SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured ("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war.



LESSON XLIV.

THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.

208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing:

Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree. Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some kind of bones on the ground. Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of human being in that tent.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "ie", the ending "-n" is added (121):

Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion. Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets. La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction). Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien, I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.

210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found:

Li faris la mondon felicxa, he made the world happy (made-happy the world). Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed). Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made. Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use: Dio faris la mondon felicxan, God made the happy world. Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy. Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole. Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.]

211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20):

Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary. Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that one representative. Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror. Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief.

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.]

VOCABULARY

anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.). ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain. ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process. just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege. klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair. kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer. oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string.

LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.

Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si "Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe.

En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna militcxevalo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very severe."



LESSON XLV.

THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time:

Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair. Regxo iam logxis tie, a king once (upon a time) dwelt there. Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li? Did you ever go to law against him?

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL".

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:

Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent. Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?

CAUSATIVE VERBS.

214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22).

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb:

dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet). moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft). plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer). faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy). beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful).

[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as: Li faris la mondon gxoja, he made the world glad. Li gxojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.]

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed in the root is made to take place:

dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep). konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know). mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder). mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).

c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile). kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with). forigi, to do away with (from for, away). ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161).

EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA".

215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb:

Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me! Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge. Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.

VOCABULARY

akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent. dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215). gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe. ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump. iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull.

[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may be translated "not to care for": Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the book. Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, I do not care whether he is coming or not.]

CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO.

Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to each other very amiably.



LESSON XLVI.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL".

216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:

Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, I tried somehow to guide you thither. Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce the decision in some way.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM".

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount:

Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time? Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water. Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera, that way is a little dangerous (198). La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.

THE SUFFIX "-AD-".

218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated.

a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.:

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly. rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze. vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt. Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis, two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.

b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29):

kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout). movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement). pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot). parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken). pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought). La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure. Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, I prefer the reading of (to read) such books.

THE USE OF "MEM".

219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40):

Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you. La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way. Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself. La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves. Gxi pendas sur la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself). Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you. Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.

VOCABULARY

Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast. ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand. fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown. Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise. honest-a = honest. lok-o = place. ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219). iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold. iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily.

ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.

Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon").



LESSON XLVII.

THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the sake of euphony):

Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me. Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go. Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant.

221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, "nenies", nobody's, no one's:

Cxies afero estas nenies afero, everybody's affair is nobody's affair. Li lauxdos nenies ideojn, he will praise no one's ideas.

THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.

222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to an "adverbial" clause.

[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", because I was happy, I laughed.]

Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e":

Gxojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed. Forironte, ni adiauxis lin, being about to depart, we bade him farewell. Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin, after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep. Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold. Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped by you, I shall succeed. Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain. Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry. Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking (not having spoken), he left. Li venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not-having-been) called.

[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.]

THE PREFIX "RE-".

223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.")

rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect. renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain. rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return. gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return. ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject.

VOCABULARY

brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine. cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221). detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220). fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem. filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse. fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror. insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw.

LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO.

Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo ("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis.

[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).]

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how ("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants ("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself.



LESSON XLVIII.

THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is "nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing:

Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror. Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of problem is too difficult for him.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction:

Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine. Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow.

THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time:

Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous philosopher. Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn, you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.

THE SUFFIX "-AJX-".

227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202).

a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root:

konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth. sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection. mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder.

b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached:

belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel. maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence.

c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in the root:

sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object. ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web.

THE ADVERB "JEN".

228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something:

Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem! Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher! Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies. Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows. Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way. Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words.

VOCABULARY

arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226). art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225). ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint. jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand. jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief. konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule. lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive. nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine.

DU ARTKONKURSOJ.

Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!"

Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity (injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings."



LESSON XLIX.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM".

229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason:

Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason. Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.

230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way.

Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson, I can in no way arrange a competition. Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula, That act is in no way regular.

231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not any, none, no:

Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no skill. Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, there is no wine in his glass.

THE SUFFIX "-IGX-".

232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an "inchoative" nature.

a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition expressed in the root:

sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat. starigxi, to become standing, to stand up.

b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of "transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169):

La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut). La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves. La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks. Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered.

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:

Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita, we close the door. the door is (has been) closed.

Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata, they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved.

Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita, I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken.

Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj, he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.]

c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in the root:

lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired. varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm. maljunigxi, to become old, to age.

d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined. forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible.

VOCABULARY

apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229). atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230). dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231). efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow. hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape. horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray. krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical.

LA KREPUSKO.

Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon ("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact ("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I



LESSON L.

THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O".

233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", "iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives:

Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action). cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action).

Interrogative and Relative: kio = what.

Distributive: cxio = everything. cxio cxi = all this.

Indefinite: io = anything, something.

Negative: nenio = nothing.

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series:

Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say? Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred. Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them. Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but nothing for me.

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows:

Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative and Relative

tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233) that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing

tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220) that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one)

ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221) that one's whose every one's any one's no one's

tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224) that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of

tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225) there where everywhere anywhere nowhere

tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226) then when always any time never

tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229) therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no so why reason reason reason

tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230) (156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way

tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231) that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no so much as whole of amount quantity

THE USE OF "AJN".

236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never attached" to the correlative which it follows:

kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever. kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much. kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever.

THE SUFFIX "-ING-".

237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root:

glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder. lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket.

VOCABULARY

cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233). Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering. io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern. jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy. klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple. kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233). lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful.

LA GORDIA LIGAJXO.

Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita ("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj regxoj de Azio.

Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li trancxis la gordian ligajxon."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of continuing ("dauxrigi") his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at least the story is interesting, whatever actually ("efektive") happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. 18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through the atmosphere for a few minutes.



LESSON LI.

THE PRONOUN "AMBAUX".

238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "ambaux", both, indicates two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form:

Ili ambaux venis al la templo, they both came to the temple. Ambaux faris oferojn al la dioj, both made offerings to the gods. Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaux, seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both.

[Footnote: This pronoun must not be confused with the use of "kaj", translated "both" in the combination "kaj ... kaj ...", "both ... and ..." (26).]

FORMATIONS WITH "-IG-" AND "-IGX-".

239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the suffix "-ig-" and the suffix "-igx-". Thus from one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with "-ig-", being transitive, may also be used in the passive:

sidi = to sit, to be sitting. sidigxi = to become sitting, to take a seat. sidigi = to cause to sit, to seat. esti sidigata = to be caused to sit. silenti = to be silent. silentigxi = to become silent. silentigi = to cause to be silent, to silence. esti silentigita = to be silenced. kusxi = to lie, to be lying. kusxigxi = to lie down, to go to bed. kusxigi = to cause to lie, to lay. esti kusxigita = to be laid. stari = to stand, to be standing. starigxi = to rise, to stand up, to become erect. starigi = to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect. esti starigita = to be raised, to be erected.

FACTUAL CONDITIONS.

240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an "assumption" and a "conclusion". The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the conjunction "se", "if") which assumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or realization of the assumption. "Factual conditions" (conditions of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time:

Se li vidas tion, li ploras, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping). Se li vidis tion, li ploris, if he saw that, he wept. Li ploros, se li vidos tion, he will weep, if he sees that. Se li venis hieraux, li foriros morgaux, if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow. Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, if he has seen that, he now is weeping. Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished. Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, if he has been captured, he will already have been punished.

VOCABULARY

ambaux = both (238). mut-a = dumb, mute. azen-o = ass, donkey. orel-o = ear. ben-i = to bless. petol-a = mischievous. dors-o = back. propr-a = own, one's own. form-o = form. se = if. halt-i = to stop (intrans.). spir-i = to breathe. monahx-o = monk. turment-i = to torment.

LA MONAHXOJ KAJ LA AZENO.

Iam du monahxoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monahxejo, dum grade krepuskigxis. Ambaux portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaux lacigxis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu monahxo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi anstatauxos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj ankaux por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem gxoje restos en gxia loko." Jxus dirite, tuj farite ("no sooner said than done"). Malliginte la ligajxojn kiuj tenis la azenon, ili jxetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monahxo tuj forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaux viroj lauxte ridis. Post tio, la dua monahxo sin ligis per la sama sxnurego kiu antauxe tenis la azenon. Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jxus sxtelita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monahxo anoncis al li, "Cxar mi estis tro mangxema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaux du jaroj. Mi jxus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan monahxon al sia hejmo. La monahxo restis tiun nokton cxe la kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed kasxe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por acxeti alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monahxo estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monahxejo. La malsagxa kamparano, klinigxinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monahxo, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro mangxema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspirajxo apud sia orelo. Tio sxajne estis respondo al la jxus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsagxa kamparano ree acxetis sian propran azenon. Cxiam poste li nek turmentis nek ecx laborigis gxin, kredante la azenon la sankta monahxo mem.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the gods informed ("sciigis") them that whatever man would come to the temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first comer ("la unuan veninton") king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though ("tamen"), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous (192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him,



LESSON LII.

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by the form of the verb is called the "mood" of the verb. All verbs given so far have been in the "indicative mood", which represents an act or state as a reality or fact, or in the "infinitive mood", which expresses the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. The "conditional mood" does not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is "-us". The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:

mi vidus, I should see. vi vidus, you would see. li (sxi, gxi) vidus, he (she, it) would see. ni vidus, we should see. vi vidus, you would see. ili vidus, they would see.

COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the participles with the aoristic tense of "esti" in the conditional mood. A synopsis of "vidi" in these compound tenses is as follows:

Active Voice.

Present: mi estus vidanta, I should be seeing. Past: mi estus vidinta, I should have seen. Future: mi estus vidonta, I should be about to see.

Passive Voice.

Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen. Past: mi estus vidita, I should have been seen. Future: mi estus vidota, I should be about to be seen.

LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.

243. A conditional sentence dealing with "suppositions" concerning events in present or future time is called a "less vivid condition" ("Less vivid", in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are "vivid", because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption and the conclusion:

Se li vidus tion, li plorus, if he should see that, he would weep. Mi gxoje helpus vin, se mi povus, I would gladly help you, if I could. Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, gxi portus ilin, if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them. La petola junulo turmentus la monahxon, se li revenus, the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return. Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, if he should be caught, he would be punished.

INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or question in which it is used:

Mi gxoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you. Cxu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me? Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air? Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own. La cxielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that.

THE PREFIX "DIS-".

245. The prefix "dis-" indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once:

disdoni = to distribute. disigxi = to separate (intrans.). dispeli = to dispel. disigxo = separation, schism. disigi = to separate (trans.). dissendi = to send around.

[Footnote: Cf. the English prefix "dis-" in "disperse", "disseminate", "distribute," etc.]

VOCABULARY

cxes-i = to cease, to leave off. kauxz-i = to cause. dens-a = dense. legx-o = law. difin-i = to define. natur-o = nature. ekzist-i = to exist. objekt-o = object. flu-i = to flow. plu = further, more. gravit-i = to gravitate. turn-i = to turn (trans.).

[Footnote: The adverb "plu" gives an idea of continuance to the word which it modifies. When used with "ne", the two together give an idea of cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: "Ambaux parolos plu morgaux", both will talk further tomorrow. "Mi ne plu haltos", I shall not stop (any) more. "Li ne plu sxajnis muta", he no longer seemed mute.]

PRI LA GRAVITADO.

1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas kauxzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaux la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, kiun la kleruloj jam antaux longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile havas pezecon, cxar ili ambaux, same kiel la tero, movigxas laux tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas cxiujn el la cxielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado cxesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antauxen en siaj fluejoj ("beds"). Ne fluante de altaj gxis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, aux restus tie, kie ajn gxi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontrauxe, la malsekajxo en la aero ankoraux restus tie, en la formo de densaj mallumaj cxiamaj nuboj. Cxiuj vivaj estajxoj ("beings"), cxiuj konstruajxoj, efektive cxio, baldaux disflugus de la rapide turnigxanta mondo. Cxiuj cxi ("all these") nun devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin cxi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu cxirkauxus nin, sed gxi ankaux forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensigxinte ("having become rarefied"). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu studadis la kialon ("reason") de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, laux la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra pomarbejo. Antaux tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn legxojn laux kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Cxi tiu forto, kiu restigas cxion sur la tero, estas tamen la kauxzo de nia lacigxado, kiam ni marsxas aux kuras, cxar gxi faras nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaux la malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de utilaj aersxipoj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood still ("ekhaltis") and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate their velocity ("rapideco"). 5. Finally he recognized that force which is called gravitation. 6. Of course ("kompreneble") gravitation had always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all ("tute ne movante"). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would break-into-pieces (245).



LESSON LIII.

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.

246. A "condition contrary to fact" indicates that the opposite of what is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is used:

Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, if you had turned, you would have seen that. Se la malsekajxo ne estus densigxinta, ne estus pluvinte, if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained. Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, if he had been caught, he would have been punished. Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him. Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, if gravitation did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling.

THE VERB "DEVI".

247. The verb "devi" (cf. "devo", duty) is equivalent to the verb "must" (which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to "to have to", "to be obliged to", etc., carrying the idea of "must" into all tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense (of "moral" obligation), and carries the idea of "ought":

Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall. Ni devis agi laux la legxoj, we had to act according to the laws. Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go. Sxi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that. Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go. Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go). Oni devus pensi antaux ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking. Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come. Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done.

THE PREPOSITION "SEN".

248. The preposition "sen", without, indicates the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix "-less"):

Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error. La rivero sencxese fluas, the river flows without ceasing. Tio estas ne nur senutila sed ecx malutila, that is not only useless but even harmful. Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless. Li sentime alproksimigxis al gxi, he fearlessly approached it.

[Footnote: English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with "sen". Otherwise a participle with "ne" should replace the phrase ("222"): "Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus", without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand. "Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus", without reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.]

VOCABULARY

akuz-i = to accuse. nobl-a = noble. instru-i = to teach. pardon-i = to pardon. kondamn-i = to condemn. pek-i = to sin. konfes-i = to confess, to admit. prav-a = right, correct. konscienc-o = conscience. sen = without (248). kulp-o = guilt. So-krato = Socrates. merit-i = to deserve. venen-o = poison.

LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.

Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed malgraux tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj sagxa. Li instruadis per interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri io ajn, pri kio la auxskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade komprenis cxu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo cxion, kion li pensis, ecx pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe cxar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataux fari tion kion faras cxiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la jugxejo, nomante lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, cxar li ne disdonas oferojn al la dioj, due, cxar li enkondukas novajn diojn (cxar li diris ke supernatura vocxo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallauxte cxe lia orelo), trie, cxar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugxistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura ("mere") monpago ("fine"). Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataux esti malutila, aux ecx neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kauxze de sia bonfarado al la urbo, li efektive meritas cxiutagan mangxon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugxistoj mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li trankvile adiauxis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan trinkajxon, sentime gxin trinkis.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind ("la homaron"), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with [him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports ("falsajn sciigojn") about him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they accused him of ("pri") introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and fined ("monpunita"). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by the drinking of poison.



LESSON LIV.

SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS

249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows:

Name: Factual Less Vivid Contrary to Fact

Subject Matter: facts suppositions opposite of facts

Time: any (usually) future present or past

Mood: indicative conditional conditional

Tense: any (usually) aoristic (usually) compound

CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.

250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction "kvazaux", as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or merely implied:

Li trinkas la venenon kvazaux gxi estus vino, he drinks the poison as though it were wine. La kondamnito marsxis kvazaux kun malfacileco, the condemned man walked as if with difficulty. Li konfesis kvazaux kulpulo, he confessed like a culprit.

THE USE OF "AL" TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.

251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the preposition "al" to express "concern" or "interest" on the part of the person indicated by the complement of this preposition:

Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand. Hi trancxis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him). Sxi preparas al ni bonan mangxon, she is preparing us a good meal. Cxu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service?

[Footnote: The use of "al" in this sense, approaching that of "por" but less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and "ethical dative" of other languages, as in French "je me suis brule la langue", I have burned my tongue, German "ich wasche mir die Haende", I wash my hands, Latin "sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt", they threw themselves at the feet of Caesar, Greek "ti soi mathesomai", what am I to learn for you? etc.]

252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, "al" may often be used in the place of "de" expressing separation (170), when the use of "de" might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49):

La luno estas kasxata al ni de la nuboj, the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds. Gxi estas stelita al mi de li, it has been stolen from me by him.

[Footnote: This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in German "es stahl mir das Leben", it stole the life from me, French "il me prend la vie", it takes my life, Latin "hunc mihi timorem eripe", remove this fear from me, Greek "dexato oi skaeptron", he took his sceptre from him, etc.]

THE SUFFIX "-ESTR-".

253. The suffix "-estr-" is used to indicate the "chief", "head", or "one in control" of that which is expressed in the root:

lernejestro = (school) principal. urbestro = mayor. monahxestro = abbot. estraro = governing body. policestro = chief of police. sxipestro = ship-captain.

VOCABULARY

Aristejd-o = Aristeides. popol-o = a people. ekzil-i = to exile. pot-o = pot. enu-i = to be wearied, bored. senc-o = meaning, sense. gxust-a = exact. signif-i = to signify. kvazaux = as though, as if (250). son-i = to sound. ostr-o = oyster. strang-a = strange. ostracism-o = ostracism. sxel-o = shell, bark, peel.

[Footnote: Care must be taken to distinguish "gxusta", exact, "gxuste", exactly, just, from "justa", upright, just, "juste", justly, and also from the adverb "jxus" just.]

LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.

La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon ("origin"). En gxia komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "sxelon de la ostro." En gxia fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraux estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj ("dictionaries"), devenas de la jena greka kutimo:

Sepdek jarojn antaux ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan legxon en lia urbo. Laux tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne sxajnis pravaj. Cxi tion oni povis fari, tute sen jugxado aux ecx akuzado, cxar oni havis la jenan metodon: se cxe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj vocxdonis ("vote") kontraux iun ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel havigi ("get") al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri kvazaux konfesinta kulpulo. Por vocxdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la kondamnoto sur peco da potajxo ("pottery"), aux pli ofte sur ostrosxelo. Gxuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj proponis vocxdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon.

Antaux ol la kunveno disigxis, kamparano alproksimigxis al Aristejdo (kiu mem cxeestis), petante lian helpon, cxar la neinstruita kamparano ne povis skribi. La sagxulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la sxelo?" La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon." Skribinte gxin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila konscienco "Pro gxuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi ne kasxos al vi ke mi ecx ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur cxar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas cxiam auxdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!"

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance and musical ("belsonan") voice, doubtless the peasant would not have asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, as if ("250") he himself were not the man under-discussion ("205"), "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned against the city?" 7. The silly-creature ("132") replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled ("199") was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through ("per") ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any kind, or explanation of the reasons.



LESSON LV.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there is an "imperative mood", as in English. The ending of the imperative mood is "-u". Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood "estu" of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of "vidi" in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows:

Aoristic Tense.

mi vidu! = let me see! ni vidu! = let us see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! (vi) vidu! = (you) see! li (sxi, gxi) vidu! = ili vidu! = let them see! let him (her, it) see!

Compound Tenses.

Active. Passive.

Present: mi estu vidanta Present: mi estu vidata Past: mi estu vidinta Past: mi estu vidita Future: mi estu vidonta Future: mi estu vidota

RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.

255. The "first person singular" of the imperative mood is used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The "first person plural" is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed:

Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that! Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that! Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him! Ni ne sidigxu tie! Let us not sit down there! Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray!

[Footnote: This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative and infinitive construction.]

COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.

256. The "second" and "third" persons of the imperative are used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions.

a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it:

Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.) Estu pretaj por akompani min! Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.) Parolu kvazaux vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood! Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door! Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there!

b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is necessary in translation (as "let", "must", "are to", "is to", etc.):

Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)! Sxi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)! Cxio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven! Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone! Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return! La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished!

LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.

257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory expressions, such as "request", "wish", "advice", etc., and in "questions of deliberation or perplexity", or "requests for instruction":

Request: Cxesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg! Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that! Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins! Wish: Ili estu felicxaj! May they be happy! Dio vin benu! God bless you! Vivu la regxo! (Long) live the king! Advice: Pensu antaux ol agi! Think before acting! Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! Go away, if you are not satisfied! Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne auxskultos! Well, talk, but I shall not listen! Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like. Question: Cxu mi faru tion aux ne? Am I to do that or not? Cxu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books? Cxu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned? Cxu ili venu cxi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here?

THE USE OF "MOSXTO".

258. The word "mosxto" may be used alone, or after a title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective:

Lia regxa mosxto, his majesty. Lia jugxista mosxto, his honor the judge. Sxia regxina mosxto, her majesty. Lia urbestra mosxto, his honor the mayor. Cxu via mosxto lin auxdis? Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?

VOCABULARY

Afrik-o = Africa. mosxt-o = a title (see 258). barbar-o = barbarian. ordon-i = to order, to bid. Damokl-o = Damocles. permes-i = to permit. flank-o = side. placx-i = to please. imperi-o = empire. sklav-o = slave. konsent-i = to consent. sol-a = sole, only. konsil-i = to advise. volont-e = willingly.

LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.

Antaux pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu cxiopova ("all-powerful")!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaux multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte cxion sen kompato, li ordonis "La logxantoj estu vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj cxie, ecx en Grekujo, ne kasxis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li cxiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel ricxa kaj pova kiel via regxa mosxto, mi estus treege felicxa!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al festo cxe mi, se tio placxas al vi, kaj eltrovu cxu mi devus esti felicxa aux ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj mi dankas vian mosxton pro tia afableco!" La tirano gxentile respondis "Ho, estas nenio (="you are welcome")! Nur ne forgesu la deciditan horon!" Je la gxusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni donis al li segxon flanke de la tirano mem. "Mangxu kaj trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la felicxeco." Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laux la permeso tiel afable donita al li. Mangxante bonegan mangxajxon, kaj trinkante dolcxan vinon, li tute ne enuis cxe la festo. Baldaux la tirano diris "Rigardu supren, kaj vidu gxuste kian felicxecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antauxe kasxitan al li de kurteno. Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo sxajnis kvazaux tuj falonta sur la kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la tablo. Pro la jxus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraux nun nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio sxajnas cxiam okazonta sed efektive ne okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying "oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" 6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a single (sole) hair.



LESSON LVI.

THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing "command", "exhortation", "resolve", "consent", "wish", etc., or after any word or general expression of "command", "intention", "necessity", "expedience", etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:

Command and Prohibition.

Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go. Sxi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come. Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain. Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished.

Request and Wish.

Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me. Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm. Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved. Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that.

Advice, Consent, Permission.

Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go. Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain. Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape).

Questions.

Li demandas cxu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away. Oni demandis cxu lia mosxto eniru, they asked whether his honor was to enter. Mi miras cxu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that.

Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.

Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped. Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, his proposal is, that we receive the half. Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come. Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more. Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we have a good emperor. Estis necese ke cxiu starigxu, it was necessary for everyone to rise. Placxos al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go.

[Footnote: In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to go."]

THE PREPOSITION "JE".

260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition "je" is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of indefinite connection:

Je la nomo de cxielo! In the name of Heaven! Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! On my honor I will accomplish that! Gxi estas longa je du mejloj, it is two miles long (long by two miles). Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers. Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta sxnurego, he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope.

The preposition "je" is used to express indefinite connection after the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in parentheses):

ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, busy (oneself) at. enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of. fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by. fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with. gxoji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricxigi je (per), to enrich with. gratuli je (pri), congratulate on. ridi je, to laugh at. honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigxi je, to be sated with. inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of. interesigxi je, take interest in. simila je (al), similar to. kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for. kontenta je (kun), content with. sxargxi je, to load with. kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by.