MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.

Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la cxevalojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither."



LESSON XVII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time:

Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and "superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs "more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and "plej", most:

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. ———————- ———————————— ————————————— bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest

75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned:

Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men.

MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.

76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun":

Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care. Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, I heard him with interest and pleasure. Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste. Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body.

[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me with a strong hand.]

"DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI".

77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and "rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use:

Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you.

VOCABULARY

ami = to love. pli = more (74). ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. intereso = interest. servisto = servant. letero = letter. skribi = to write. plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care.

FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.

Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him.



LESSON XVIII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, so:

Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. ——————- ——————————— ———————————- sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly

"MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ".

80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and "malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". (These adverbs may also modify verbs):

Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least.

COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.

81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", "malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", "much", in the desired degree of comparison:

multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most

malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least

malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least

COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL".

82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended:

Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, I love them more than she (loves them). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy.

CAUSAL CLAUSES.

83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, for:

Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see you. La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain.

VOCABULARY

anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). junio = June. tago = day. julio = July. sezono = season. majo = May. somero = summer. marto = March. tial = therefore (78). monato = month. vintro = winter.

PRI LA SEZONOJ.

La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas auxguston pli multe ol julion?

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you.



LESSON XIX.

"JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS.

84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", respectively:

Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, the better he is, the happier he will be. Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, the less you help, the less I shall praise you. Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.

[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."]

THE PREPOSITION "INTER".

85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to express both "between" and "among":

Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is between April and June. Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a very interesting book.

THE PREPOSITION "PRO".

86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf:

La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, people like cherries because of the sweet taste.

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.

87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits:

La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here.

VOCABULARY

auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. decembro = December. novembro = November. des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. februaro = February. oktobro = October. glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. januaro = January. rivero = river. ju = (see 84). septembro = September. kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth.

LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.

La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej malvarma sezono.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. 4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring and the autumn.



LESSON XX.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.

88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree:

Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way? Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).

PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.

89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", "cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in other than time-relations will be explained later):

Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since from) that week. En la tuta monato ne negxis, it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, between March and June I shall go there. Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you.

90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means "before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" preceding it):

Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year. Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago. Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped.

[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.]

VOCABULARY

dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. kota = muddy. semajno = week. labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening.

EN SEPTEMBRO.

Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good.



LESSON XXI.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:

Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; for a day and a night). Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped.

92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:

Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.

ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further define or be defined by another expression of time:

Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, he came a long time before that hour. Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year after year they stayed there. hodiaux matene, this morning. hodiaux vespere, this evening. hodiaux nokte, tonight. hieraux vespere, last evening. hieraux nokte, last night. dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. lundon vespere, Monday evening. mardon nokte, Tuesday night.

94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition:

Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he works day and night (by day and by night).

THE PREPOSITION "POR".

95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" (86):

Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure.

VOCABULARY

brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. Dio = God. mezo = middle. dividi = to divide. mondo = world. fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. konstanta = constant. preta = ready. kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach.

LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.

Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci ("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. 3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves those lands between the winter and summer.



LESSON XXII.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.

96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum":

Li venis dum vi forestis, he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.

97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol":

Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, before you reproached him, he did not weep. Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, you wept before (sooner than) you laughed.

THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL".

98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in "-ing":

Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, God made the world before giving it to the seasons.

[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.]

[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction explained in (97) must be used.]

THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.

99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da", of:

Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow.

100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a "definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite:

Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee.

VOCABULARY

Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. bruo = noise. lito = bed. da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes.

DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.

Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said "The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away.



LESSON XXIII.

ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.

101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da":

Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples.

102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase containing "da":

Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads.

[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.]

103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass named:

En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, people have many (different) pleasures there.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:—

Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read.

RESULT CLAUSES.

105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity:

Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there.

VOCABULARY

acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. kremo = cream. vilagxo = village.

EN LA BUTIKO.

Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed.



LESSON XXIV.

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" (30):

Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought?

107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form "kies", whose:

En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?

THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, "iranta", going:

La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.

COMPOUND TENSES.

109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as "Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses.

[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in "-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.]

Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.).

THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.

110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.

THE SUFFIX "-EJ-".

111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending:

cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge).

[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the "-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", printing-shop, etc.]

VOCABULARY

alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. dika = thick. kutimo = custom. facila = easy. leciono = lesson. familio = family. lerni = to learn. kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. kies = whose (107). persono = person. kiu = who (106). salono = parlor.

EN NIA DOMO.

Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne havas servistinon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. 4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone").



LESSON XXV.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of:

Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? Kia plezuro! What a pleasure!

THE IMPERFECT TENSE.

113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing.

THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.

114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in progress—or a condition as existing continuously—at a future time, and is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing.

SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not expressed; these words are put in the accusative

Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") Multajn salutojn al via patro! (I send) many greetings to your father! Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.")

WORD FORMATION.

116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are examples of word formation from roots already familiar:

VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB.

brili brilo brila brile to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly

flori floro flora flore to bloom flower, blossom floral florally

gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly

kontuzi kontuzo to bruise bruise, contusion

tuto tuta tute whole entire, whole, all entirely

"KONI" AND "SCII".

117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. "Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", "kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons.

[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French "savoir", Spanish "saber".]

Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them.

VOCABULARY

av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study.

LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.

Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? 7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. 8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? 15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many persons that I know that we can not study.



LESSON XXVI.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where):

Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran.

THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, having gone:

La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away).

ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by use of the adverb ending "-e":

Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by.

ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.

121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):

Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and underneath. Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).

[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell underneath.]

THE SUFFIX "-EG-".

122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root:

barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). domego, mansion (from "domo", house). ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very).

VOCABULARY

aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder.

LA PLUVEGO.

Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home.



LESSON XXVII.

THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB

123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time?

Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall?

THE PERFECT TENSE.

124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows:

mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).

THE PREPOSITION "CXE".

125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.:

Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.

THE SUFFIX "-AR-".

126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., "are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" are called collectives:

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). kamparo, country (from kampo, field). libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).

"TEMPO" AND "FOJO".

127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:

Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning.

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.

128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames and names of places which are small or not well known are more often quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" ("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc.

VOCABULARY

arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer.

ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.

Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn).

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away.



LESSON XXVIII.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what reason:

Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it.

THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.

130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.

[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions "por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).]

Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si":

Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling? Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly.

PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.

131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English):

Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since March I have been (I am) studying that language. Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been (they are) friends from that day. Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago.

[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here two years, etc.]

THE SUFFIX "-UL-".

132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root:

junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor).

[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", "garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, "fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.]

"LOGXI" AND "VIVI".

133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be alive":

Li logxas apude, he lives near by. Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly.

VOCABULARY

afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133).

PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.

Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas "Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the spectacles.



LESSON XXIX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.

134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what degree:

Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it?

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).

CARDINAL NUMERALS.

136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:

unu = one. sep = seven. du = two. ok = eight. tri = three. naux = nine. kvar = four. dek = ten. kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. ses = six. dek du = twelve.

137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to "aliaj", others:

Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others.

138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a number "out of" some larger number or quantity:

Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one.

[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo."]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.

139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:

Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is three miles wide and four miles long. La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds.

NIA FAMILIO.

Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.

[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.]

Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust.