by wireless telegraphy at 5 A.M., "Enemy's fleet sighted in 203 section. He seems to be steering for the east channel."

In the historic action which ensued, Rozhdestvensky had under his command eight battle-ships, nine cruisers, three coast-defence ships, nine destroyers, an auxiliary cruiser, six special-service steamers, and two hospital ships. Togo's fleet consisted of five battle-ships (one of them practically valueless), one coast-defence vessel, eight armoured cruisers, ten protected cruisers, twenty destroyers, and sixty-seven torpedo-boats. Numerically, the advantage was on the Japanese side, although in first-class fighting material the disparity was not remarkable. As for the result, it can only be called annihilation for the Russian squadron. Out of the thirty-eight ships composing it, twenty were sunk; six captured; two went to the bottom or were shattered while escaping; six were disarmed and interned in neutral ports to which they had fled; one was released after capture, and of one the fate is unknown. Only two escaped out of the whole squadron. This wonderful result justifies the comment of a competent authority:

"We can recognize that Togo is great—great in the patience he exercised in the face of much provocation to enter upon the fight under conditions less favourable to the success of his cause; great in his determination to give decisive battle despite advice offered to him to resort to methods of evasion, subterfuge, and finesse; great in his use of not one but every means in his power to crush his enemy, and great, greatest perhaps of all, in his moderation after victory unparalleled in the annals of modern naval war.

"The attitude of the Japanese people in the presence of this epoch-making triumph is a sight for men and gods. They have the grand manner of the ancients, and their invariable attitude throughout the war, whether in the hour of victory or in that of disappointment, has been worthy of a great people. No noisy and vulgar clamour, no self-laudation, no triumph over a fallen enemy, but deep thankfulness, calm satisfaction, and reference of the cause of victory to the illustrious virtue of their Emperor."*

*The War in the Far East, by the Military Correspondent of "The Times."

The Japanese losses in the two-days' fighting were three torpedo-boats, and they had 116 killed and 538 wounded.

PEACE RESTORED

After the battles of Mukden and Tsushima, which were great enough to terminate the greatest war, the Russians and the Japanese alike found themselves in a position which must either prelude another stupendous effort on both sides or be utilized to negotiate peace. Here the President of the United States of America intervened, and, on the 9th of June, 1905, the American minister in Tokyo and the ambassador in St. Petersburg, instructed from Washington, handed an identical note to the Japanese and the Russian Governments respectively, urging the two countries to approach each other direct. On the following day, Japan intimated her frank acquiescence, and Russia lost no time in taking a similar step. Two months nevertheless elapsed before the plenipotentiaries of the two powers met, on August 10th, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Russia sent M. (afterwards Count) de Witte and Baron Rosen; Japan, Baron (afterwards Marquis) Komura, who had held the portfolio of Foreign Affairs throughout the war, and Mr. (afterwards Baron) Takahira. The Japanese statesmen well understood that much of the credit accruing to them for their successful conduct of the war must be forfeited in the sequel of the negotiations. For the people of Japan had accustomed themselves to expect that Russia would recoup a great part, if not the whole, of the expenses incurred by their country in the contest, whereas the ministry in Tokyo knew that to look for payment of indemnity by a great State whose territory has not been invaded effectively or its existence menaced must be futile.

Nevertheless, diplomacy required that this conviction should be concealed, and thus Russia carried to the conference a belief that the financial phase of the discussion would be crucial. Baron Komura's mandate was, however, that the only radically essential terms were those formulated by Japan prior to the war. She must insist on securing the ends for which she had fought, since she believed them to be indispensable to the peace of the Far East, but beyond that she would not go. The Japanese plenipotentiaries, therefore, judged it wise to submit their terms in the order of the real importance, leaving their Russian colleagues to imagine, as they probably would, that the converse method had been adopted, and that everything prefatory to questions of finance and territory was of minor consequence.

The negotiations, commencing on the 10th of August, were not concluded until the 5th of September, when a treaty of peace was signed. There had been a moment when the onlooking world believed that unless Russia agreed to ransom the island of Saghalien by paying to Japan a sum of 120 millions sterling,—$580,000,000, the conference would be broken off. Nor did such an exchange seem unreasonable, for were Russia expelled from the northern part of Saghalien, which commands the estuary of the Amur, her position in Siberia would have been compromised. But Japan's statesmen were not disposed to make any display of territorial aggression. The southern half of Saghalien had originally belonged to Japan and had passed into Russia's possession by an arrangement which the Japanese nation strongly resented. To recover that portion of the island seemed, therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did not contemplate any larger demand, nor did she seriously insist on an indemnity. Thus, the negotiations were never in real danger of failure.

The Treaty of Portsmouth recognized Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interests" in Korea; provided for the simultaneous evacuation of Manchuria by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan the lease of the Liaotung peninsula, held by Russia from China, together with that of the Russian railways south of Kwanchengtsz and all collateral mining or other privileges; ceded to Japan the southern half of Saghalien, the fiftieth parallel of latitude to be the boundary between the two parties; secured fishing-rights for Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering; laid down that the expense incurred by the Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian prisoners during the war should be reimbursed by Russia, less the outlays made by the latter on account of Japanese prisoners, by which arrangement Japan obtained a payment of some four million sterling $20,000,000, and provided that the contracting parties, while withdrawing their military force from Manchuria, might maintain guards to protect their respective railways, the number of such guards not to exceed fifteen per kilometre of line. There were other important restrictions: first, the contracting parties were to abstain from taking, on the Russo-Korean frontier, any military measures which might menace the security of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the two powers pledged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian railways for strategic purposes, and thirdly, they promised not to build on Saghalien or its adjacent islands any fortifications or other similar works, or to take any military measures which might impede the free navigation of the Strait of La Perouse and the Gulf of Tatary.

The above provisions concerned the two contracting parties only. But China's interests also were considered. Thus, it was agreed to "restore entirely and completely to her exclusive administration" all portions of Manchuria then in the occupation, or under the control, of Japanese or Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her consent must be obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases and concessions held by the Russians in Manchuria; that the Russian Government should disavow the possession of "any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity in Manchuria," and that Japan and Russia "engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general measures common to all countries which China might take for the development of the commerce and industry of Manchuria."

This distinction between the special interests of the contracting parties and the interests of China herself, as well as of foreign nations generally, is essential to clear understanding of a situation which subsequently attracted much attention. From the time of the Opium War (1857) to the Boxer rising (1900), each of the great Western powers struggled for its own hand in China, and each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions and privileges with comparatively little regard for the interests of others and with no regard whatsoever for China's sovereign rights. The fruits of this period were permanently ceded territories (Hongkong and Macao); leases temporarily establishing foreign sovereignty in various districts (Kiao-chou, Weihaiwei, and Kwang-chow); railway and mining concessions, and the establishment of settlements at open ports where foreign jurisdiction was supreme. But when, in 1900, the Boxer rising forced all the powers into a common camp, they awoke to full appreciation of a principle which had been growing current for the past two or three years, namely, that concerted action on the lines of maintaining China's integrity and securing to all alike equality of opportunity and a similarly open door, was the only feasible method of preventing the partition of the Chinese empire and averting a clash of rival interests which might have disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean that there was to be any abandonment of special privileges already acquired or any surrender of existing concessions. The arrangement was not to be retrospective in any sense. Vested interests were to be strictly guarded until the lapse of the periods for which they had been granted, or until the maturity of China's competence to be really autonomous.

A curious situation was thus created. International professions of respect for China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire, and for the enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity co-existed with legacies from an entirely different past. Russia endorsed this new policy, but not unnaturally declined to abate any of the advantages previously enjoyed by her in Manchuria. Those advantages were very substantial. They included a twenty-five-year lease—with provision for renewal—of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of 1220 square miles Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas Russia would not only exercise full administrative authority, but also take military and naval action of any kind; they included the creation of a neutral territory on the immediate north of the former and still more extensive, which remained under Chinese administration, and where neither Chinese nor Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's consent, cede land, open trading marts, or grant concessions to any third nationality; and they included the right to build some sixteen hundred miles of railway (which China would have the opportunity of purchasing at cost price in the year 1938, and would be entitled to receive gratis in 1982), as well as the right to hold extensive zones on either side of the railway, to administer these zones in the fullest sense, and to work all mines lying along the lines.

Under the Portsmouth treaty these advantages were transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, being divided so that only the portion (521.5 miles) to the south of Kwanchengtsz fell to Japan's share, while the portion (1077 miles) to the north of that place remained in Russia's hands. China's consent to the above transfers and assignments was obtained in a treaty signed at Peking on the 22nd of December, 1905. Thus, Japan came to hold in Manchuria a position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she figured as the champion of the Chinese empire's integrity and as an exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the open door. On the other, she appeared as the legatee of many privileges more or less inconsistent with that principle. But, at the same time, nearly all the great powers of Europe were similarly circumstanced. In their cases, also, the same incongruity was observed between the newly professed policy and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be expected that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the altar of a theory to which no other State thought of yielding any retrospective obedience whatever. She did, indeed, furnish a clear proof of deference to the open-door doctrine, for instead of reserving the railway zones to her own exclusive use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and obtained from China a pledge to open to foreign trade sixteen places within these zones.

For the rest, however, the inconsistency between the past and the present, though existing throughout the whole of China, was nowhere so conspicuous as in the three eastern provinces (Manchuria); not because there was any real difference of degree, but because Manchuria had been the scene of the greatest war of modern times; because that war had been fought by Japan in the cause of the new policy, and because the principles of the equally open door and of China's integrity had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of the Anglo-Japanese alliance, and of the subsequently concluded ententes with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act of Japan was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny, and the nations behaved as though they expected her to live up to a standard of almost ideal altitude. China's mood, too, greatly complicated the situation. She had the choice between two moderate and natural courses; either to wait quietly until the various concessions granted by her to foreign powers in the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself by earnest reforms and industrious developments for their earlier recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in reality she fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name of a "rights-recovery campaign" her people began to protest vehemently against the continuance of any conditions which impaired her sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her attitude towards the various questions which inevitably grew out of the situation in Manchuria, her relations with Japan became somewhat strained in the early part of 1909.

JAPAN IN KOREA AFTER THE WAR WITH RUSSIA

Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged from the second conflict with the conviction that the policy of maintaining the independence of that country must be modified, and that since the identity of Korean and Japanese interests in the Far East and the paramount character of Japanese interests in Korea would not permit Japan to leave Korea to the care of any third power, she must assume the charge herself. Europe and America also recognized that view of the situation, and consented to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the control of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who further undertook to assume military direction in the event of aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in the matter of internal administration, she continued to limit herself to advisory supervision. Thus, though a Japanese resident-general in Seoul, with subordinate residents throughout the provinces, assumed the functions hitherto discharged by foreign ministers and consuls, the Korean Government was merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position of counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left to their employers.

Once again, however, the futility of looking for any real reforms under this optional system was demonstrated. Japan sent her most renowned statesman, Prince Ito, to discharge the duties of resident-general; but even he, in spite of patience and tact, found that some less optional methods must be resorted to. Hence, on the 24th of July, 1907, a new agreement was signed, by which the resident-general acquired initiative as well as consultative competence to enact and enforce laws and ordinances; to appoint and remove Korean officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of the administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to Korea's independence could not be gainsaid. That it was inevitable seemed to be equally obvious. For there existed in Korea nearly all the worst abuses of medieval systems. The administration of justice depended solely on favour or interest. The police contributed by corruption and incompetence to the insecurity of life and property. The troops were a body of useless mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands of incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The Emperor's Court was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male and female. The finances of the Throne and those of the State were hopelessly confused. There was nothing like an organized judiciary. A witness was in many cases considered particeps criminis; torture was commonly employed to obtain evidence, and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. Imprisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill, was a common punishment; every major offence from robbery upwards was capital, and female criminals were frequently executed by administering shockingly painful poisons. The currency was in a state of the utmost confusion. Extreme corruption and extortion were practised in connexion with taxation. Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had been repeated proofs that the safety and independence of the empire counted for little with political intriguers. Japan must step out of Korea altogether or effect drastic reforms there.

She necessarily chose the latter alternative, and the things which she accomplished between the beginning of 1906 and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the elaboration of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff to administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable property; the floating of public loans for productive enterprises; the reform of the currency; the establishment of banks of various kinds, including agricultural and commercial; the creation of associations for putting bank-notes into circulation; the introduction of a warehousing system to supply capital to farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the provision of posts, telegraphs, roads, and railways; the erection of public buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such as printing, brick making, forestry and coal mining); the laying out of model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the building and equipping of an industrial training school; the inauguration of sanitary works; the opening of hospitals and medical schools; the organization of an excellent educational system; the construction of waterworks in several towns; the complete remodelling of the Central Government; the differentiation of the Court and the executive, as well as of the administrative and the judiciary; the formation of an efficient body of police; the organization of law-courts with a majority of Japanese jurists on the bench; the enactment of a new penal code, and drastic reforms in the taxation system.

In the summer of 1907, the resident-general advised the Throne to disband the standing army as an unserviceable and expensive force. The measure was, doubtless desirable, but the docility of the troops had been overrated. Some of them resisted vehemently, and many became the nucleus of an insurrection which lasted in a desultory manner for nearly two years; cost the lives of 21,000 insurgents and 1300 Japanese, and entailed upon Japan an outlay of nearly a million sterling. Altogether, what with building 642 miles of railway, making loans to Korea, providing funds for useful purposes and quelling the insurrection, Japan was fifteen millions sterling $72,000,000 out of pocket on Korea's account by the end of 1909. She had also lost the veteran statesman, Prince Ito, who was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic on the 26th of October, 1909.*

*Encylopaedia Britannica, (11th Edition); article "Japan," by Brinkley.

ANNEXATION OF KOREA

Japan finally resolved that nothing short of annexation would suit the situation, and that step was taken on August 22, 1910. At what precise moment this conviction forced itself upon Japan's judgment it is impossible to say, She knows how to keep her counsel. But it was certainly with great reluctance that she, hitherto the exponent and champion of Korean independence, accepted the role of annexation. The explanation given by her own Government is as follows:

-"In its solicitude to put an end to disturbing conditions, the Japanese Government made an arrangement, in 1905, for establishing a protectorate over Korea and they have ever since been assiduously engaged in works of reform, looking forward to the consummation of the desired end. But they have failed to find in the regime of a protectorate sufficient hope for a realization of the object which they had in view, and a condition of unrest and disquietude still prevails throughout the whole peninsula. In these circumstances, the necessity of introducing fundamental changes in the system of government in Korea has become entirely manifest, and an earnest and careful examination of the Korean problem has convinced the Japanese Government that the regime of a protectorate cannot be made to adapt itself to the actual condition of affairs in Korea, and that the responsibilities devolving upon Japan for the due administration of the country cannot be justly fulfilled without the complete annexation of Korea to the Empire."

"Thus the dynasty of sovereigns, which had continued in an unbroken line from 1392, came to an end with the independence of this country, whose national traditions and history had extended over four thousand years, whose foundation as a kingdom was coeval with that of the Assyrian empire; and the two last living representatives of the dynasty exchanged their positions as Imperial dignitaries for those of princes and pensioners of Japan."* Since that drastic step was taken, events seem to have fully justified it. Under the able management of Count Terauchi, the evil conditions inimical to the prosperity and happiness of the people are fast disappearing. Comparative peace and order reign; and there appears to be no reason why the fruits of progressive civilization should not ultimately be gathered in Japan's new province as plentifully as they are in Japan herself.

*The Story of Korea, by Longford.

SITUATION IN 1911

The unstable element of the East Asian situation to-day is the position occupied by Japan and Russia in Manchuria. Both powers possess privileges there which will not be easily surrendered, and which are likely, sooner or later, to prove incompatible with China's autonomy. It was apprehended at the outset that Russia would not long consent to occupy the place assigned to her by the Treaty of Portsmouth, and that she would quickly prepare for a war of revenge. Her statesmen, however, showed as much magnanimity as wisdom. On July 30, 1906, they signed with Japan a convention pledging the contracting parties to respect all the rights accruing to one or the other under the Portsmouth Treaty. If international promises can be trusted, continuous peace is assured between the two powers. Russia, however, is not only doubling the track of her Siberian Railway, but is also building a second line along the Amur; while Japan will soon command access to central Manchuria by three lines; one from Dalny to Kwanchengtsz; another from Fusan via Wiju to Mukden, and a third from the northeastern coast of Korea via Hoiryong, on the Tumen, to Kilin.

These developments do not suggest that when the lease of Liaotung and the charter of the railways mature—in twenty-five years and thirty years, respectively, from the date of their signature—either Japan or Russia will be found ready to surrender these properties. Meanwhile, the United States of America is gradually constituting itself the guardian of China's integrity in Manchuria, and the citizens of the Pacific slope, under the influence of the labour question, are writing and speaking as though war between the great republic and the Far Eastern empire were an inevitable outcome of the future. This chimera is unthinkable by anyone really familiar with the trend of Japanese sentiment, but it may encourage in China a dangerous mood, and it helps always to foster an unquiet feeling. On the whole, when we add the chaotic condition into which China is apparently falling, it has to be admitted that the second decade of the twentieth century does not open a peaceful vista in the Far East.

STEADY-POINTS

There are, however, two steady-points upon the horizon. One is the Anglo-Japanese treaty: not the treaty of 1902, spoken of already above, but a treaty which replaced it and which was concluded on August 12, 1905. The latter document goes much further than the former. For, whereas the treaty of 1902 merely pledged each of the contracting parties to observe neutrality in the event of the other being engaged in defence of its interests, and to come to that other's assistance in the event of any third power intervening belligerently, the treaty of 1905 provides that:

"Whenever in the opinion of either Japan or Great Britain, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this agreement are in jeopardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests."

"If, by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any other power or powers, either contracting party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of this agreement, the other contracting party will at once come to the assistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it."

The "rights and interests" here referred to are defined as follows in the preamble:

"The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of eastern Asia and of India."

"The preservation of the common interests of all powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations in China."

"The maintenance of the territorial rights of the high contracting parties in the regions of eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in the said regions."

This remarkable agreement came into force from the date of its signature, and its period of duration was fixed at ten years. During its existence the two powers, England and Japan, are pledged to use all endeavours for maintaining not only peace in the East, but also the independence and integrity of China. The significance of such a pledge is appreciated when we recall the dimensions of the British navy supplemented by the Japanese, and when we further recall that Japan, with her base of operations within easy reach of the Asiatic continent, can place half a million of men in the field at any moment. The second steady-point is China's financial condition. She is the debtor of several Western nations, and they may be trusted to avert from her any vicissitude that would impair her credit as a borrower. Prominent among such vicissitudes is the dismemberment of the country.

ENGRAVING: SEAL OF SESSHO, THE PAINTER



APPENDIX

1. CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN

TOKYO, FEBRUARY 11, 1889

CHAPTER I. THE EMPEROR

Article I. The Empire of Japan shall be ruled over by Emperors of the dynasty, which has reigned in an unbroken line of descent for ages past.

Article II. The succession to the throne shall devolve upon male descendants of the Imperial House, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

Article III. The person of the Emperor is sacred and inviolable.

Article IV. The Emperor being the Head of the Empire the rights of sovereignty are invested in him, and he exercises them in accordance with the provisions of the present Constitution.

Article V. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article VI. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and put into force.

Article VII. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.

Article VIII. In case of urgent necessity, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, the Emperor, in order to maintain the public safety or to avert a public danger, has the power to issue Imperial Ordinances, which shall take the place of laws. Such Imperial Ordinances shall, however, be laid before the Imperial Diet at its next session, and should the Diet disapprove of the said Ordinances, the Government shall declare them to be henceforth invalid.

Article IX. The Emperor issues, or causes to be issued, the ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of public peace and order, and for the promotion of the welfare of his subjects. But no Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing laws.

Article X. The Emperor determines the organisation of the different branches of the Administration; he fixes the salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same. Exceptions specially provided for in the present Constitution or in other laws shall be in accordance with the respective provisions bearing thereon.

Article XI. The Emperor has the supreme command of the army and navy.

Article XII. The Emperor determines the organisation and peace standing of the army and navy.

Article XIII. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.

Article XIV. The Emperor proclaims the law of siege. The conditions and operation of the law of siege shall be determined by law.

Article XV. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders, and other marks of honour.

Article XVI. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments, and rehabilitation.

Article XVII. The institution of a Regency shall take place in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law.*

The Regent shall exercise the supreme powers which belong to the Emperor in his name.

*Law of succession, coronation, ascension, majority, style of address, regency, imperial governor, imperial family, hereditary estates, imperial expenditures, etc., of Feb. 11, 1889.

CHAPTER II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SUBJECTS

Article XVIII. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by law.

Article XIX. Japanese subjects shall all equally be eligible for civil and military appointments, and any other public offices, subject only to the conditions prescribed and Laws and Ordinances.

Article XX. Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the army or navy, according to the provisions of law.

Article XXI. Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law.

Article XXII. Subject to the limitations imposed by law, Japanese subjects shall enjoy full liberty in regard to residence and change of abode.

Article XXIII. No Japanese subject shall be arrested, detained, tried or punished, except according to law.

Article XXIV. No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by judges determined by law.

Article XXV. Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his permission.

Article XXVI. Except in cases provided for in the law, the secrecy of the letters of Japanese subjects shall not be violated.

Article XXVII. The rights of property of Japanese subjects shall not be violated. Such measures, however, as may be rendered necessary in the interests of the public welfare shall be taken in accordance with the provisions of the law.

Article XXVIII. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.

Article XXIX. Japanese subjects shall, within the limits of the law, enjoy liberty in regard to speech, writing, publication, public meetings, and associations.

Article XXX. Japanese subjects may present petitions, provided that they observe the proper form of respect, and comply with the rules specially provided for such matters.

Article XXXI. The provisions contained in the present chapter shall not interfere with the exercise, in times of war or in case of national emergency, of the supreme powers which belong to the Emperor.

Article XXXII. Each and every one of the provisions contained in the preceding articles of the present chapter shall, in so far as they do not conflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of the army and navy, apply to the officers and men of the army and of the navy.

CHAPTER III. THE IMPERIAL DIET

Article XXXIII. The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses: the House of Peers and the House of Representatives.

Article XXXIV. The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the Ordinance concerning the House of Peers, be composed of members of the Imperial Family, of Nobles, and of Deputies who have been nominated by the Emperor.

Article XXXV. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members elected by the people, according to the provisions of the Law of Election.

Article XXXVI. No one can at one and the same time be a member of both Houses.

Article XXXVII. Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article XXXVIII. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law brought forward by the Government, and may respectively bring forward projects of law.

Article XXXIX. A bill which has been rejected by either of the Houses shall not be again brought in during the same session.

Article XL. Both Houses can make recommendations to the Government in regard to laws, or upon any other subject. When, however, such recommendations are not adopted, they cannot be made a second time during the same session.

Article XLI. The Imperial Diet shall be convoked every year.

Article XLII. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity, a duration of a session may be prolonged by Imperial order.

Article XLIII. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked, in addition to the ordinary one. The duration of an extraordinary session shall be determined by Imperial order.

Article XLIV. With regard to the opening, closing, and prorogation of the Imperial Diet, and the prolongation of its sessions, these shall take place simultaneously in both Houses. Should the House of Representatives be ordered to dissolve, the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued.

Article XLV. When the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, the election of new members shall be ordered by Imperial decree, and the new House shall be convoked within five months from the day of dissolution.

Article XLVI. No debate can be opened and no vote can be taken in either House of the Imperial Diet unless not less than one-third of the whole number of the members thereof is present.

Article XLVII. Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote, the President shall have the casting vote.

Article XLVIII. The deliberation of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may, however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting.

Article XLIX. Both Houses of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the Emperor.

Article L. Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects.

Article LI. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present constitution and in the law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal affairs.

Article LII. No member of either House shall be held responsible outside the respective Houses for any opinion uttered or for any vote given by him in the House. When, however, a member himself has given publicity to his opinions, by public speech, by documents in print, or in writing, or by any other means, he shall, as regards such actions, be amenable to the general law.

Article LIII. The members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, unless with the permission of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offences connected with civil war or foreign troubles.

Article LIV. The Ministers of State, and persons deputed for that purpose by the Government, may at any time take seats and speak in either House.

CHAPTER IV. THE MINISTERS OF STATE AND THE PRIVY COUNCIL

Article LV. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be responsible for it.

All laws, public ordinances, and imperial rescripts, of whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the state, require the counter-signature of a Minister of State.

Article LVI. The Privy Council shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organisation of the Privy Council, deliberate upon the important matters of State, when they have been consulted by the Emperor.

CHAPTER V. THE JUDICATURE

Article LVII. Judicial powers shall be exercised by the courts of law, according to law, in the name of the Emperor. The organisation of the courts of law shall be determined by law.

Article LVIII. The judges shall be appointed from among those who possess the proper qualifications determined by law. No judge shall be dismissed from his post except on the ground of sentence having been passed upon him for a criminal act, or by reason of his having been subjected to punishment for disciplinary offence. Rules for disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law.

Article LIX. Trials shall be conducted and judgments rendered publicly. When, however, there exists any fear that such publicity may be prejudicial to peace and order, or to the maintenance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended, either in accordance with the law bearing on the subject or by the decision of the court concerned.

Article LX. Matters which fall within the competency of the special courts shall be specially determined by law.

Article LXI. The courts of law shall not take cognizance of any suits which arise out of the allegations that rights have been infringed by illegal action on the part of the executive authorities, and which fall within the competency of the court of administrative litigation, specially established by law.

CHAPTER VI. FINANCE

Article LXII. The imposition of a new tax or the modification of the rates (of an existing one) shall be determined by law.

However, all such administrative fees or other revenue as are in the nature of compensation for services rendered shall not fall within the category of the above clause.

The raising of national loans and the contracting of other liabilities to the charge of the National Treasury, except those that are provided in the Budget, shall require the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article LXIII. Existing taxes shall, in so far as they are not altered by new laws, continue to be collected as heretofore.

Article LXIV. The annual expenditure and revenue of the State shall, in the form of an annual Budget, receive the consent of the Imperial Diet. Any expenditure which exceeds the appropriations set forth under the various heads of the Budget, or those not provided for in the Budget, shall be referred subsequently to the Imperial Diet for its approval.

Article LXV. The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives.

Article LXVI. The expenditure in respect of the Imperial House shall be defrayed every year out of the National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall not hereafter require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase thereof is found necessary.

Article LXVII. The fixed expenditure based upon the supreme powers of the Emperor and set forth in this Constitution, and such expenditure as may have arisen by the effect of law, or as appertains to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be neither rejected nor reduced by the Imperial Diet, without the concurrence of the Government.

Article LXVIII. In order to meet special requirements the Government may ask the consent of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a continuing expenditure fund, for a previously fixed number of years.

Article LXIX. In order to supply unavoidable deficits in the Budget, and to meet requirements unprovided for in the same, a reserve fund shall be established.

Article LXX. When there is urgent need for the adoption of measures for the maintenance of the public safety, and when in consequence of the state either of the domestic affairs or of the foreign relations, the Imperial Diet cannot be convoked, the necessary financial measures may be taken by means of an Imperial Ordinance. In such cases as those mentioned in the preceding clause the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at its next session for its approval.

Article LXXI. When the Imperial Diet has not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not been brought into actual existence, the Government shall carry out the Budget of the preceding year.

Article LXXII. The final account of the expenditure and revenue of the State shall be verified and confirmed by the Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government to the Imperial Diet, together with the report of verification of the said Board.

The organisation and competency of the Board of Audit shall be determined by law separately.

CHAPTER VII SUPPLEMENTARY RULES

Article LXXIII. Should, hereafter, the necessity arise for the amendment of the provisions of the present Constitution, A project to that effect shall be submitted for the deliberation of the Imperial Diet by Imperial Order. In the above case, neither House can open a debate, unless not less than two-thirds of the whole number of members are present; and no amendment can be passed unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present is obtained.

Article LXXIV. No modification of the Imperial House Law shall be required to be submitted for the deliberation of the Imperial Diet. No provision of the present Constitution can be modified by the Imperial House Law.

Article LXXV. No modification can be introduced into the Constitution, or into the Imperial House Law, during the time of a Regency.

Article LXXVI. Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations, and ordinances, and all other such enactments, by whatever names they may be called, which do not conflict with the present constitution, shall continue in force. All existing contracts or orders which entail obligations upon the Government, and which are connected with the expenditure, shall come within the scope of Article LXVII.



2. AGREEMENT BETWEEN JAPAN AND THE UNITED KINGDOM, SIGNED AT LONDON, AUGUST 12, 1905

Preamble. The Governments of Japan and Great Britain, being desirous of replacing the agreement concluded between them on the 30th January, 1902, by fresh stipulations, have agreed upon the following articles, which have for their object:

(a) The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India;

(b) The preservation of the common interests of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations in China;

(c) The maintenance of the territorial rights of the High Contracting Parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and the defence of their special interests in the said regions:

Article I. It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement are in jeopardy, the two Governments will communicate with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in common the measures which should be taken to safeguard those menaced rights or interests. (671)

Article II. If by reason of unprovoked attack or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any other Power or Powers either Contracting Party should be involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special interests mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement, the other Contracting Party will at once come to the assistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with it. (672)

Article III. Japan possessing paramount political, military, and economic interests in Corea, Great Britain recognizes the right of Japan to take such measures of guidance, control, and protection in Corea as she may deem proper and necessary to safeguard and advance those interests, provided always that such measures are not contrary to the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations. (672)

Article IV. Great Britain having a special interest in all that concerns the security of the Indian frontier, Japan recognizes her right to take such measures in the proximity of that frontier as she may find necessary for safeguarding her Indian possessions. (672)

Article V. The High Contracting Parties agree that neither of them will, without consulting the other, enter into separate arrangements with another Power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this Agreement. (672)

Article VI. As regards the present war between Japan and Russia, Great Britain will continue to maintain strict neutrality unless some other Power or Powers should join in hostilities against Japan, in which case Great Britain will come to the assistance of Japan, and will conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual agreement with Japan. (672)

Article VII. The conditions under which armed assistance shall be afforded by either Power to the other in the circumstances mentioned in the present Agreement, and the means by which such assistance is to be made available, will be arranged by the Naval and Military authorities of the Contracting Parties, who will from time to time consult one another fully and freely upon all questions of mutual interest. (673)

Article VIII. The present Agreement shall, subject to the provisions of Article VI, come into effect immediately after the date of its signature, and remain in force for ten years from that date.

In case neither of the High Contracting Parties should have notified twelve months before the expiration of the said ten years the intention of terminating it, it shall remain binding until the expiration of one year from the day on which either of the High Contracting Parties shall have denounced it. But, if when the date fixed for its expiration arrives, either ally is actually engaged in war, the alliance shall, ipso facto, continue until peace is concluded. (673)

In faith whereof the Undersigned, duly authorized by their respective Governments, have signed this Agreement and have affixed thereto their Seals.

Done in duplicate at London, the 12th day of August, 1905.

(L.S.) TADASU HAYASHI

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan at the Court of St. James.

(L.S.) LANSDOWNE

His Britannic Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.



3. TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN JAPAN AND RUSSIA SIGNED AT PORTSMOUTH, SEPTEMBER 5, 1905

Article I. There shall henceforth be peace and amity between Their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias and between Their respective States and subjects. (783)

Article II. The Imperial Russian Government, acknowledging that Japan possesses in Corea paramount political, military and economical interests, engage neither to obstruct nor interfere with the measures of guidance, protection and control which the Imperial Government of Japan may find it necessary to take in Corea.

It is understood that Russian subjects in Corea shall be treated exactly in the same manner as the subjects or citizens of other foreign Powers, that is to say, they shall be placed on the same footing as the subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.

It is also agreed that, in order to avoid all cause of misunderstanding, the two High Contracting Parties will abstain, on the Russo-Corean frontier, from taking any military measure which may menace the security of Russian or Corean territory. (783)

Article III. Japan and Russia mutually engage:

1. To evacuate completely and simultaneously Manchuria except the territory affected by the lease of the Liao-tung Peninsula, in conformity with the provisions of additional Article I, annexed to this Treaty: and

2. To restore entirely and completely to the exclusive administration of China all portions of Manchuria now in the occupation or under the control of the Japanese or Russian troops, with the exception of the territory above mentioned.

The Imperial Government of Russia declare that they have not in Manchuria any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity. (784)

Article IV. Japan and Russia reciprocally engage not to obstruct any general measures common to all countries, which China may take for the development of the commerce and industry of Manchuria. (784)

Article V. The Imperial Russian Government transfer and assign to the Imperial Government of Japan, with the consent of the Government of China, the lease of Port Arthur, Talien and adjacent territory, and territorial waters and all rights, privileges and concessions connected with or forming part of such lease and they also transfer and assign to the Imperial Government of Japan all public works and properties in the territory affected by the above mentioned lease.

The two High Contracting Parties mutually engage to obtain the consent of the Chinese Government mentioned in the foregoing stipulation.

The Imperial Government of Japan on their part undertake that the proprietary rights of Russian subjects in the territory above referred to shall be perfectly respected. (784)

Article VI. The Imperial Russian Government engage to transfer and assign to the Imperial Government of Japan, without compensation and with the consent of the Chinese Government, the railway between Chang-chun (Kuan-cheng-tzu) and Port Arthur and all its branches, together with all rights, privileges and properties appertaining thereto in that region, as well as all coal mines in the said region belonging to or worked for the benefit of the railway.

The two High Contracting Parties mutually engage to obtain the consent of the Government of China mentioned in the foregoing stipulation. (785)

Article VII. Japan and Russia engage to exploit their respective railways in Manchuria exclusively for commercial and industrial purposes and in no wise for strategic purposes.

It is understood that that restriction does not apply to the railway in the territory affected by the lease of the Liao-tung Peninsula. (785)

Article VIII. The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia, with a view to promote and facilitate intercourse and traffic, will, as soon as possible, conclude a separate convention for the regulation of their connecting railway services in Manchuria. (785)

Article IX. The Imperial Russian Government cede to the Imperial Government of Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty, the southern portion of the Island of Saghalien and all islands adjacent thereto, and all public works and properties thereon. The fiftieth degree of north latitude is adopted as the northern boundary of the ceded territory. The exact alignment of such territory shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of additional Article II, annexed to this Treaty.

Japan and Russia mutually agree not to construct in their respective possessions on the Island of Saghalien or the adjacent islands, any fortifications or other similar military works. They also respectively engage not to take any military measures which may impede the free navigation of the Straits of La Perouse and Tartary. (785)

Article X. It is reserved to the Russian subjects, inhabitants of the territory ceded to Japan, to sell their real property and retire to their country; but, if they prefer to remain in the ceded territory, they will be maintained and protected in the full exercise of their industries and rights of property, on condition of submitting to Japanese laws and jurisdiction. Japan shall have full liberty to withdraw the right of residence in, or to deport from, such territory, any inhabitants who labour under political or administrative disability. She engages, however, that the proprietary rights of such individuals shall be fully respected. (786)

Article XL. Russia engages to arrange with Japan for granting to Japanese subjects rights of fishery along the coasts of the Russian possessions in the Japan, Okhotsk and Behring Seas.

It is agreed that the foregoing engagement shall not affect rights already belonging to Russian or foreign subjects in those regions. (786)

Article XII. The Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and Russia having been annulled by the war, the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia engage to adopt as the basis of their commercial relations, pending the conclusion of a new treaty of commerce and navigation on the basis of the Treaty which was in force previous to the present war, the system of reciprocal treatment on the footing of the most favoured nation, in which are included import and export duties, customs formalities, transit and tonnage dues, and the admission and treatment of the agents, subjects and vessels of one country in the territories of the other. (786)

Article XIII. As soon as possible after the present Treaty comes into force, all prisoners of war shall be reciprocally restored. The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia shall each appoint a special Commissioner to take charge of prisoners. All prisoners in the hands of the Government shall be delivered to and received by the Commissioner of the other Government or by his duly authorized representative, in such convenient numbers and at such convenient ports of the delivering State as such delivering State shall notify in advance to the Commissioner of the receiving State.

The Governments of Japan and Russia shall present to each other, as soon as possible after the delivery of prisoners has been completed, a statement of the direct expenditures respectively incurred by them for the care and maintainance of prisoners from the date of capture or surrender up to the time of death or delivery. Russia engages to repay Japan, as soon as possible after the exchange of the statements as above provided, the difference between the actual amount so expended by Japan and the actual amount similarly disbursed by Russia. (787)

Article XIV. The present Treaty shall be ratified by Their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias. Such ratification shall, with as little delay as possible and in any case not later than fifty days from the date of the signature of the Treaty, be announced to the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia respectively through the French Minister in Tokio and the Ambassador of the United States in Saint Petersburg and from the date of the later of such announcements this Treaty shall in all its parts come into full force.

The formal exchange of the ratification shall take place at Washington as soon as possible. (787)

Article XV. The present Treaty shall be signed in duplicate in both the English and French languages. The texts are in absolute conformity, but in case of discrepancy in interpretation, the French text shall prevail.

In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed and affixed their seals to the present Treaty of Peace. (788)

Done at Portsmouth (New Hampshire) this fifth day of the ninth month of the thirty-eighth year of Meiji, corresponding to the twenty-third day of August (fifth September), one thousand nine hundred and five.

(Signed) JUTARO KOMURA (L.S.)

(Signed) K. TAKAHIRA (L.S.)

(Signed) SERGE WITTE (L.S.)

(Signed) ROSEN (L.S.)

In conformity with the provisions of Articles III and IX of the Treaty of Peace between Japan and Russia of this date, the undersigned Plenipotentiaries have concluded the following additional Articles:

I. To Article III. The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia mutually engage to commence the withdrawal of their military forces from the territory of Manchuria simultaneously and immediately after the Treaty of Peace comes into operation, and within a period of eighteen months from that date, the Armies of the two countries shall be completely withdrawn from Manchuria, except from the leased territory of the Liaotung Peninsula.

The forces of the two countries occupying the front positions shall be first withdrawn.

The High Contracting Parties reserve to themselves the right to maintain guards to protect their respective railway lines in Manchuria. The number of such guards shall not exceed fifteen per kilometre and within that maximum number, the commanders of the Japanese and Russian Armies shall, by common accord, fix the number of such guards to be employed, as small as possible having in view the actual requirements.

The Commanders of the Japanese and Russian forces in Manchuria shall agree upon the details of the evacuation in conformity with the above principles and shall take by common accord the measures necessary to carry out the evacuation as soon as possible and in any case not later than the period of eighteen months. (789)

II. To Article IX. As soon as possible after the present Treaty comes into force, a Commission of Delimitation, composed of an equal number of members to be appointed respectively by the two High Contracting Parties, shall on the spot mark in a permanent manner the exact boundary between the Japanese and Russian possessions on the Island of Saghalien. The Commissions shall be bound, so far as topographical considerations permit, to follow the fiftieth parallel of north latitude as the boundary line, and in case any deflections from that line at any points are found to be necessary, compensation will be made by correlative deflections at other points. It shall also be the duty of the said Commission to prepare a list and description of the adjacent islands included in the cession and finally the Commission shall prepare and sign maps showing the boundaries of the ceded territory. The work of the Commission shall be subject to the approval of the High Contracting Parties.

The foregoing additional Articles are to be considered as ratified with the ratification of the Treaty of Peace to which they are annexed. (789)

Portsmouth the 5th day, 9th month, 38th year of Meiji corresponding to the 23rd August, 5th September, 1905.

(Signed) JUTARO KOMURA (L.S.)

(Signed) K. TAKAHIRA (L.S.)

(Signed) SERGE WITTE (L.S.)

(Signed) ROSEN (L.S.)



INDEX

Abdication, Shomu; Fujiwara policy

Abe, Princess, becomes Empress Koken

Abe family and Nine Years' Commotion; Minister of the Left

—Kozo, on moral influence of Chinese classics

—Masahiro, policy in 1853; attempts to strengthen Tokugawa

—Muneto, brother of Sadato, war in Mutsu

—Nakamaro (701-70), studies in China

—Sadato (1019-1062), in Nine Years' Commotion

—Seimei, astronomer, his descendants in Gakashujo

—Shigetsugu (1600-51)

—Tadaaki (1583-1644), minister of Iemitsu

Abutsu-ni (d. 1283), author of Izayoi-nikki

Academies for youth of uji, Gaku-in; temple-schools, iera-koya; established by Yoshinao; the Honga school; schools in Yedo and Osaka; for court nobles

Acha-no-Tsubone

Achi, Chinese prince, migrates to Japan (289 A.D.) with weavers; carpenters; and Saka-no-ye no Tamuramaro

Adachi family, connexion with Hojo, Miura plot against; crushed (1286)

Adahiko, son of Omi, befriends Oke and Woke

Adams, Will (d. 1520), English pilot on Liefde, adviser of Ieyasu; Saris distrusts; tomb (ill.)

Adoption, law of, in Court Laws; in Tokugawa fiefs; laws of

After-Han dynasty (211-65) of China

Aganoko, lands confiscated

Agglutinative language

Agriculture, early development of; and religion; encouraged by Sujin; in reign of Suinin; on state revenue lands; in years 540-640; in Nara epoch; in Heian; in Kamakura period; under Yoshimune; Americans in remodelling methods of; growth in 19th century

Ai river, fighting on

Ainu, nature-worship of; language; subdivision of yellow race; ill.

Aizu, meeting-plan of armies in Shido shogun campaign; clan loyal to shogun at Restoration

Akabashi Moritoki

Akagashira, "red head," Akahige, "red beard," Yemishi leader in 8th century

Akahito see Yamabe Akahito

Akakura at Sekigahara

Akamatsu, large land-holdings of; Ashikaga Yoshinori plots against

—Mitsusuke (1381-1441), rebels against Yoshimochl; defeated

—Norimura (1277-1350), defender of Go-Daigo; turns against Crown; captures Kyoto (1336); and Ashikaga

—Norishige, revolts in Kyushu

—Sadamura, among generals attacking Mitsusuke

—Yoshimura, guardian of Ashikaga Yoshiharu

Aka-Nyudo, "Red Monk,"; see Yamana Mochitoyo

Akasaka taken by Hojo

Akazome Emon, authoress of Eigwa Monogatari

Akechi Mitsuhide (1526-82), soldier under Nobunaga; goes over to the Mori; shogun; tries to kill Ieyasu; death

Aki, province

Aki, daughter of Kiyo and Fujiwara Yoshifusa, Montoku's empress

Akimoto Yasutomo (1580-1642) rebuilds Ieyasu's shrine

Akitoki see Kanazawa Akitoki

Akizuki of Kyushu, defeated by Otomo

Ako, "reliance on equity," quibble over word

Ako, vendetta of

Akunoura, foundry

Akuro-o, Yemishi leader in 8th century wars, possibly Oro-o, i.e. Russian

Alcock, Sir Rutherford (1809-97), on aliens in Japan

Alderman, over homestead of 50 houses

Alexieff, E. I. (b. 1843), Russian admiral, in command at Port Arthur

Aliens, in prehistoric ban or bambetsu; naturalized, skilled artisans, the tamibe; see Extraterritorial Jurisdiction

Altaic myth; group of languages

Amako family crushed in Izumo by the Mori

—Tsunehisa (1458-1540), rivalry with Ouchi

—Yoshihisa (1545-1610), defeated by Mori

—Amakusa, Portuguese trade and Christianity in; Shimabara revolt

Ama-no-Hihoko, prince of Shiragi, Korea, settles in Tajima

Amaterasu-o-mi-Kami, Sungoddess

Amida, the Saviour; Amida-ga-mine, shrine, near Kyoto, tomb of Hideyoshi

Amur river, battle on, (660 A.D.) with Sushen; Russia's position on

Amusements, prehistoric; in early historic times; in Heian epoch; at Kamakura; in Muromachi epoch; (ills.)

Anahobe, Prince, rival of Yomei for throne; to succeed Yomei

Anato now Nagato

Ancestor-worship, apotheosis of distinguished mortals; grafted on Buddhism

Ando family revolt

—Shoshu, suicide (1333)

Andrew, Prince, Arima Yoshisada

Ane-gawa, battle (1570)

Ane-no-koji family

Animals, killing, forbidden in reign (741) of Koken; earlier; in time of Tsunayoshi; result in stock farming; worship of; mythical and terrible beasts in early records; pets

Anjin-Zuka, tomb of Will Adams, (ill.)

"Anjiro," Japanese interpreter of Xavier

Ankan, 27th Emperor (534-535)

Anko, 20th Emperor (454-456), 111-12; palace

Ankokuji Ekei see Ekei

Annam, trade with

Annen, priest, compiles Doji-kyo

Annual Letter of Jesuits

Anotsu, Ise, China trade

Anra, province Mimana

Ansatsu-shi, inspectors of provincial government

Anthology, first Japanese, "Myriad Leaves,"; of poems in Chinese style, Kwaifu-so; the Kokin-shu, 10th century; the three, of the Ho-en epoch; the Hyakunin-isshu of Teika; in the Kyoto school

Antoku, 81st Emperor (1181-1183); drowned at Dan-no-ura; perhaps a girl

Antung, on Yalu, Russians defeated

Aoki Kaneiye, metal-worker of Muromachi period

Konyo, scholar, studies Dutch (1744); introduces sweet potato

Aoto Fujitsuna criticizes Hojo Tokiyori

Ape, worship of

Apotheosis, one class of Kami formed by

Aqueducts in irrigation

Arai Hakuseki (1656-1726), Confucianist, author of Sotran I gen (ill.); retired; opposes forcing Imperial princes into priesthood

Arakahi, defeats Iwai in Chikugo (528 A.D.)

Archaeological relics

Archery, early development of; in reign of Temmu; equestrian, in Nara epoch; (ill.)

Architecture, in proto-historic times; influenced by Buddhism; in Heian epoch; Kamakura period; Muromachi

Are see Hiyeda Are

Ariga, Dr., on Korean influence on early relations with China; on supposed moral influence of Chinese classics; on false attribution to Shotoku of estimate of Buddhism; on Joei code

Arii, adherents of Southern Court in Sanyo-do

Arima, in Settsu, thermal spring; Jesuits and Buddhists in; represented in embassy to Europe

Arima Yostosada (d. 1577), brother of Omura Sumitada, baptized as Andrew

—Yoshizumi rebels

Arisugawa, one of four princely houses

—Prince (1835-95), leader of anti-foreign party

Arita, porcelain manufacture

Ariwara, uji of princely descent; Takaoka's family in; academy; eligible to high office

—Narihira (825-882), poet; (ill.)

—Yukihira (818-893), poet; founds academy, (881)

Armour, Yamato, in sepulchral remains; in Muromachi epoch; early arms and armour; after Daiho; in Heian epoch

Army see Military Affairs

Army and Navy, Department in Meiji government

Army inspector

Arrow-heads

Artillery, early use

Artisans, in prehistoric tamibe; Korean and Chinese immigrants

Arts and Crafts, promoted by Yuryaku; Chinese and Korean influence; in Kamakura period; in Heian epoch; patronized by Yoshimasa; first books on; in Muromachi epoch; in time of Hideyoshi; patronized by Tsunayoshi

Asahina Saburo (or Yoshihide) son of Wada Yoshimori

Asai family control Omi province; Nobunaga's struggle with; helped by Buddhists

—Nagamasa (1545-73), won over to Nobunaga; joins Asakura, defeated

Asaka Kaku, contributor to Dai Nihon-shi

Asakura family in Echizen; struggle with Nobunaga; helped by Buddhist priests

—Yoshikage (1533-73), defeated by Hideyoshi

Asama, eruption (1783)

Asan, Korea, occupied by Chinese (1894)

Asano Nagamasa (1546-1610); in charge of commissariat; sent to Korea (1598)

—Naganori, daimyo of Ako, exile, suicide, avenged by "47 Ronins,"

—Yukinaga (1576-1613), against Ishida

Ashikaga family favour Yoritomo; revolt of; shogun of Northern court; government; internal quarrels; estimate by Rai Sanyo; fall of; government; scholarship; school; Buddhism; against Hojo; end of shogunate of

—Chachamaru, kills his father Masatomo

—gakko, great school, under patronage of Uesugi

—Haruuji (d. 1560), kubo

—Masatomo (1436-91), kubo; builds fort at Horigoe; succession

—Mitsukane (1376-1409), kwanryo; assists the Ouchi

—Mochinaka, brother of Mochiuji, sides with Ogigayatsu

—Mochisada, intrigue to make him high constable

—Mochiuji (1398-1439), kwanryo; sides with Yamanouchi branch of Uesugi; suicide

—Motouji (1340-67), son of Takauji; kwanryo; urged to become shogun

—Shigeuji (1434-97), kubo

Ashikaga Tadafuyu (1326-1400), son of Takauji, rebels in Kyushu; joins Southern party in 1353; takes and loses Kyoto

—Tadayoshi (1307-52), assistant governor-general of Kwanto; governor of Totomi; kills Morinaga; practically regent; in Ashikaga revolt; chief of general staff; plots against the Ko brothers, defeated, joins Southern party; suicide

—Takamoto, kubo

—Takauji (1305-58), joins Go-Daigo; provincial governor; plots against Morinaga; declares himself shogun; captures Kyoto; changes plans; crushes Tadayoshi; defeated; death, estimate; shogun (1338-58); distributes estates; letters; shrine of Hachiman; Buddhist temples; signature (ill.)

—Ujimitsu (1357-98), kwanryo; wishes to be shogun; strengthens family in Kwanto; literature

—Yoshiaki (1537-97), shogun; turns to Mori, defeated; Hideyoshi intrigues with

—Yoshiakira (1330-67), kwanryo of Kwanto; succeeds Tadayoshi; de-thrones Suko; defeats Tadafuyu; shogun; surrender and death; plot against

—Yoshiharu (1510-50), shogun (1521-45)

—Yoshihide (1565-8), shogun

—Yoshihisa (1465-89), shogun (1474-89); Onin war; declared heir; administration; scholarship

—Yoshikatsu (1433-43), shogun

—Yoshikazu (1407-25) shogun (1423-5)

—Yoshikiyo, advances on Tamba; killed

—Yoshikore

—Yoshimasa (1435-90), shogun; succession; retires; fosters letters

—Yoshimi (1439-91), called Gijin, heir of Yoshimasa; deserted by Yamana (1469); retires (1477)

—Yoshimichi see Ashikaga Yoshizumi

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), shogun at Muromachi (1367-95); extravagant administration; foreign policy; dies, receives rank of ex-Emperor; treatment of Crown; and piracy; favours Zen priests

—Yoshimochi (1386-1428), shogun; succeeds his father Yoshimitsu in military offices; rebellion against; excesses

—Yoshinori (1394-41), shogun (1428-41); abbot, called Gien; rule; killed; relations with China; grants Ryukyu to Shimazu

—Yoshitane (1465-1523), shogun; rule; defeated by Hatakeyama Yoshitoyo; death

—Yoshiteru (1535-65), shogun, (1545-65); suicide; receives Vilela

—Yoshitsugu, killed by his brother Yoshimochi

—Yoshiuji, last kubo

—Yoshizumi, originally Yoshimichi (1478-1511), shogun; nominal rule; death

Ashina of Aizu

Asiatic yellow race

Askold, Russian protected cruiser at Port Arthur

Asbmaro, governor of Dazaifu, wins favor of Dokyo

Assumption, De l', martyrdom (1617)

Aston, W. G., on dates in "Chronicles,"; Korean origin of Kumaso; purification service; neolithic boats; chronology; invasions of Korea; Japanese authority in Korea; local records; 17-Article Constitution; women in Heian epoch; Yoshitsune's letter; invasion of Korea

Asuka, Empress Komyo

Asuka, capital moved to; palace built by Kogyoku

Asuka-yama, groves

Asukara Norikige, high constable, crushes revolt

Asylum established by Fujiwara Fuyutsugu

Ata rebels against Sujin

Ataka Maru, great ship of Bakufu, broken up by Tsunayoshi

Atalanta Izanagi

Atogi, Korean scribe

Atsumi Hirafu, defeated by Chinese in Korea (662)

Atsunaga, brother of Atsvnari; see Go-Shujaku

Atsunari, Prince, son of Ichijo; see Go-Ichijo

Atsuta, Hachiman's shrine

Auditor of accounts

Auguries

Augustins in Japan

Avatars of Buddha, Kami

Awa, mythical first island; culture of mulberry and hemp in; overrun by Taira Tadatsune; invaded by Yoritomo; won from Satomi by Hojo Ujitsuna; Miyoshi in; indigo growing

Awada, Mahito, on committee for Daiho laws (701)

Awadaguchi, swordsmith

Awaji, island, in early myth; Izanagi goddess of; Sagara exiled to; reduced by Hideyoshi

Awo, Princess, sister of Woke, rules in interregnum

Axe, in fire ordeal

Ayala (d. 1617), Augustin vice-provincial, executed

Azuchi, in Omi, fort built by Nobunaga; church and residence for priests

Azuke, placing in custody of feudatory

Azuma, eastern provinces, origin of name

—Kagami, 13th century history, on Hojo Yasutoki

Azumi, temple of

Babylonian myth

Backgammon or sugoroku

Badges; and crests

Baelz, Dr. E., on stature and race of Japanese; on shape of eye

Bakin, on last years of Minamoto Tametomo

Bakufu, camp government, military control, Yoritomo's system of shogunate; three divisions; entrusted with choice of emperor (1272 & 1274); power weakened by Mongol invasion; and rapidly fails; Go-Fushimi appeals to; re-created at Kyoto by Takauji; in Muromachi period; at Yedo; oath of loyalty, to; Tokugawa B.; appointing power, and other powers; exiles Yamaga Soko for heterodoxy; power lessened by Chinese learning; B. party in Kyoto; relations with Court; organization; decline of power; Court nobles and Emperor begin to oppose; puts through Harris commercial treaty; and foreign representatives; pledged (1861) to drive out foreigners in 10 years; further interference of Crown and Court party; power ended

Baltic squadron, Russian, defeated by Togo

Bambelsu or Ban, aboriginal class

Bandits commanded by Buddhist priests in 10th century; their outrages

Bando or Kwanto provinces, army raised in, during 8th century; see Kwanto

Banishment; edict of 1587, against Christians

Banzai, "10,000 years," viva

Baptismal flags

Barley, cultivation of, urged as substitute for rice

Basho see Matsuo Basho

Batchelor, Rev. John, on pit-dwellers

Battering-engine

Battle Era, Sengoku Jidai, 1490-1600

Be, guilds or corporations; hereditary, not changed by Daika; property of Crown; of armourers; fishermen

Bekki Shoemon, in plot of 1652

Bell, of Hoko-ji, "treasonable" inscription on; on public-service horses; bronze bells; Nanban (ill.); bell-tower (ill.); suzu

Benkei, halberdier

Betto superintendent of uji schools; president of samurai-dokoro; regent, shikken, head of man-dokoro, office hereditary in Hojo family; head of monju-dokoro, becomes finance minister of shogun (1225)

Bidatsu, 30th Emperor (572-85)

Biddle, James. (1783-1848), Commodore, U.S.N., in Japan (1846)

Bifuku-mon-in, consort of Toba, mother of Konoe

Bin, Buddhist priest, "national doctor"; death

Bingo, woman ruler, in

Bingo, Saburo, see Kojima Takanori

Birth customs

Bison, fossil remains

Bita-sen, copper coins

Bitchu, province, Yoshinaka's force defeated in; invaded by Hideyoshi

Biwa, 4-stringed lute; biwabozu, players; (ill.)

Biwa, Lake

Bizen, swordsmith

Bizen transferred from Akamatsu to Yamana family

Black, early colour of mourning

Black Current see Kuro-shio

Boards of Religion and Privy Council under Daiho code

Bogatyr, Russian protected cruiser wrecked

Bondmen and Freemen, division by Daika; by Jito's edict

Bonita, curing, industry

Bonotsu, Satsuma

Borneo, possible source of Kumaso

Boxer Rebellion, Japanese troops in China during

Brack, Dutch ship

Bramsen, William, on early dates in "Chronicles"

Branding

Braziers

Brewing

Bribery and sale of office, attempts to abolish

Bridges, (ill.)

Brine in cosmogony

Brinkley, Capt. Frank (1841-1912), article in Encyclopaedia Britannica quoted; Oriental Series referred to

Bronze culture in South; traces before the Yamato; bells; mirrors, bowls, vases in Yamato tombs; great statue of Buddha

Buddha, early images of; copper images ordered in 605; golden image of, from Shiragi (616 and 621); great bronze Nara image (750 A.D.); Kami incarnations of, theory of Mixed Shinto; bronze image (1252) at Karnakura; great image at Kyoto; replaced by bronze

Buddhism introduced 552 A.D.; use of writing; early politics; rapid spread; priests above law; architecture; music; Empresses; disasters and signs check spread; in Xara epoch; abdications; decline of Yamato; industry; funeral of Shomu; time of Kwammu; official advancement; vices of priests; superstition; in Heian epoch; in Yorimasa uprising; Hojo regents: sects; Korean and Chinese; three Vehicles; soldier priests; crushed by Yoshinori; amulets; Chinese priests; combined with Confucianism and Shinto; Ashikaga; wars of monks; revolt in Settsu; oppose Nobunaga; in Komaki war; spies in Kyushu; Hideyoshi; priests of Kagoshima; in Choshu; in Yamaguchi; persecuted in Hirado by Christians; priests converted by Vilela; Ieyasu's laws; gains by suppression of Christianity

Bugyo, commissioners of Muromachi; 5 administrators under Hideyoshi; special appointees to rich fiefs; under Babufu; in Emperor's and ex-Emperor's court

Building-land, tenure

Buke, see Military houses.

Bukyo Shogaku, "Military Primer," by Yamaga Soko

Bummei Ittpki, work of Ichijo Kaneyoshi

Bungo, Tsuchi-gumo in; Xavier in; Jesuit headquarters; Christian success among nobles; in embassy of 1582

Bunji-kin, debased coins of 1736-40

Bunka, period, 1804-17

Bunroku, period, 1592-5

Bunsei, period, 1818-29

Bureaux, under Daika

Burial, jars of Yamato; primitive methods; coffins; honour of tombs; mounds, limited in size; funeral customs

Bushi; originated in N.E. Japan; name first used of guards; virtues of, typified in leaders of Nine Years' Commotion; general description; of Kwanto described; fighting against Mongols; outrages in provinces

Bushido, way of the warrior; cult developed by Yamaga Soko; and by Yoshimune

Butsu Sorai see Ogyu Sorai

Butter, tribute to Court

Buzen, Tsuehi-gumo in

Byodo-in, Tendai temple; prison of Go-Daigo

Cabinet under Restoration rule; crisis over Korea (1873); of 1885; dependent on Crown

Cabral; Francis (1529-1609), Jesuit Vice-provincial, on early missions, hospitals, Buddhists

Calendar, Prince Shotoku; revision of 1683; further revision planned by Yoshimune

Calligraphy

Calthrop, Capt., on Oriental tactics

Cambodia, trade with

Camera government, insei, proposed by Go-Sanjo; under Shirakawa; Go-Shirakawa; Yoritomo establishes giso at the Inchu; the three recluses; system destroyed by Shokyu war; in Kamakura regency; camera party at court; in Northern court

Canals

Canonical names of emperors

Capital changed at beginning of reign; Jimmu's change to Yamato; Chuai's to far south; to Nara (709) and previous changes; changes helped road building; change from Nara to Kyoto (792); from Kyoto to Fukuhara

Capital Punishment

Caps, official, as insignia of rank; effect of, on hair dressing; cap rank replaced by cap grade after Daika; varnished gauze

Car, of Enryaku-ji

Caron, Francis, Dutch trader, on Japanese martyrs

Cart, hunting, 126; "compass cart"; Heian epoch

Casting in Nara epoch

Castles

Catapult

Caterpillar, worship, of

Cats, pets in Heian epoch

Cattle, not used for food in early Japan, killing forbidden; Christians accused of eating

Cavalry, in capital; in war

Censor; in Tokugawa organization; as judge

Census, reign of Sujin; time of Daika, (645 A.D.); classifications, under Daiho; by Buddhist and Shinto priests

Central Department, under Daika; under Daiho

Centralization of government

Ceramics, primitive; Yamato; Korean; Gyogi; Heian; Kamakura; Muromachi

Cereals, five; premiums for large crops

Ceremonies, Department of, under Daika; under Daiho; 15 masters of, Koke; law (927)

Chamberlain, Basil Hall, on dates in early "Chronicles"; meaning of Kami; classification of language; village communities; ancient dress; Altaic myth; names; education; Doji-kyo; swords

Chamberlain; pass on cases referred to shogun

Chancellor, dajo daijin; abolished; Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

Changan, Tang metropolis, Kyoto patterned after

Chao Heng, Chinese name for Abe Nakamaro

Charlevoix, quoted on Spanish galleon incident

Chekiang, attacked by pirates (1559)

Chemulpo, Russians in, attacked and defeated by Uryu; landing-place for Japanese attack

Cheng Cheng-kung

Cheng Chi-lung, general of Ming dynasty

Chengtsz, Confucian commentaries of

Chen Hosiang, bonze

Chen Weiching (Chin Ikei), Chinese envoy to Japanese in Korea; and negotiations for peace

Cherry-trees, groves; festivals

Chiba, branch of Taira; one of "8 Generals of Kwanto"

Chiba Tsunetane (1118-1201), favours Yoritomo; sent to Kyoto

Chichibu, copper in, (708)

Chichibu branch of Taira

Chihaya in Hojo war

Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), dramatist,

Chikauji see Tokugawa Chikauji

Chikayoshi see Nakahira Chikayoshi

Chiksan, battle, (1597), 519

Chikuzen province, Dazai-fu in; Toi attack; Mongol landing

China, "High Plain of Heaven"; "Eternal Land"; architecture; bronze bells; bronze mirrors; Buddhism; calendar; ceramics; chronology; clay effigies; coinage; Crown; divination; government; literature; morality; myth; nobility; painting; promotion of officials; relations and early intercourse; scholars in Japan; Hideyoshi's plan to conquer; interference in Korea; Ming dynasty; trade; Formosa; China-Japan war; Boxer rebellion; Russia; Treaty of Portsmouth; of Peking; finances

Chin Ikei see Chen Weiching

Chinju, fort in Korea, taken by Japanese

Chinju-fu, local government station in Korea

Chinnampo, landing-place for Japanese (1904)

Cho, Korean envoy

Cho Densu see Mineho

Chokei, 98th Emperor (1368-72)

Chokei see Miyoshi Norinaga

Chokodo estates

Choko-ji, castle in Omi

Chollado, southern Korea, attacked by pirates

Chomei see Kamo Chomeii

Chong-ju, Korea, Cossacks defeated at

Cho-ryung, pass in Korea

Chosen, name of Korea, first use

Choshu, Xavier in; feudatory of, opposes Tokugawa and joins extremists; Shimonoseki complication; revolt of samurai; joins Satsuma against Tokugawa; fiefs surrender to Crown; clan representation