LESSON XXX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many:

Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will have. Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?

MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial:

Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.

FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.

142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively.

Tens. ——————————————————————- dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety.

Hundreds. Thousands. —————————————— ————————————- ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc.

143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. (Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136):

dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc.

144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in English:

cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. sescent du, six hundred and two. mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve).

THE SUFFIX "-AN-".

145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc.

bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager.

[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", "Mohammed-an", etc.]

VOCABULARY

aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year.

LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.

Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom make mistakes.



LESSON XXXI.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", which, who.

[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by "kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.]

The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):

La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable. La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that matter about which you speak.

147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent:

Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you found. Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).

ORDINAL NUMERALS.

149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached:

unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : six thousand and seventh.

[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", "2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", "1912an", etc.]

VOCABULARY

angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. mar-o = sea. sam-a = same.

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.

Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language.



LESSON XXXII.

"KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.

150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which":

Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).

"KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of place for its antecedent.

[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. "cxu").]

"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien":

Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are. Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) where you will go. Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went). Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, I found him in the city where he lives. Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? Are you coming here where we are?

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to see, "ironta", about to go:

La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant. La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you is very affable. La venonta monato estas marto, the coming month is March. La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall depart.

THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future.

mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, I am about to (going we are about to (going to) see. to) see.

Past Periphrastic Future.

mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, I was about to (going we were about to (going to) see. to) see.

Future Periphrastic Future.

mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going to) see. to) see.

THE SUFFIX "-IND-".

154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, merit, etc.:

dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating.

VOCABULARY

ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect.

[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."]

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.

Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al li.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was.



LESSON XXXIII.

"KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"):

Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then, when he was attacked. Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.

"KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as":

Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is). Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did). Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you. Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, he spoke as softly as before. Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, she is as good as she is fair.

NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.

157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used:

dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio.

[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: "dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.]

158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-e":

unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also:

anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. anstatauxulo = a substitute. antauxa = previous, preceding. apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. kunulo = comrade, companion. superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. superege = surpassingly, exceedingly.

VOCABULARY

adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use.

[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.]

LA INVITO.

Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three months ago.



LESSON XXXIV.

PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.

160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be formed from these (116):

alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross.

[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out (transitive).]

THE SUFFIX "-EBL-".

161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc.

eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. legebla = legible. videbla = visible. mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent.

[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of love" (aminda), etc.]

EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.

162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as possible), is used to express the highest degree possible:

Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible.

TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.

163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.

Frauxlino B——, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C——? Miss B——, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C——? Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? Sinjoro A—— estas tre afabla, Mr. A—— is very amiable.

[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French "Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," etc.]

VOCABULARY

atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey.

CXE LA FESTO.

Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B—— cxeestis, kaj Doktoro C——, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met.



LESSON XXXV.

"KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as":

La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time as I shall need. Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.

THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being seen:

[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs (22) only.]

La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are beautiful.

FRACTIONS.

166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix "-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e":

La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.

a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective:

multekosta, expensive. duonkolere, half angrily. nevidebla, invisible. nevole, involuntarily. rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. survoje, on the way, en route. antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. postmorgaux, day after tomorrow.

b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root":

samtempa, contemporaneous. unufoje, once, one time. trifoje, thrice, three times. unutaga, one day's, of one day. unuataga, the first day's. frutempe, at an early time.

c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective uncombined:

[Footnote: In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such change in meaning, as "BLACKberry" (not "black BERry"), "BLUEbird" (not "blue BIRD"), "SWEETheart" (not "sweet HEART"), German "JUNGfrau", "virgin" (not "jung FRAU", young woman), etc.]

bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming). libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time). superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year). bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires). plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).

VOCABULARY

hxin-o = Chinaman. naci-o = nation. jam = already. pagx-o = page. kler-a = enlightened, learned. pres-i = to print. komerc-o = trade, commerce. pulv-o = gunpowder. lanc-o = spear, lance. sxangx-i = to change. liber-a = free. te-o = tea. metod-o = method, way. ted-a = tiresome, tedious.

[Footnote: The adverb "jam" indicates a change from some preceding action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or phrase containing "jam". It may often be translated "yet," "now," etc. "Mi jam vidis lin", I already saw (have already seen) him. "Cxu vi jam trovis gxin? Ne, mi ankoraux ne trovis gxin". Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. "Li jam ne vivas", he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). "Jam ne negxas", it is not snowing now (already not snowing).]

LA HXINOJ.

Antaux miloj da jaroj la hxinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraux ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj ankoraux faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj hxinoj jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la pagxojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraux ne havis pafilojn, cxar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la hxinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavrugxajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraux hodiaux acxetas de ili, por uzi je festaj tagoj. Sed la hxinoj ne multe sxatis la komercon, kaj ne deziris acxeti aux lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraux nun havas la samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis antaux mil jaroj. Ili malofte sxangxas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antauxe ne estis tiel kleraj, antauxeniras pli rapide ol la hxinoj. La lando de la hxinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aux kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraux nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la hxina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la hxinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaux treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta gxin, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta gxin. Mi gxojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hxina lingvo. La latina kaj germana lingvoj estas suficxe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj kaj ankaux konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering instead of listening to Mr. B——? 2. I think that the doctor is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C—— relates the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long.



LESSON XXXVI.

THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.

168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses an act or condition as "being undergone" by the subject of the verb, and is called the "present passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen. vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen. ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen. vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen. ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen.

THE USE OF "DE" TO EXPRESS AGENCY.

169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a passive verb or participle, is performed is called the "agent" of the passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by "de":

La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me. La libroj estas jam presataj de li, the books are already being printed by him. La vojoj estas kovrataj de negxo, the roads are being covered by snow. Sxi estas lauxdata de la sinjoro, she is being praised by the gentleman.

THE GENERAL MEANING OF "DE".

170. The preposition "de" conveys the general idea of separation from a source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional phrase containing "de" must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word:

La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house. Gxi estas proksima de la gxardeno, it is near to (from) the garden. Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, I take the book away from the boy. Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy. La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.

171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159):

La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now). Mi adiauxis lin per adiauxa saluto, I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273). Ni faris tujan intersxangxon, we made an immediate exchange. Cxu li skribis jesan aux nean respondon? Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? Anstataux nei, li respondis jese, instead of denying, he answered affirmatively. La morgauxa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hierauxa, tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday. La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries.

THE SUFFIX "-IST-".

172. The suffix "-ist-" is added to roots to express the profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root:

floristo = florist. okulisto = oculist. komercisto = trader, merchant. presisto = printer. servisto = servant. sxtelisto = thief.

VOCABULARY

administr-i = to manage. mont-o = mountain. antikv-a = ancient nom-o = name. Euxrop-o = Europe. proksim-a = near. grav-a = important, serious. reprezent-i = to represent. ital-a = Italian. respublik-o = republic. kvadrat-a = square. tiran-o = tyrant.

[Footnote: The words "antikva", "maljuna", "malnova", all of which may at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas malnovan cxapelon, "I have an old hat (a hat which is not new)". Li estas maljuna sinjoro, "he is an old (aged) gentleman". Li estas malnova amiko mia, "he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing)". La hxinoj estis kleraj ecx en la antikva tempo, "the Chinese were learned even in the olden time (in ancient time)". La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, "the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a great deal". La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, "the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary".]

ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO.

La plej antikva respubliko en Euxropo kusxas en la norda parto de la bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. Gxia nomo estas San Marino, kaj gxi estas respubliko de antaux mil kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la cxirkauxaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en antikva tempo al la tiamaj regxoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Gxiaj aferoj estas ankoraux administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, ne kiel unu aux alia regxo aux tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas regxo tiun duonon da jaro. Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas administrataj kiel eble plej sagxe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj urboj. Tamen cxi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas regxon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felicxa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco aux eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojagxi malproksimen de la bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cxehejme (167, a), en la libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sxajnas malfacila aux teda.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays ("nuntempe") there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not think about commerce, or greatly ("multe") change their customs. 17. They seldom take ("faras") tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully ("pace") at home.



LESSON XXXVII.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.

173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "cxiu", each (one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English "any", as in "Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is "cxiuj", every, all. The article is never interposed between "cxiuj" and the noun modified (as in English "all the men"), and is used only if "cxiuj" is pronominal and followed by "el":

[Footnote: The use of "cxiu" and "cxiuj" must be distinguished from that of the adjective "tuta", which means "all" in the sense of "entire": "Cxiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon", all men work all (the whole) day. "Mi vidis cxiun vizagxon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagxon de cxiu viro", I saw every face, but I did not see all the face of each man.]

Cxiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn. Mi vidis cxiun el ili, kaj parolis al cxiu knabo, I saw each of them, and talked to every boy. Mi dankas vin cxiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you). Ni cxiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented. Cxiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived.

174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form "cxies", every-one's, every-body's:

Li konas cxies nomon, he knows every-one's name. Cxies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different. Kies vocxojn mi auxdas? Cxies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.

THE PREPOSITION "PO".

175. The preposition "po", at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense:

Li marsxas po kvar mejloj cxiutage, he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day). Mi acxetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price. Mi acxetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound. La cxapelisto acxetas cxapelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.

176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a "dependent compound". (If the two words were not united into one, the first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the accusative case.) The ending "-o" may be omitted from the first element of a dependent compound:

[Footnote: A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction: "sinlauxdo", self-praise. "sinekzameno", self-examination. "sindefendo", self-defence. "sinkontrauxdira", self-contradictory.]

jarcento, century (cento da jaroj). mangxocxambro, dining-room (cxambro por mangxoj). noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto). paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero). sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno). tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago). vespermangxo, supper (mangxo je la vespero). ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento).

VOCABULARY

cxies = every body's (174). lag-o = lake. cxiu = every-body (173). po = at the rate of (175). decid-i = to decide. sever-a = severe. dev-o = duty. stang-o = pole. fleks-i = to bend. svis-o = Swiss. genu-o = knee. vend-i = to sell. intenc-i = to intend. Vilhelm-o = William. jugx-i = to judge. vort-o = word.

LA CXAPELO SUR LA STANGO.

Antaux ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, gxiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj jugxistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon ("power"), kaj por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian cxapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo ("market-place"), en malgranda vilagxo apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu cxapelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la cxapelon estos la grava devo de cxiu persono en la vilagxo. Estos cxies devo ne nur saluti la cxapelon, sed ankaux genufleksi ("kneel") antaux la stango. La tirano diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de cxiu vilagxano aux kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos cxu vi cxiuj genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por rimarki cxu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de cxiuj, kaj por kapti cxiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaux la kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por acxeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Cxiu, kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaux la cxapelo de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du aux tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstataux fari tujan saluton, aux genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, and I told him that a rainbow ("cxielarko") is made by the sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on ("cxe") the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the tyrant.



LESSON XXXVIII.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.

177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or thing, is "cxia", every kind of, every sort of:

Oni vendas cxiajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there. Estas cxiaj personoj en la mondo, there are all sorts of persons in the world.

THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb "at some time in the past". It is called the "imperfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen. vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen. ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen. vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen. ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen.

COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.

179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending "-e", like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141):

Estis pluvante antaux unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago. Estis multe negxinte, it had snowed a great deal. Estis vidate ke cxiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept.

RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.

180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases "unu la alian", "unu al la alia", etc., or the adverb "reciproke", is used:

Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, it is our duty to help one another. Ili parolas unu al la alia, they are talking to each other. La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, the men used each other's guns. Ili falis unu sur la alian, they fell upon each other.

THE SUFFIX "-UJ-".

181. The suffix "-uj-" may be used to form words indicating "that which contains, bears, or is a receptacle for", some number or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of "-lando" to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of "-arbo" to form the names of fruit trees:

ujo = a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando) = fatherland. monujo = purse. sukerujo = sugar-bowl. supujo = soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo) = apple-tree. leterujo = letter-case. sagujo = quiver.

VOCABULARY

ag-i = to act. mort-i = to die. ceter-a = remaining. pet-i = to plead, to request. cxia = of every kind (177). prepar-i = to prepare. fier-a = proud. pun-i = to punish. imag-i = to imagine. reciprok-a = reciprocal, mutual. konduk-i = to lead. simil-a = like, similar. kor-o = heart. tusx-i = to touch.

VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.

Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la cxapelo sur la stango ne estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la tirano, por esti jugxata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne genufleksis antaux la cxapelo, simile al la aliaj vilagxanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la cxiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraux la deziroj de la jugxistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas cxiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilagxanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto ("archer"). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos cxu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone ("in addition"), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie ("otherwise") mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi cxian alian punon, anstataux tia puno, sed malgraux cxies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne tusxos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj cxiu havis felicxan koron. Dum Tell cxirkauxprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell lauxte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj post la infano, cxar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could shoot-with-a-bow ("arkpafi") excellently, therefore he was a well-known archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with ("per") angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated each other heartily ("kore"). 15. After some time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour.



LESSON XXXIX.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxie", everywhere. The ending "-n" may be added to "cxie" to show direction of motion (121):

Oni trovas tiajn virojn cxie, such men are found everywhere. Li iris cxien, kie mi estis estinta, he went everywhere where I had been. Mi vidas lin cxie, kien mi iras, I see him everywhere I go.

THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.

183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the future tense of "esti" indicates that an act or condition "will be undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the "future passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidata, I shall be seen. vi estos vidata, you will be seen. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen. ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen. vi estos vidataj, you will be seen. ili estos vidataj, they will be seen.

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with "-ed" as the final syllable):

belbrova = beautiful-browed. longnaza = long-nosed. bonintenca = good-intentioned. kvarpieda = four-footed. dumana = two-handed. rugxhara = red-haired.

THE TIME OF DAY.

185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with "horo" expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the cardinals. In questions the adjective "kioma" (from "kiom", how much) is used:

Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it? Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come? Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour). Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three. Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six. Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono antaux la nauxa), it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine).

THE SUFFIX "-OBL-".

186. The suffix "-obl-" is used to form multiples indicating how many fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.:

duoblo, a double. duobla, double. duoble, doubly. kvarobla, quadruple. kvindekobla, fifty-fold. multobla, manifold. Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.

VOCABULARY

bilet-o = ticket. pag-i = to pay. cend-o = cent. preter = beyond, past. cxie = everywhere (182). staci-o = station. esprim-o = expression. telefon-i = to telephone. gicxet-o = wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o = car. horlogx-o = clock. valiz-o = valise.

[Footnote: The preposition "preter" indicates the movement of something alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not express motion "toward" its complement, it cannot be followed by the accusative.]

EN LA STACIDOMO.

Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logxas en la urbo B——. Ni reciproke konas nin de antaux ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble gxoja hieraux kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, cxar en tiu ili petis de mi baldauxan viziton. Tial mi telefonis hieraux posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro ("train") al B——. Oni respondis per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaux eluzitan valizon, kaj faris cxiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojagxo. Je la dua horo, tuj post la tagmangxo ("midday meal"), mi marsxis stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj acxetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gicxeto kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro cxe la gicxeto "Mi deziras bileton al B——. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusxis tiom da mono tra la gicxeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaux la foriro de la vagonaro al B——?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li lauxtvocxe respondis "Nur sep minutojn. Cxu vi ne vidas tiun horlogxon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la horlogxon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia posxhorlogxo ("watch") por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusxata de cxiaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj cxien preter mi, kaj pusxantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel eble plej baldaux eniris gxin.

[Footnote: "Posttagmezo", afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose second element "tagmezo" is a dependent compound (176).]

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I went last ("la antauxan") week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along ("kunportis") a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and asked for ("petis") a ticket to B——. 7. The ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards request, and not express impatience.



LESSON XL.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiam", always, at all times:

Vi cxiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much. Mi estas cxiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIAL".

188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun "cxiu", is "cxial", for every reason, for all reasons:

Cxial li estas felicxa hodiaux, for every reason he is happy today. La mia cxial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best.

THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as "having been undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word modified. This participle ends in "-ita", as "vidita", having been seen:

La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too great. La punita infano ploras, the (having-been) punished child is crying. Mi acxetos bonefaritajn gantojn, I shall buy well-made gloves. Li sercxis la forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket.

THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition which "has been undergone" by the subject of the verb. It is called the "perfect passive tense". The conjugation of the verb "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen). vi estas vidita, you have been seen. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen. ni estas viditaj, we have been seen. vi estas viditaj, you have been seen. ili estas viditaj, they have been seen.

THE PREPOSITION "LAUX".

191. In expressing that "in accordance with which" something is done, takes place, moves, etc., the preposition "laux" is used:

Li agis laux sia opinio, he acted in accordance with his own opinion. Mi faros gxin laux bona metodo, I shall do it according to a good method. Laux kia maniero li agis? In what manner did he act? Mi marsxis laux la strato, I walked down (or up) the street. Li iris laux la rivero per tiu vojo, he went along the river by that road. Nuboj nigraj kuris laux la cxielo, black clouds raced along the sky. Gxi kusxas lauxlonge de la domo, it lies lengthwise of the house.

THE SUFFIX "-EM-".

192. The suffix "-em-" indicates a "tendency" or "inclination" toward that which is expressed in the root:

agema = active. pacema = peaceful, pacific. mallaborema = lazy. pensema = pensive, thoughtful.

VOCABULARY

atend-i = to wait (for), to expect. laux = according to (191). cxial = for every reason (188). manier-o = manner, way. cxiam = always (187). mov-i = to move (transitive) gazet-o = magazine, gazette. okup-i = to occupy. jxurnal-o = journal, paper. pal-a = pale. kompat-i = to pity. polic-o = police. larm-o = tear. trankvil-a = calm, tranquil.

LA PERDITA INFANO.

Dum mi estis atendanta hieraux posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en sxiaj okuloj. Sxi rigardis cxien kun esprimo de nekasxebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. Sxi sercxis du aux tri minutojn inter la personoj cxirkaux si, kaj fine sxi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la gardistoj. Sxi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaux komencis sercxi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano preteriris, mi demandis cxu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne estos okupata ("busy") gxis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan priskribon de la infano, laux la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas rugxe vestita ("dressed in red"). Lia patrino estis jxus acxetinta sian bileton cxe la gicxeto, kaj post kiam sxi pagis la nauxdek cendojn por gxi, subite sxi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun sxi. Kvankam sxi jam sercxis cxie, la filo sxajnas ankoraux netrovebla. Sxi multe timas pro li, kvankam li cxiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsxi cxien inter la personoj cxirkaux mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan cxambron apud la horlogxo cxe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagjxurnaloj ("newspapers"), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaux nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile koloritaj jxurnaloj staris malgranda rugxevestita knabo. Mi diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagxas laux tiu metodo. Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie sxi estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Sxi estis cxial gxoja kiam sxi vidis nin, kaj dankeme cxirkauxprenis la infanon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful ("plorema") when I saw her, and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible to a nearby policeman, and said a few ("kelkajn") words to him. 4. I heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My train will leave ("foriros") at half-past two, so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During the next ("sekvontajn") twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind ("gxentila"). The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently ("sxajne") too restless ("movema"). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As ("cxar") I am not at all lazy ("mallaborema"), I went along the stationary ("nemoveblaj") tables as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in



LESSON XLI.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIEL".

193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiel", in every way, in every manner:

Li povas cxiel prepari gxin, he can prepare it in every manner. Li estos cxiel helpata, he will be helped in every way.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB "CXIOM".

194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive pronoun "cxiu", is "cxiom", every quantity, the whole, all:

Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne cxiom da gxi, he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it. Li elprenis cxiom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy.

THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition which "had been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in past time. It is called the "pluperfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen). vi estis vidita, you had been seen. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen. ni estis viditaj, we had been seen. vi estis viditaj, you had been seen. ili estis viditaj, they had been seen.

THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb "esti" expresses an act or condition which "will have been undergone" by the subject of the verb at some point in future time. It is called the "future perfect passive tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen). vi estos vidita, you will have been seen. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen. ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen. vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen. ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen.

THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL.

197. The material "out of which" something is made or constructed is expressed by use of the preposition "el". As in English, an adjective may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle lays stress upon the fact of construction:

La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood. La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood). La infanoj konstruis domon el negxo, the children built a house of (out of) snow. Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus.

THE SUFFIX "-ET-".

198. The suffix "-et-" indicates diminution of degree in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix "-eg-" (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given:

beleta = pretty. libreto = booklet. dormeti = to doze. monteto = hill. floreto = floweret, floret. rideti = to smile. lageto = pond, small lake. vojeto = path.

VOCABULARY

best-o = animal. leon-o = lion. cxiel = in every way (193). lud-i = to play. cxiom = the whole, all (194). material-o = material. donac-o = gift, present. posed-i = to own, to possess. drap-o = cloth. pup-o = doll. hund-o = dog. rost-i = to roast. konsist-i = to consist. versx-i = to pour.

LA DONACO.

Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaux, sed ju pli mi pensas pri gxi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, cxar sxi jam posedas cxiun ludilon ("toy") kiun oni povas imagi. Cxiu el sxiaj amikoj gxoje donacas ("make presents") al tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraux matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam posedas suficxe da pupoj—tial mi ne acxetis tian ludilon, kvankam ili estas cxiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusxis cxiaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. Estis cxevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis rapide movi, laux la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis cxial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da interesaj ludiloj. Baldaux mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Cxiel sxi tre similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj ecx legis unu aux du pagxojn de miaj jxus acxetitaj gazetoj kaj tagjxurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaux cxiom de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino lace sxin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormocxambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kusxas sur la tablo en la mangxo-cxambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe jxus faris la teon, kaj estas elversxonta gxin en tiujn tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laux la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj baldaux la pupodomo estis acxetita por mia fratineto.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My pale delicate ("malsanema") little sister is always happy when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. 3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross ("koleretan") word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better than her other playthings, and I think that those poor ("kompatindaj") other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor ("malricxa") child, the daughter of our laundress ("lavistino"). 10. My sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of ("ametas") this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad today that she is busied in this manner ("tiamaniere"). 13. I wish to take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, before I come home from my walk.



LESSON XLII.

THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

199. The future passive participle, expressing that which "will be or is about to be undergone" by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ota", as "vidota", about to be seen:

La punota infano mallauxte ploretas, the child about to be punished whimpers softly. La formovota tablo estas peza, the table about to be moved away is heavy. La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be built by him will be beautiful.

THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent an act or condition as "about to be undergone" in the present, past, or future, respectively. These are called "passive periphrastic future tenses". Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in the first person singular of these tenses is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future. mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen.

Past Periphrastic Future. mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen.

Future Periphrastic Future. mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen.

THE GENERIC ARTICLE.

201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is called the "generic article":

La pacienco estas lauxdinda, patience is praiseworthy. La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo cxiama, life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal. La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, man is stronger than woman.

[Footnote: Cf. French "La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet", German "Das Leben ist kurtz, life is short", Italian "La speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread", Spanish "Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune", etc. In English the generic article (as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the."]

THE SUFFIX "-EC-".

202. The suffix "-ec-" is used to form words indicating the "abstract quality" of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which it is attached:

amikeco = friendship. fleksebleco = flexibility. ofteco = frequency. patreco = fatherhood. indeco = worthiness. patrineco = motherhood. dankemeco = thankfulness. maltrankvileco = uneasiness.

VOCABULARY

bord-o = bank, shore. pont-o = bridge. brak-o = arm. sonor-i = to ring (intrans.). fabrik-i = to manufacture. surtut-o = overcoat. krut-a = steep. sving-i = to swing, to brandish. lan-o = wool. sxip-o = ship. mebl-o = piece of furniture. sxton-o = stone. pas-i = to pass (intrans.). vapor-o = steam. pitoresk-a = picturesque. vetur-i = to travel (in a vehicle).

SUR LA VAPORSXIPO.

Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj ("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat to B—— was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge ("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power ("akvoforto") will be used.



LESSON XLIII.

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without definitely characterizing it:

Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one whom you know. Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, I visited some of your friends. Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, I have several apples, but certain ones are not good. Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made.

204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form "ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's:

Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm. Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo? Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table? Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken.

PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or undergoing that which is expressed by the root:

helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant. elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor. legonto, one who is about to read. vidato, one (being) seen. sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy. la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused.

[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, "jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), "laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.]

THE PREFIX "EK-".

206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, is indicated by the prefix "ek-":

ekdormi, to fall asleep. ekkanti, to burst into song. ekiri, to set out, to start. ekridi, to burst into a laugh ekrigardi, to glance at.

THE SUFFIX "-ID-".

207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," are formed by use of the suffix "-id-":

cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse). hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog). katido, kitten (from "kato", cat). leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion). regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king).

VOCABULARY

amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet. dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war. hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone. hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn. humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark. ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent. iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole.

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to "virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both men and women.]

LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.

Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj ("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la batalejo.